[TRANS] LEC : CHEMICAL FOUNDATION

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
OUTLINE
● A Substance is a form of matter that has definite
I Overview of Chemistry
II Fundamental Chemistry Laws composition and distinct properties
III Atom ● Elements consists of identical atoms
A Atomic Structure o 118 total elements; 98 occur in nature
B Periodic Table o Gold (Au)
C Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals ● Compound is made up of two or more elements in a fixed
D Electron configuration ratio by mass
IV Chemical Bond o Water (H2O), Sugar (C12H22O11)
A Electronegativity
B Ionic Bond
C Covalent Bond ELEMENTS
D Bond Polarity ● Monoatomic Elements consist of single atoms
o Already stable in nature
o Example: Helium (He), Neon (Ne)
OVERVIEW OF CHEMISTRY
● Diatomic Elements: There are seven elements that occur
● Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it
as diatomic Molecules
undergoes
o Exists as diatomic molecules to fulfill the electron
● Matter is anything that occupies space and mass
orbitals to be stable
o Pure Substances: Fixed compositions; cannot be
o Most appear as gasses
further purified.
▪ Elements: Cannot be subdivided by chemical or
physical means. It is the most basic MNEMONIC ELEMENT
▪ Elements can be combined chemically to form
Compounds Have Hydrogen (H2)
▪ Compounds: Elements united in fixed rations
o Mixtures: A combination of two or more pure No Nitrogen (N2)
substances. Can be physically separated into pure
substances Fear Fluorine (F2)
▪ Homogeneous Matter: Uniform composition
throughout
Of Oxygen (O2)
▪ Heterogeneous Matter: Non Uniform
composition
Ice Iodine (I2)

Cold Chlorine (Cl2)

Beer Bromine (Br2)

Table No. 1 Diatomic elements Mnemonic

● Polyatomic Elements: Some elements have three or more

atoms per molecule
o Example: O3, P4, S8,
o Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded
together to form one gigantic cluster

Figure 1. Classification of Matter COMPOUNDS

● Combination of two or more elements
COMPOSITION OF MATTER ● The properties of a compound are different from those of a
● Democritus (460-370 BCE) mixture of its constituent elements
o All matter is made of very small particles called atoms o Example: The properties of water is different from the
(Gk. Atomos – not to cut) properties of hydrogen and oxygen
o Only based on beliefs and not evidence
● Characterized by its formula
o Correct o The formula gives the ratio of the compound’s
● Zeno and Elea (450 BCE) constituent elements and identifies each element by
o Insisted that matter is infinitely divisible its atomic symbol
o Wrong

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▪ E.g., H2O & NaCl

● Models to represent compounds:

o Molecular Formula: Shows the elemental
composition of the molecule
o Structural Formula: Shows the binding (line) and
geometry of the molecule
o Ball and stick model: Elements are represented by
colored balls and shows their binding through a line Figure 3. Law of Conservation of Mass
o Space-filling model: Shows the valence of the atom
and the binding of one atom with another atom LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION
▪ The space is occupied by the electrons of that ● Dalton’s 4th and 5th Law
element ● Demonstrated by Joseph Proust (1754 – 1826)
● Any compound is always made up of elements in the same
proportion by mass
o E.g., The mass ration of water taken from the Atlantic
Ocean, or the Missouri river is always the same (8.0
oxygen to 1.0 hydrogen)
● The atomic ration of the elements in a compound is fixed
so their proportions by mass must also be fixed
o The mass of the elements in a compound should be
equal to the mass of the compound
Figure 2. Models for Water (H2O)
SAMPLE A: 10.000 g SAMPLE B = 27.000 g
MIXTURES
● A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances 1.119 g H 3.021 g H
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
● Mixture vs. Compounds 8.881 g O 23.979 g O
o Ratio by mass of the elements in a compound is fixed
o Ratio by mass of substances in a mixture can be 2 Parts Hydrogen
present in any ratio
● Types of Mixtures: 1 Part Oxygen
o Homogeneous mixture – Composition of the
mixture is the same throughout Table No. 2 Law of Constant Composition in Water
▪ Example: Soft drink, Milk, Solder
o Heterogeneous mixture – Composition is not LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
uniform throughout ● Different Compounds made up of the same element differ
▪ Example: Iron filings in sand, Blood in the number of atoms of each that combine
o True if the compound can still react or accept certain
FUNDAMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAWS elements
● John Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1766 – 1844)
1. All matter is composed of very tiny particles called
atoms
2. All atoms of the same element have the same chemical
properties. Atoms of different elements have different
chemical properties
3. In a chemical reaction, no atom of any element
disappears or is changed into an atom of another
element
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination
of two or more of the same or different kinds of atoms
5. Molecules are tightly bound combination of two or
more atoms that acts as a single unit Figure 4. Law of Multiple Proportions

LAW OF CONSERVATION MASS ATOM

● Dalton’s 3rd Law ATOMIC STRUCTURE: SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
● Discovered by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) ● An atom is not indivisible, but rather, consists of three
● Matter can be neither created nor destroyed subatomic particles:
o No detectable change in mass in an ordinary o Protons – Positive charge
chemical reaction o Electrons – Negative charge
o The chemical reaction simply changes the o Neutrons – Neutral
attachments between atoms and not destroy the
atom themselves

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Mass (amu);
o Properties of isotopes of the same element are
Subatomic Mass Mass Rounded to Location almost identical; they only differ in radioactive
Charge One in an properties
Particle (g) (amu) Significant Atom
Figure o The charge does not change, the mass changes
▪ Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14 (Naturally
1.6726 In the Occurring)
Proton +1 x 10-24
1.0073 1 Nucleus ▪ Carbon-12: Most abundant
▪ Carbon-13: Useful for age identification
Outside
9.1094 5.4858 x
Electron -1 x 10-28 10-4 0.0005 the
Nucleus

1.6749 In the
Neutron 0 x 10-24
1.0087 1 Nucleus

Table No. 3 Properties of the Subatomic Particles

● The unit of mass given in atomic mass units (amu)

o One amu is defined as the mass of an atom of carbon
with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus
o 1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g
● The electron’s low weight allows it to move around the
nucleus
Figure 6. Common Isotopes of Carbon

ATOMIC WEIGHT
● Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes in
a more or less constant ratio
o E.g., Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons)
and 24.23% chlorine-37 (20 neutrons)
o The atomic masses and isotopic abundance are
determined using a mass spectrometer
● Atomic Weight: The weighted average of the masses (in
amu) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
o Atomic weight in the periodic table is given to four
decimal places

Figure 5. Relative sizes of the atomic nucleus and an atom

MASS AND ATOMIC NUMBER

● Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of protons and
neutron in the nucleus of an atom
Figure 7. Formula of Atomic Weight
o Protons + Neutrons
o Electrons are not counted because their mass is so
small compared to the two MASS AND SIZE OF AN ATOM
● A typical heavy atom is Lead-208
● Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus o 82 protons and electrons; 126 neutrons
of an atom o Mass: 3.5 x 10-22 g
o In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to ▪ It takes 1.3 x 1024 atoms to make 1lb of lead
the number of protons (H) o Diameter: 3.1 x 10-10 m
o In a positively charged atom, the number of ▪ It takes 82 million lead atoms to make a 1in line
electrons is decreased (H+) o Density: 1.6 x 1014 g/cm3
o In a negatively charged atom, the number of
electrons is increased (H-) ● Atoms can be seen using a scanning tunneling microscope
● All the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus
(neutrons and protons)
o The nucleus only occupies a tiny fraction of the total
volume of an atom
o A nucleus has a very high density

PERIODIC TABLE
Figure 5. Atomic and Mass Number ● The Periodic Table is a chart showing all the elements
arranged in columns with similar chemical properties
ISOTOPES ● Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)
● Isotopes: Atoms with the Same number of protons but a o Arranged the known elements in order of increasing
different number of neutrons atomic weight

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o Observed that certain sets of properties recur PERIODICITY IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
periodically ● Properties of the elements in the periodic table vary as you
▪ Electronegativity and Atomic Size go up or down a column
▪ Arranged these elements into periods (horizontal o Boiling points of halogens increase as you go down
rows) o Softness of alkali metals increases as you go down
▪ Elements arranged in families (vertical rows) also o The melting and boiling points of noble gases are
have similar properties close to each other
● Naming system:
o Mendeleyev gave the families numerals and either A
or B
▪ Halogens (7A)
▪ Main group elements (Group 1A and 2A, Group
3A-8A)
▪ Transition elements (Group 1B – 8B)
▪ Inner transition elements (Elements 58 – 71, 90 -
103)
▪ Group 1A (Alkali Metals)
o IUPAC the groups are numbered 1-18
▪ Halogens (17)
● The periodic table is a useful tool because it collates and
correlates vast amounts of data about the elements
o Allows us to make predictions about their chemical
and physical properties

Figure 8. Periodic Table of Elements

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
● Metals are:
o Solid at room temperature (except mercury)
o Shiny
o Conductors of electricity
o Ductile
o Malleable
o Form alloys (solutions of metals)
▪ E.g., Brass (copper + zinc), Bronze (copper + tin),
Pewter (tin + antimony + lead)
o Tend to give up electrons
● Nonmetals:
o Do not conduct electricity
o At room temperature, they are solid (phosphorous &
iodine), liquid (bromine), gas (Group 8A Noble gases) Figure 9. Periodic Table Properties
o Tend to accept electrons
● Metalloids: SHELLS, SUBSHELLS, AND ORBITALS
o Only 6 (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te) ● Neils Bohr (1885 – 1962)
o Have some properties of both metals and nonmetals o An electron is always moving around the nucleus and
▪ Shiny but don’t conduct electricity possesses kinetic energy
▪ Semiconductor (Si) – only becomes a o Only certain values are possible for this energy
conductor in higher voltage ▪ The lowest possible energy/ electron
configuration is the ground state
▪ Only certain values are allowed, and values in
between are not permitted

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SHELLS ● The number of subshells in shell is equal to n

● Electrons are confined in specific regions of space called
principal energy levels/shells (n = 1, 2, 3…) No. of
o Shells are all orbitals of a principal energy level of an n Subshells
Subshells
atom
1 1 1s
RELATIVE
# OF ELECTRONS ENERGIES OF 2 2 2s, 2p
SHELL
SHELL CAN HOLD ELECTRONS IN
EACH SHELL 3 3 3s, 3p, 3d

4 32 Highest 4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Table No 5. Number of Subshells
3 18

2 8 S
h
Orbital contained in Maximum number of
e
1 2 Lowest each shell electrons shell can hold
l
Table No. 4 Electron Shells and their Energies l

● The closer an electron to the nucleus, it’ll be held more One 4s, three 4p, five
strongly, the harder to remove from the atom 4 4d, and seven 4f 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
o 1st shell is the closest and therefore lowest energy orbitals

One 3s, three 3p, and

3 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
five 3d

One 2s, and three

2 2+6=8
2p

Figure 10. Atomic Size 1 One 1s orbital 2

Table No 6. Shells and Orbitals
SUBSHELLS
● Shells are divided into subshells (s, p, d, f) ORBITALS
● Subshell defines the shape of the orbital
● Subshell contains one or more atomic orbitals
o All of the orbitals of an atom having the same
o Atomic Orbitals refer to the physical region or space
principal energy level and the same letter designation
where the electron can be found
(s,p,d,f)
● Each orbital can only hold two electrons, and they must
o Electrons are grouped into orbitals
have opposite spins.
● Orbitals have definite shapes and orientations in space
o All s orbitals have the shape of a sphere with the
nucleus at the center of the sphere No. of
o 2p orbitals have 3-dimensional shapes Subshell No. of e-
Orbitals
▪ Each 2p orbital has the shape of a dumbbell with
the nucleus at the midpoint of the dumbbell s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14
Table No 7. Subshells and number of electrons

Figure 11. Atomic shape based on orbitals

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▪ !"#$%&'()* +,)%* -./#* '00')1%#* )01()* 21%-* '(#*

.&&'2*0'1(%1(3*,0*456*.(7*%-#*'%-#&*0'1(%1(3*7'2(*
486
o Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy,
each orbital becomes half filled before any of them
becomes completely filled
▪ The half-filled electrons are the ones that is used
for binding

Figure 12. Electron Pair with Opposite Spins

● Degenerate Orbitals: Orbitals that have the same energy

o Energy of an Orbital is influenced by the size and
shape of the orbital

Figure 13. Energy of Degenerate Orbitals

● In a multi-electron atom, Energy depends on size (n) and Figure 15. Order of orbital filling
shape (l)
● Orbital Box Diagram
o A box represents an orbital
o An arrow represents an electron
o A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions
represents a pair of electrons with paired spins.

Figure 16. Orbital box diagram

● Noble Gas Notation

Figure 14. Energy of a multi-electron atom o The symbol of the noble gas immediately
preceding the particular atom indicates the
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION electron configuration of all filled shells
● Electron Configuration of an atom is the description of the
orbitals that its electron occupies
o Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy
from lowest to highest
o Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with
spins paired

Figure 17. Noble Gas Notation

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Figure 21. Electron Configuration

Figure 18. Orbital Diagram of the first 18 elements

● Valence Shell: The outermost shell

● Valence Electron: An electron in the valence shell
o Outer-shell electrons Figure 22. Noble Gas Notation and Lewis Dot Structure
o Each group has the same number of valence
electrons PERIODIC PROPERTIES
● Lewis Dot Structure: The symbol of the element ● The periodic table has trends (periodicity) in physical and
represents the nucleus, and all filled inner shells chemical properties
o American Chemist, Gilbert N. Lewis (1875-1946)
o The element is surrounded by a number of dots equal ATOMIC SIZE
to the number of electrons in the valence shell ● Physical property
● Size of an atom is determined by the size of its outermost
occupied orbital
o The radius of an atom is the distance between
bonded nuclei in a sample of the element divided by
2

Figure 19. Lewis Dot Structure for Elements 1-18 of the

Periodic Table

● Elements in the same column have the same ground state

electron configuration in their outer valence shells
o Why elements in the same column share similar
properties
Figure 23. Distance between bonded nuclei

● Based on the periodic table, atomic radii:

o Increase going down a group
▪ As you go down, the outermost electrons are
assigned to a higher principal energy level
o Decrease going from left to right across a period
▪ An additional proton is added increasing nuclear
charge and thus resulting in a stronger pull by
the nucleus
Figure 20. Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table

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● Octet Rule: The tendency of atoms to react in ways that

achieve an outer shell of eight valence electrons
o Atoms of Group 1A-7A; does not apply to Group 1B-
8B
o An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to
acquire a filled valence shell and become an ion
▪ Anion – negatively charged ion, gain electrons
▪ Cation – positively charged ion, lose electrons
o Still retains its same atomic number
▪ When an ion forms, the number of protons
(and neutrons) in the nucleus remains
unchanged

Figure 24. Atomic Radii

IONIZATION ENERGY
● Chemical property
● Ionization energy is a measure of how difficult it is to Figure 26. Cations and anions
remove the most loosely held electron from an atom in the
gaseous state o An atom may share electrons with one or more other
o The more difficult to remove = the higher the atoms to acquire a filled valence shell
ionization energy
● Based on the periodic table, Ionization energy:
o Increases as you go up
o Increase going from left to right

Figure 25. Ionization energy in the periodic table Figure 27. Formation of Covalent Bonds

CHEMICAL BOND NAMING ANIONS AND CATIONS

● Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them ● Using systematic names by IUPAC
function as a unit o Also have common names but they were used
● The Valence Electron usually involved in formation of long ago
chemical bond
o Atoms in stable compounds usually have a noble gas NAMING MONOATOMIC IONS
electron configuration ● Monatomic cations form when a metal loses one or more
o Gilbert N. Lewis pointed out this lack of reactivity in valence electrons
1969 ● For Group 1A,2A, and 3A
o Only add the word “ion,” no need to specify charge
Noble Gas Electron Configuration
Table No 9. Monoatomic Cation (Group 1A-3A)
2
He 1s Group 1A Group 2A Group 3A

Ne [He] 2s2 2p6 Ion Name Ion Name Ion Name

Ar [Ne] 3s2 3p6 Hydrogen Magnesium Aluminum

H+ Mg2+ Al3+
Ion Ion Ion
Kr [Ar] 4s2 4p6 3d10
Lithium
LI+ Ca2+ Calcium Ion
Xe [Kr] 5s2 5p6 4d10 Ion
Table No 8. Electron configuration of noble gas
Sodium Strontium
Na+ Sr2+
LEWIS MODEL OF BONDING Ion Ion
● The Lewis model of bonding enables us to see how many
valence electrons can be used for bonding Potassium
K+ Ba2+ Barium Ion
Ion

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● For most transition and inner transition elements that form Table No 12. Polyatomic Ions
more than one type of cation
Polyatomic Polyatomic
o Systemic name of the metal + (charge in roman Ion
Name Ion
Name
numerals) + ion
Hydrogen
Table No 10. Monoatomic Cation (Transition and Inner Ammoniu
NH4+ HCO3- Carbonate
Transition Elements) m (Bicarbonate)
Origin of the
Systematic Common Symbol of the OH+ Hydroxide SO32- Sulfite
Ion Element or the
Name Name Common Name of
the Ion
Hydrogen
NO2- Nitrite HSO3- Sulfite
Copper (I) (Bisulfite)
Cu+ Cuprous ion
ion Cupr– from
cuprum; Lt. NO3- Nitrate SO42- Sulfate
for copper
Copper (II)
Cu2+ Cupric ion Hydrogen
ion CH3COO- or
Acetate HSO4- Sulfate
C2H3O2-
(Bisulfate)
Fe2+ Iron (II) ion Ferrous ion Ferr- from
ferrum; Lt. for
ClO4- Perchlorate
Fe3+ Iron (III) ion Ferric ion iron
Phosph
Hg from CN- Cyanide PO43-
ate
Mercury (II) Hydrargyrum,
Hg2+ Mercuric ion
ion Lt. for
Hydrogen
mercury MnO4- Permanganate HPO42-
Phosphate
Stannous
Sn2+ Tin (II) ion Sn from Dihydrogen
ion CrO42- Chromate H2PO4-
stannum, Lt. Phosphate
for tin
Sn4+ Tin (IV) ion Stannic ion
Dichromat
Cr2O72-
e
NAMING MONOATOMIC ANIONS
● Add -ide to the stem part of the name TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
● An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire a
Table No 11. Monatomic Anions filled valence shell and become an ion.
Anion Stem Name Anion Name o An Ionic bond is the result of the force of
attraction between a cation and an anion
● An atom may share electrons with one or more other atoms
H- Hydr Hydride
to acquire a filled valence shell
o A Covalent Bond is the result of the force of
F- Fluor Fluoride
attraction between two atoms that share one or
more pairs of electrons
Cl- Chlor Chloride ● In organic chemistry most bonds are polar and nonpolar
covalent bonds
Br- Brom Bromide ● In inorganic chemistry most bonds are ionic

I- Iod Iodid ELECTRONEGATIVITY

● Electronegativity: A measure an atom’s attraction for the
O2- Ox Oxide electrons it shares in a chemical bond with another atom
o It is a periodic property and depends on nuclear
S2- Sulf Sulfide charge and the distance of the valence electrons
from the nucleus
o Can be used to determine whether a chemical
NAMING POLYATOMIC IONS
bond is ionic or covalent
● Polyatomic ion contains more than one atom ● The most widely used scale was devised by Linus Pauling
● Naming polyatomic ions that differ in number of hydrogen (1930)
atoms: use prefix di-, tri- to indicate the number of ● Electronegativity increases from:
hydrogen atoms o Left to right
● Most polyatomic ions have names that are needed to be ▪ Increase in positive charge on the nucleus =
memorized stronger attraction for electrons
o From bottom to top

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▪ Decreasing distance of the valence electrons o The pair of electrons is shared by both atoms and, at
from the nucleus = stronger attraction the same time, fills the valence shell of each atom
● Share similarities with ionization energy ▪ A bond formed by the sharing of electrons is
called the single bond (single line)
● Two types of Covalent Bond:
o Nonpolar Covalent Bond
o Polar Covalent Bond

Figure 30. Covalent Bonding

NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND

● Equal sharing of electrons between atoms in a molecule
● Symmetrical distribution of electron density
● To be nonpolar, the two atoms involved in the bond must
be the same element (same electronegativity) to share
equally

Figure 28. Electronegativity in the Periodic Table

IONIC BOND
● Results from electrostatic attractions among ions, which
are formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another
o Usually formed between a metal and a nonmetal
o The compound formed by the combination of an
anion and a cation is called an ionic compound Figure 31. Nonpolar covalent Bonding
o Difference in electronegativity: 1.9 or greater
POLAR COVALENT BOND
● Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms in a molecule
● Asymmetrical distribution of electron density
● To be polar covalent bond, the two atoms involved in the
bond must have different electronegativity
o The more electronegative atom gains a greater fraction
Figure 29. Ionic Bonding of the shared electrons and acquires a partial negative
charge (δ-)
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS o The less electronegative atom has a lesser fraction of
● Binary Ionic Compounds of Metals that form only one the shared electrons and acquires a partial positive
Positive Ion charge (δ+)
o Binary: two elements; Binary Ionic: both elements o The separation of the charges produces a dipole (two
are present as ions poles)
o Name of the cation followed by the anion, ignoring ▪ The dipole is pointed towards the more
subscripts electronegative atom
● Binary Ionic Compounds of Metals that form more than
one positive ion
o For systemic names, use roman numerals in the
name with the charge
▪ Copper (I), copper (II)
o For common names, use the -ous and -ic system
▪ Cuprous, cupric
● Ionic Compounds that contain polyatomic ions
o Name the positive ion first then the negative ion as
separate words

COVALENT BOND
● Formed by sharing one or more pairs of electrons
o Usually formed by a nonmetal or metalloid and Figure 32. Electron Density Map
another nonmetal

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ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND BOND POLARITY

REFERENCES

Notes from the discussion of Sir Mark Kevin Devanadera

University of Santo Tomas Powerpoint MT633

Bettelheim, F. A, W. H., Brown, M. K. Campbell, S. O. Farrell

& O. Torres. (2021). Introduction to General, Organic and
Biochemistry, 12th ed. pp. 26-77

Figure 33. Electronegativity and Bond Type

Table No 13. Summary of Electronegativity Difference and

Chemical Bonds
Electronegativity
Difference Most Likely Formed
Type of Bond
Between Bonded Between
Atoms

Two nonmetals or
Nonpolar
Less than 0.5 a nonmetal and a
Covalent
metalloid

Metal and
0.5 to 1.9 Polar Covalent
metalloid

A metal and a
Greater than 1.9 Ionic
nonmetal

Difference in
Bond Type of Bond
Electronegativity

O–H 3.5 – 2.1 = 1.4 Polar Covalent

N–H 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 Polar Covalent

Na – F 4.0 – 0.9 = 3.1 Ionic

C – Mg 2.5 – 1.2 = 1.3 Polar Covalent

Nonpolar
C–S 2.5 – 2.5 = 0.0
Covalent

NAMING BINARY COVALENT COMPOUNDS

● A binary covalent compound is a binary (two-element)
compound in which all bonds are covalent.
● Naming:
o Name the less electronegative elements first
o Name the more electronegative element and add -ide
o Use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on to show the
number of atoms of each element
▪ Mono- is rarely used

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 [TRANS] : CHEMICAL REACTIONS

● Balanced chemical equations must always include the

OUTLINE same number of each kind of atom on both sides of the
equation.
I CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATION
II TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
● If a chemical reaction occurs, the amount of matter
A. Precipitation Reaction produced does not change.
B. Neutralization Reaction
C. Reduction – Oxidation Reaction HOW TO BALANCE CHEMICAL EQUATION
● Coefficients – Numbers in front of chemical symbols that
indicate the number of each atom in the products and
CHEMICAL REACTION
reactants
● Chemical Reaction - a process in which one or more
● Balancing: C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
substances are converted into one or more new substances
which are called products.
Step 1: Begin with atoms that appear in only one compound on
● Chemical Equation - a shorthand notation to describe
chemical reaction. It is a symbolic representation of the left and only one compound on the right
chemical reaction that shows: • Begin with either carbon or hydrogen
○ Reactants on left side of the equation
○ Products on right side of the equation Step 2: If an atom occurs as a free element, balance the
○ Relative amounts of each element are determined element last
using stoichiometric coefficients • In the example it is O2
○ Reactant(s) → Product(s)
Step 3: Add coefficients to match the number of atoms present
BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION on both sides of the equation
● Chemical equation is a representation using chemical • You can only add coefficients, you CANNOT change the
formulas of the process that occurs when reactants are subscripts
converted to products • If the element has a subscript, multiply the coefficient to
○ Combustion – two reactants are converted to carbon get the total number of atoms
dioxide and water • Example: 5O2 – 10 oxygen atoms
○ The arrow indicates the direction in which the reaction
proceeds Final Balanced Chemical Equations:
○ The state of each reactant and product is denoted as:
§ (g) – gas C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
§ (l) – liquid
§ (s) – solid Number of atoms:
§ (aq) – substance dissolved in water (aqueous) o Carbon: 3 – 3
● Consider a chemical equation below: o Hydrogen: 8 – 8
○ Fe2O3 + 3 CO → 2 Fe + 3 CO2 o Oxygen: 10 – 10

REACTANTS PRODUCTS NOTE: A correctly balanced chemical equation is almost

1 formula 3 3 always written with the coefficients expressed in the lowest
2 atoms
unit molecules YIELDS molecules set of whole numbers
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles 3 moles
159.7 g 84.0 g 111.7 g 132 g 2C3H8(g) + 10O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 8H2O(g), becomes C3H8(g) +
5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER
● There is no detectable change in quantity of matter in an
ordinary chemical reaction.

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Usually Insoluble
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS All phosphates are insoluble except
Phosphates
● Reactions in Aqueous solutions those of NH4+ and Group 1A (alkali
(PO43-)
○ Aqueous solutions – Solutions in which the solvent is metal) cations
water All carbonates are insoluble except
Carbonates
those of NH4+ and Group 1A (alkali
NON-REDOX REACTIONS (CO32-)
metal) cations
● Precipitation Reactions All hydroxides are insoluble except
● Neutralization Reactions those of NH4+ and Group 1A (alkali
Hydroxides
metal) cations.
(OH-)
OXIDATION-REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTIONS Sr(OH)3, Ba(OH)2, and Ca(OH)2 are only
● Combination/Synthesis slightly soluble
● Decomposition All sulfides are insoluble except those of
● Single Displacement Reactions NH4+ and Group 1A (alkali metals) and
Sulfides (S2-) Group 2A cations.
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS MgS, CaS, and BaS are only slighlt
● Many ionic compounds are soluble in water NaCl(s) soluble
○ Ionic compounds are soluble in water due to
dissociation ● Complete Ionic Equation
§ Dissociation: the separation of positive and ○ Represents as ions all reactants and products that are
negative ions when they dissolve in water soluble in water
○ Example ionic compounds that are soluble in water § You need to determine the different ions present
§ NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) in the reactants and products.
§ AgNO3(s) → Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) § We use this reaction to see which ions contribute
● Precipitation reaction is a combination of 2 compounds to the production of the precipitate.
to produce precipitate that are not soluble in water. ○ Example:
○ Most common reaction § Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)
○ If two of the ions combine to form a water-insoluble + NO3-(aq)
compound, a precipitate forms.
○ Example: AgNO3(s) + NaCl(s) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) ● Net Ionic Equation
§ AgCl (s) is the precipitate ○ Equation of the reaction that precedes the
precipitation reaction
● Molecular (Formula) Equation ○ Shows only the ions that react, without the spectator
○ Gives the overall reaction stoichiometry but not ions
necessarily the actual forms of the reactants and § Spectator ions appear unchanged on both sides
products in solutions of a chemical equation (ions that do not
§ Reactants and products in solution participate directly in the reaction).
○ Use solubility rules to predict the solubilities of the § Net ionic equations are still balanced equations
ionic compounds ○ Example:
§ Most sulfates are soluble in water except when § Net Ionic Equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(cl)
they’re bound to alkaline earth metals.
○ Example:
§ AgNO3(s) + NaCl(s) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Table 1. Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds

Usually Soluble
Li+, Na+, K+, All Group 1A (alkali metal) and
+ + +
Rb , Ca , NH4 ammonium salts are soluble
Nitrates (NO3-) All nitrates are soluble
All common chlorides, bromides, and Figure 1. Formation of Silver Chloride AgCl (white precipitate)
Chlorides (Cl-),
iodides are soluble except AgCl, Hg2Cl2,
bromides (Br-), ● In general, ions in solution react with each other only when:
PbCl2, AgBr, Hg2Br2, PbBr2, AgI, Hg2I2,
iodides, (I-) ○ Two ions form a solid that is insoluble water
PbI2
Most sulfates are soluble except CaSO4, (precipitation reaction)
Sulfates (SO42-) ○ Two ions forma gas that escapes from the reaction
SrSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4
Acetates mixture as bubbles
All acetates are soluble § Example: HCO3-(aq) + H3O+(aq) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(CH3COO-)

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○ An acid neutralizes a base to form water. (acid-base
reactions) ● Weak acids: produce a much smaller concentration of
○ One of the ions can oxidize another (oxidation H3O+ ions
reactions) ○ They are only partially ionized in aqueous solution
○ If none of these conditions are met, no reactions take ○ Example: Acetic Acid
place when we mis solutions of ionic compounds § CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
§ Equilibrium lies more to the left
NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS ● Strong bases: when they dissolve in water, they ionize
ARRHENIUS ACIDS AND BASES completely to give OH- ions
● In 1884, Svante Arrhenius (1859 – 1927) proposed these
definitions: Strong Bases
○ ACID: A substance that produces H3O+ (hydronium BASE FORMULA NAME
ions) in aqueous solution. LiOH Lithium hydroxide
§ H+ reacts immediately with a water molecule to NaOH Sodium hydroxide
give a hydronium ion (H3O+) KOH Potassium hydroxide
§ The terms “H+”, “proton”, and “H3O+” are often Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
used interchangeably Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
§ Example: H2O(l) + HCl(aq) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Sr(OH)2 Strontium hydroxide

● Weak bases: a base that is only partially ionized in

aqueous solution
● The strength of an acid or a base is not related to its
Curved arrows to show the change in position of electron pairs during this reaction.
concentration
○ HCl is still a strong acid whether it is concentrated or
○ BASE: A substance that produces OH- (hydroxide not
ions) in aqueous solution. ○ Most strong acids and bases are also strong
§ Many bases are metal hydroxides such as NaOH, electrolytes
KOH, Mg(OH)2, and Ca(OH)2 that form hydroxides
when their ions separate BRONSTED-LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES
§ Example: NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) ● In 1923, Danish chemist Johannes Brønsted and English
§ Bases that are not hydroxide produce OH–by chemist Thomas Lowry proposed the definitions of acid and
reacting with water molecules bases:
§ Example: NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇋ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) ○ Acid: a proton donor
○ Base: a proton acceptor
○ Acid-base reaction is a proton-transfer reaction

● Conjugate acid-base pair: Any pair of molecules or ions

that can be interconverted by transfer of a proton
○ Conjugate base: a substance formed when an acid
Ammonia produces an OH- ion by taking H+ from a water molecule and leaving OH- behind.
donates a proton to another molecule or ion
○ Conjugate acid: a substance formed when a base
● Arrhenius’ definitions of acid and bases are still useful as
accepts a proton
long as we are talking about aqueous solutions
○ Most acid and bases are weak while their conjugates
are strong
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES
§ Weak acids and bases are important in the
● Strong Acid: An acid that ionizes or reacts completely in preparation of buffer solutions
an aqueous solution to form H3O+ ions § Buffer solutions: used to prevent sudden
○ They dissociate completely in water changes in the pH levels of solutions

Strong Acids
ACID FORMULA NAME
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
HI Hydroiodic acid
HNO3 Nitric acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
HClO4 Perchloric acid

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ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIUM
● In an acid-base reaction, the equilibrium position always
favors reaction of the stronger acid and stronger base to
form the weaker acid and weaker base
○ At equilibrium, the major species are the weak acids
and bases
● To determine the position of an acid-base equilibrium:
○ Identify the two acids in the equilibrium
● Conjugate acid-base pairs: ○ Determine which acid is the strong and weak acid
○ An acid can be positive, negative, or neutral in charge ○ Identify the strong and weak base
§ Positive: H3O+ ○ The strong acid and base react to form the weak acid
§ Neutral: H2CO3 and base
§ Negative: H2PO4- ○ The position of equilibrium lies to the side of the
○ A base can be negative or neutral in charge weaker acid and weaker base
§ Negative: PO43-
§ Neutral: NH3
○ Acids are classified depending on the number of
protons each may give up
§ Monoprotic: Can give up only one proton (HCl)
§ Diprotic: Can give up two protons (H2SO4) NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
§ Triprotic: Can give up three protons (H3PO4) ● A reaction between an acid and a base; proton transfer
○ Several molecules and ions can appear in both the reaction.
acid and conjugate base columns ○ When a strong acid and strong base reacts, they
§ They can function as either an acid or a base “neutralize’ each other forming a substance that is
(Amphiprotic) neither acidic nor basic
§ Ex: HCO3-, H2O ● Different kinds of neutralization reactions:
○ Reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide or a metal
oxide
○ Reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate or a metal
bicarbonate
○ Reaction of an acid with an ammonia or an amine

REACTION WITH METAL HYDROXIDES AND METAL

OXIDES
○ A substance cannot be Bronsted-Lowry acid unless it ● Reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide or metal oxides
contains a hydrogen, but not all hydrogens can be that gives a salt plus water.
given up ○ Ex: HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → H2O(l) + KCl(aq)
§ Ex: CH3COOH & C6H5OH are monoprotic because § HCl: Acid
they only give one hydrogen atom § KOH: Hydroxide
○ There is an inverse relationship between the strength § KCl: Salt
of an acid and the strength of its conjugate base. ○ Ex: Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O
§ Strong acid → Weak conjugate base § Na2O: Oxide
§ HCl: Acid
§ NaCl: Salt

REACTION WITH CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES

● Reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate or a metal
bicarbonate gives a salt, CO2, and a water.
○ Example: Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) +CO2(g) +
H2O(l)
§ Na2CO3(s): Carbonate
§ 2HCl(aq): Acid
§ 2NaCl(aq): Salt
● Any acid stronger than carbonic acid will react with
carbonate or bicarbonate ion to give CO2 gas

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REACTION OF AN ACID WITH AN AMMONIA OR AN AMINE ● It refers to the number of charges an atom would have in a
● Reaction of an acid with an ammonia or an amine to form molecule (or an ionic compound) if electrons are
an ammonium salt. transferred completely.
○ Ex: HCl(aq) + CH3NH2(aq) → CH3NH3+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
§ HCl: Acid ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATES
§ CH3NH2: Amine ● Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation
§ CH3NH3+: Ammonium salt number of zero.
○ Example: Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0
● In monoatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to the
charge on the ion.
○ Example: Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2
● The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2
○ Except O22- where it is –1
● The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1.
○ Except when it is bonded to the metals in binary
compounds where it is -1.
REDUCTION-OXIDATION REACTION
● The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1.
● Also called as Redox reactions
○ Except when it is bonded to the metals in binary
○ Oxidation: Loss of electrons
compounds where it is -1.
§ Gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen
● The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a
○ Reduction: Gain of electrons
molecule or ion is equal to the charge on the molecule or
§ Loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen
ion.
● A reaction in which electrons are transferred from one
species to another.
○ Most important and common types of chemical
reactions
● It involves change in the oxidation state of reactants.
● Oxidation and reduction are not independent reactions
○ No oxidation can occur without reduction and vice
versa
● Oxidizing agent: an entity that accepts electrons in a
redox reaction
○ It oxidizes another
● Reducing agent: An entity that donates electrons in a
redox reaction
○ It reduces another

TYPES OF REDOX REACTION

● Combination Reaction
○ Two reactants combine to produce 1 product
○ A+B→C
Redox Mnemonics
LEORA GEROA
Lose Gain
Electrons Electrons
Oxidized Reduced ● Decomposition Reaction
Reducing Oxidizing ○ A compound produces two products
Agent Agent ○ C→A+B

OXIDATION STATE (OXIDATION NUMBER)

● It provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation-
reduction reactions.

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● Displacement Reaction ACTIVITY SERIES OF HALOGENS

○ One of the molecules in the reactants gets displaced ● F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
by another reactant to produce a combination of a ○ Highest: Fluorine
cation and anion plus the displaced molecule ○ Lowest: Iodine
○ A + BC → AC + B ● Higher activity series halogens can displace lower activity
series halogens
○ Hydrogen Displacement: ● Lower activity series halogens cannot displace higher
§ Hydrogen is displaced by a metal to produce activity series halogens
hydrogen ○ Example:
§ Correct: Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
§ Incorrect: I2 + 2KBr → 2Kl + Br2
§ Another form: M + BC → AC + B
§ Metal + Acid/H2O → AC + H2
OTHER TYPES OF REDOX REACTIONS
§ Ex: Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 COMBUSTION
● A redox reaction that has no visible gain or loss of electrons
○ Metal Displacement:
○ The burned compound or mixtures are oxidized by
§ Metal is displaced by another metal depending on
oxygen
their energy levels and activity series
§ Carbon is oxidized into CO2
§ Oxygen is reduced into H2O
● Uses the alternative definitions of oxidation and reduction:
○ Oxidation: Gain oxygen/ Lose Hydrogen
○ Halogen Displacement
○ Reduction: Gain hydrogen/ lose oxygen
§ Halogens are displaced by another halogen
§ These alternative definitions are also more
based on reactivity and activity series
commonly used in organic chemistry

ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

● Ranks metals according to their reducing abilities in an
aqueous solution
○ Metals located above H2 give up electrons and are
stronger reducing agents
○ Metals locates below H2 do not give up electrons as
readily and are weaker reducing agents
§ Results in no reaction between a metal and an
acid RESPIRATION
● Showcases the displacement that is most appropriate ● Like combustion but takes place more slowly and at a
○ There are some reactions wherein a metal cannot lower temperature
displace another metal because of the difference in ● The oxygen in the air we breathe oxidizes carbon-
their reducing strength containing compounds in our cells to produce CO2 and
§ Metals with lower reducing strength cannot H2O
displace metals with higher reducing strength
RUSTING
● Iron is oxidized to a mixture of iron oxides
○ 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2He2O3(s)

BLEACHING
● Common bleaches are oxidizing agents
○ Oxidation converts colored compounds to colorless
compounds

BATTERIES
● Voltaic cells generate electricity via chemical reactions
(redox reactions)

Table 2. Activity Series of Certain Elements

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REFERENCES

Notes from the discussion by Sir Mark Kevin Devanadera

University of Santo Tomas powerpoint presentation: MT633

Bettelheim, F. A, W. H., Brown, M. K. Campbell, S. O. Farrell

& O. Torres. (2015). Introduction to General, Organic and
Biochemistry, 11th ed. pp. 91-104, 200 - 215

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 [TRANS] : SHAPE OF MOLECULES

● Determine the number of valence electrons in the molecule.

OUTLINE ○ For a cation, subtract one electron for each positive
I Shape of Molecules charge on it.
A. Lewis structure ○ For an anion, add one electron for each negative
B. Formal Charge
charge on it.
C. Exceptions to Octet rule
D. Resonance ● Determine the connectivity of atoms.
E. Valence bond theory ● Connect the atoms by single bonds.
F. Hybridization ● Show bonding electrons as a single line; show nonbonding
G. Molecular Geometry electrons as a pair of Lewis dots.
● In a single bond, atoms share one pair of electrons; in a
double bond, they share two pairs, and in a triple bond they
LEWIS STRUCTURE share three pairs.
● Shows how valence electrons are arranged among atoms ○ Arrange the remaining electrons so that each atom has
in a molecule. a complete outer shell
● Reflects the central idea that stability of a compound is ○ The unpaired electrons are called lone pairs and are
related to noble gas electron configuration. placed in a more stable valence shell
○ Duet Rule: Hydrogen atom forms stable molecules
where it shares two electrons

Figure 1. Hydrogen following duet rule

○ Octet Rule: Elements form stable molecules when

surrounded by eight electrons. Figure 4. Sample Lewis Structures

● The number beside the molecular formula is the total

number of valence electrons found in the molecule
○ (# of Bonds + # of lone pairs) x 2

FORMAL CHARGE
● Calculation of a Formal charge on a molecule is a
Figure 2. Fluorine following octet rule mechanism for determining correct Lewis structures.
○ It is used when more than one possible Lewis Structure
ELECTRON PAIRS IN LEWIS STRUCTURE can be drawn for a covalent compound
● Electron pairs are assumed to be localized on a particular ○ More than one Lewis structure can be correct
atom or in the space between two atoms:
○ Lone pairs - pairs of electrons localized on an atom
○ Bonding pairs of electrons found in the space between
the atoms

Figure 5. Formal Charge Formula

● Note: The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a

molecule or ion must equal the charge on the molecule or
ion.
● For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are
no formal charges is preferable to one in which formal
charges are present.
Figure 3. Lewis Structure of Fluorine ● Lewis structures with large formal charges are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
DRAWING A LEWIS STRUCTURE ● Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of
formal charges, the most plausible structure is the one in

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 TRANS: SHAPE OF MOLECULES
which negative formal charges are placed on the more ○ There are two allowed types of electron redistribution:
electronegative atoms. ▪ From a bond to an adjacent atom.
▪ From an atom to an adjacent bond.
EXCEPTIONS TO OCTET RULE ● Any of the contributing structures can be used
● Atoms of Period 2 elements use 2s and 2p orbitals for ○ These structures occur simultaneously in a aqueous
bonding: solution
○ These four orbitals can contain a maximum of 8
electrons: hence the octet rule. VALENCE BOND THEORY
○ Can follow octet rule ● Covalent bonds are formed through the sharing of electrons
● Atoms of Period 3 elements have one 3s orbital, three 3p by adjacent atoms.
orbitals, and five 3d orbitals: ● In VBT, covalent bonds are formed by the overlapping of
○ These nine orbitals can accommodate more than eight atomic orbitals.
electrons, by using 3d orbitals; period 3 atoms can ○ Electron sharing and bond formation happens in the
have more than eight electrons in their valence shells. overlap region of two orbitals
○ Cannot follow octet rule

Figure 9. Overlap region of H2

● There are two ways orbitals can overlap to form bonds

between atoms:
Figure 6. Exceptions to the octet rule (a) phosphorus & (b) ○ Sigma bonds
sulfur ○ Pi bonds
RESONANCE SIGMA BONDS (𝝈)
● Resonance is the transfer of electron to form bonds that ● Sigma (𝝈) bonds are characterized by:
occurs in atoms being paired to negatively charged atoms ○ Head-to-head overlap
○ Unstable ○ Electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line
○ Bonds and electron pairs are constantly changing back running between the atoms.
and forth from one position to another over time. ○ Single bonds are always sigma bonds
○ If you have a double or triple bond next to a carbon that
is bonded to a negatively charged atom, resonance
happens
● Many molecules and ions are best described by writing two
or more Lewis structures. These molecules or ions are said
to exhibit resonance.

Figure 10. Sigma bonds

PI BONDS (𝝅)
● Pi (𝝅) bonds are characterized by:
Figure 7. Resonance in the 3 Lewis structures for carbonate ○ Side-to-side overlap
ion ○ Forms double and triple bonds by sharing electron
pair(s) in the space above and below the σ bond.
● Individual Lewis structures are called contributing ○ A sigma bond can be found on the internuclear axis
structures (resonance structures/resonance contributors.) ○ Double and Triple bonds are always pi bonds

Figure 8. Carbonate ion represented as a hybrid of three

equivalent contributing structures

● Double-headed (resonance) arrows are placed between

Figure 11. Pi bonds
individual contributing structures.
○ Curved arrow: a symbol used to show the redistribution
● Molecules can have both a sigma and pi bond
of valence electrons.

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○ Means the molecule has both head-to-head and side-
to-side overlapping

Figure 14. sp hybrod bonds

● sp2 Hybridization:
Figure 12. Sigma and Pi bonds
○ Combination of one s and two p orbitals, generating
three degenerate sp2 orbitals
HYBRIDIZATION
● Consider beryllium in the formation of BeH2: In its ground
electronic state, it would not be able to form bonds because
it has no singly occupied orbitals.
○ It fulfills both 1s and 2s orbitals Figure 15. For Boron in formation of BH3

FORMATION OF SP2 HYBRID ORBITAL

● If it absorbs the small amount of energy needed to promote

an electron from the 2s to the 2p orbital, it can form two
bonds.
○ The new half-filled orbitals (2s and 2p) can be
combined to be called as sp orbital
○ The varying number of half-filled orbitals in p can be Figure 16. sp2 hybrid
denoted as sp1, sp2, sp3
▪ This number also denotes the number of bonds ● HCO (formaldehyde):
that can be formed with another atom ○ three sp2 orbitals form a bond between carbon and
oxygen, and one pair of p orbitals overlap to form the
one 𝝅 bond.
▪ 1 sigma bond and 1 pi bond
▪ 2 electrons in the p orbital
▪ sp2: Double Bonds

● Hybridization can help determine sigma and pi bonds

FORMATION OF SP HYBRID ORBITAL

● Mixing the s and p orbitals yields two degenerate orbitals
that are hybrids of the two orbitals.
● Hybridization: Mixing of two or more atomic orbitals to form
special (hybrid) orbitals for bonding. Figure 17. sp2 bonds
○ This special orbital is used by the atom for bonding
○ sp orbitals usually contain 1 sigma bond and 2 pi bonds FORMATION OF SP3 HYBRID ORBITAL
○ sp orbitals: Triple Bonds ● sp3 Hybridization:
○ 1 electron in p orbital ○ Combination of one s and three p orbitals, generating
four degenerate sp3 orbitals
○ 3 electrons in the p orbital
○ There are 3 sp3 orbitals to be used for bonding
○ sp3: Single Bond
○ 1 sigma bond

Figure 13. sp hybrid

● In C2H2 (acetylene):
○ Two sp orbitals form a bond between the carbons, and Figure 18. For carbon in formation of CH4:
two pairs of p orbitals overlap to form the two bonds.

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Figure 21. AB3

AB2E
● Two atoms bonded to the central atom and an electron pair
Figure 19. sp3 hybrid in the central atom.
○ The presence of an electron pair indicates repulsion
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
● 3D arrangement of atoms in a molecule
● It plays an important role in determining chemical
properties.

VSERP MODEL
● Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Model
● Useful in predicting the geometries of molecules
● The structure around a given atom is determined principally
by minimizing electron pair repulsions.

STEPS TO APPLY THE VSERP MODEL

● Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule.
● Count the electron pairs (bonding and lone pairs) and Figure 22. AB2E
arrange them in the way that minimizes repulsion.
● Determine the positions of the atoms from the way electron AB4
pairs are shared. ● Four atoms bonded to the central atom. Also equidistant
● Name the molecular structure. with an angle of 109.5
○ Note that:
▪ A = central atom
▪ B = atom attached to the central atom
▪ E = lone pairs attached to the central atom

AB2
● Two atoms bonded to the central atom.

Figure 23. AB4

AB3E
● Three atoms bonded to the central atom and an electron
pair.
Figure 20. AB2

AB3
● Three atoms bonded to the central atom.
○ When the central atom has no lone pairs, the
distribution of electrons is equidistant

Figure 24. AB3E

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AB2E2
● Two atoms bonded to the central atom and two lone pairs.
○ Angle is 104.5

Figure 25. AB2E2

Table 1. Summary of Molecular Geometries

#OF # OF
ATOMS LONE ARRANGEMEN
BONDED PAIRS T OF ANGL MOLECULAR
CLASS
TO ON ELECTRON E GEOMETRY
CENTRA CENTRA PAIRS
L ATOM L ATOM
AB2 2 0 Linear 180 Linear
Trigonal Trigonal
AB3 3 0 Planar
120 Planar
Trigonal
AB2E 2 1 Planar
Bent

AB4 4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5 Tetrahedral

Trigonal
AB3E 3 1 Tetrahedral 107.3 Pyramidal
AB2E2 2 1 Tetrahedral 104.5 Bent

Figure 26. Sample molecules and their molecular geometry

REFERENCES

Notes from the discussion by Sir Mark Kevin Devanadera

University of Santo Tomas powerpoint presentation: MT633

Bettelheim, F. A, W. H., Brown, M. K. Campbell, S. O. Farrell

& O. Torres. (2015). Introduction to General, Organic and
Biochemistry, 11th ed. pp. 59-89

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 5

 [TRANS] : NUCLEAR REACTION

o Since the center is composed of neutrons and protons

OUTLINE therefore, the mass of the atoms are concentrated in the
I Nuclear stability and radioactivity nucleus.
II Kinds of nuclear reaction
III Nuclear Decay, Nuclear Transmutation NUCLEAR DECAY, NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
A Beta emission
B Alpha emission NUCLEAR DECAY
C Positron emission • When the strong force can hold a nucleus together
D Gamma emission forever, the nucleus is stable
E Electron capture • In a large nucleus (containing many protons), the electric
IV Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion force repels protons
• If repulsion prevails, proton is not equal to the neutron,
hence the nucleus becomes unstable and can break apart
NUCLEAR STABILITY AND RADIOACTIVITY or decay by emitting particles and energy (radioactive)
● Nucleus of an atom
o Occupies a very small portion of the total volume
of an atom
o Contains most of the atom’s mass (because of
protons and neutrons)
o Exceedingly high density

What holds the particle together so tightly?

• Protons and neutrons bind together by the strong nuclear
force Figure No.2 Nuclear Stability
• There is an energy (nuclear force) that holds them
together ● Since the nucleus is held by a strong force which is called
the nuclear force, your protons also exhibit another force
which we call the repulsive force

REPULSIVE FORCE
• Exhibited by protons (a property of proton)
• It is a movement between two charges that are identical
or similar
o Like charges repel
o Unlike charges attract
• Repulsion is the force that pushes the protons into other
parts of the nucleus
o This explains why electrons are freely moving in the
valence shell
• The force used by protons to prevent the electron from
Figure 1. Nucleus fusing into the nucleus

o Nucleus of an atom is present in the CENTER of an

• Instability occurs when there is a decrease in neutrons or
element which contains mostly of PROTONS and
increase in the number of protons
NEUTRONS
o Possibility of breaking the nucleus from different part
§ Valence shell occupies the space surrounding the
or to emit particles is very high due to the repulsive
neutron
force
§ SPACE is the site where sharing occurs o Emission of particles occur once breaking of
nucleus happen

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 1

 TRANS: NUCLEAR REACTION

o Radioactive substance is the product of the

emission of particles and energy • Alpha particles are helium nuclei. Each contains two
protons and two neutrons; each has an atomic number of
Breaking of nucleus happens when there is a lower number of 2 and a charge of +2
neutrons and higher presence of protons • Beta particles are electrons. Each has a charge of -1
• Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation.
ZONE OF STABILITY They have no mass or charge.
• Of the 300 naturally occurring isotopes, 264 are stable;
the remainder are radioactive isotopes. • Nuclear reaction happens when nucleus breaks and
• Stable isotopes have approximately equal numbers of form another element; there will be emission of
protons and neutrons. particles/energy. That emission of energy creates a new
• Heavier elements require more neutrons to stabilize the element.
nucleus by counteracting the strong repulsion between
protons. NUCLEAR DECAY, NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
o Heavier elements contain d and s orbitals • In an unstable nucleus, it breaks apart emitting particles
o E.g., Lead-206 contains 124 neutrons and 82 protons and energy as nucleus decays.
o Unstable because of the discrepancies in the number
of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
• Often called as radioactive decay
o Producing a radioactive particle

• Nuclear transmutation is the process of changing one

element to a different element by the decaying process.
o Happens naturally every time an element gives off a
beta particle
o Everytime a nucleus emits a beta particle, it is
transformed into another nucleus with the same mass
number but an atomic number one unit greater

TYPES OF RADIATION EMITTED DURING NUCLEAR

DECAY
Figure 3. Zone of Stability 1. Beta emission
2. Alpha emission
NUCLEAR REACTION 3. Positron emission
• An imbalance in the proton-to-neutron ratio causes the 4. Gamma emission
nucleus to undergo a nuclear reaction 5. Electron capture
o Happens when a certain nucleus breaks and it formed
another element which caused particles and energy NUCLEAR DECAY
emission • Unstable à break à emits particles/energy = nucler decay
• It is a reaction that changes the nucleus of an element
• Imbalance in the proton-to-neutron ratio will undergo NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
nuclear rection to make the ratio more favorable and the • One element change to differenrt element during the
nucleus more stable nuclear decay process
COMMON ATOMIC
PARTICLE OF PENETRATI ENERGY
RAY
NAME OF
RADIATION
SYMBOL CHARGE MASS
UNITS
NG POWERa RANGEb
BETA EMISSION
Proton 1–3
Proton
beam
!
!! +1 1
cm
60 MeV • Producing an electron coming from the nucleus of a
Beta #
0.00055
0–4 neutron.
Electron "!" or &" -1 1 1 – 3 MeV
particle mm
(
1835
) • It generates beta particles.
Neutron 0.00055
Neutron
beam
!
#/ 0
5
- - • When identifying beta emission, only the atomic mass is
Positron - #
$!" or & $
+1 IS4 - - changed, and the atomic number retained.
0.02 –
Helium Alpha &
%!" or 0 +2 0 0.04 3 – 9 MeV
nucleus particle Proton remains in the nucleus and the electron is emitted from
mm
1 – 20 0.1 – 10 it. The emitted electron is called a beta particle, and the
Energetic Gamma cm MeV
1 0 0
radiation ray, x-ray 0.01 – 0.1 – 10 process is called beta emission.
1cm MeV
a
Distance at which half of radiation has been stopped
b
MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J – 3.829 X 10-14 cal
Table 1. Nuclear Reaction

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 2

 TRANS: NUCLEAR REACTION

• A type of nuclear decay in which a neutron is converted to GAMMA EMISSION

a proton and an electron, and the electron is emitted from • In pure gamma emitters, there is no change in either the
the nucleus: atomic number or the mass number of the element.
o A nucleus in a higher-energy (excited) state emits
"
#! → ""$ + #
!"& gamma radiation as it returns to its ground state (its
Neutron Proton Electron most stable energy state).
o In this nuclear decay, no transmutation takes place.
• Emission of a beta particle transforms the element into a
new element with same mass number but an atomic • Gamma emissions often accompanies α or β emissions.
number one unit greater
)) ∗ ))
++ → ++ + y
• Phosphrous-32, for example, is a beta emitter
!&'
o Note: In a nuclear decay equation that sum of the #!! → "!'( + !&"
#$$ℎ + 2$$ )
mass numbers and atomic numbers are the same on
each side of the equation In this equation, ##"( ∗ symbolizes a boron nucleus in a high-energy
state that undergoes gamma emission.
%& %& #
"'! → "$$ + !"&
• Excited state (it requires use of energy)
A phosphorus-32 nucleus has 15 protons and 17 neutrons. o Higher energy
The nucleus remaining after an electron has been emitted now o Used by elements to form a bond
has 16 protons and 16 neutrons • In higher energy levels (d and f orbitals)
• Its atomic number is increased by 1, but its mass number o It can emit gamma particles
is unchanged. • No change in atomic number and atomic mass
• The new nucleus is, therefore, sulfur-32. • Gamma emission is produced if the element jumped to
o Thus, when the unstable phosphorus-32 (15 protons excited state, once it goes back to its ground state, it
and 17 neutrons) is converted to sulfur-32 (16 forms gamma particles that releases great amounts of
protons and 16 neutrons), nuclear stability is energy and the energy released is the same energy used
achieved. when exciting the electron.
o When all excess energy has been emitted, the
nucleus returns to its most stable, lowest-energy state
ALPHA EMISSION
• A type of nuclear decay in which a helium nucleus is ELECTRON CAPTURE (E.C)
emitted from the nucleus • An extranuclear electron is captured by a nucleus and
• Forming an alpha particle and gamma particle reacts with a proton to form a neutron.
o Reduces the atomic number of the element
!&' !&" "
#!! → #$$ℎ + !'( o Mass number is unchanged
• It captures beta particles
!)$ !$( " • In identifying, only the atomic number changes.
'"! → '!$ℎ + !'( + )
% # %
GENERAL RULE &'& + !"& → $()
• The new nucleus always has a mass number four units
lower and an atomic number two units lower than original. EFFECTS OF RADIOACTIVITY
• Alpha particles cause more damage than X-rays or
POSITRON EMISSION gamma radiation, but they have very low penetrating
power and cannot pass through skin.
• A type of nuclear decay in which a positron (a positive
o More damage but has a low penetrating power
electron) is emitted from the nucleus
• Consequently, alpha particles are not harmful to humans
• Rarer than alpha or beta emission
or animals as long as they do not get into the body; if they
• Forming a positron which is positive charge electron
do get into the body, they can be quite harmful.
)) )) $ • Beta particles are less damaging to tissue than alpha
(* → ++ + *)(
particles but penetrate farther and so are generally more
harmful.
• Positron has no appreciable mass, the nucleus is • Gamma rays, which can easily penetrate skin, are by far
transmuted into another nucleus with the same mass the most dangerous and harmful form of radiation.
number but an atomic number that is one unit less. o Gamma rays is used to sterilize lab
o No change of mass number o Beta particles and gamma rays has low damage but
o Reduce in atomic number high penetrating power

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 3

 TRANS: NUCLEAR REACTION

NUCLEAR FUSION
• It is a process of combining two light nuclei to form a
heavier, more stable nucleus, and to produce higher
concentration
• From lower to higher nucleus number to produce a higher
mass number

A C B ?
10@ ABCD
?7 + ?7 → A7: + >; + 5.3 > 7:
Hydrogen-2 Hydrogen-3
EFD
(Deuterium) (Tritium)

o Elements that combine to another element

Figure 4. Effects of Radioactivity
produce a higher mass number and atomic
number
USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

• All transuranium elements (elements with atomic number

ISOTOPE MODE HALF- USE IN greater than 92) are artificial and unstable. They are
OF LIFE MEDICAL
prepared by nuclear fusion.
DECAY IMAGING
33
2! Carbon - #4 , % 20.3 m Brain scan to ABB B ABF ?
2 ?>;
DG+E + A7: → DE#A + ?7 +
11 trace glucose
metabolism AC@ ?A ABG
+ 4 ?>;
DAH + G+ → D@+I
36
5& Fluiorine- #4 , % 109 m Brain scan to
18 trace glucose AFA ?> AFE
+ 5 ?>;
D@+I + F# → ?>CKL
metabolism
89 Phosphoro # 14,3 d Detect eye
37' NUCLEAR FISSION
us - 32 tumors • The fragmentation of larger nuclei into smaller ones.
73 Chromium ). +. , % 27.7 d Diagnose
9:!( o Energy (atomic energy) is released because the
– 51 albinism; image products have less mass than the starting
the spleen and materials.
gastrointestinal
tract ACF
DAH + ?
>; → ?B? DA
3 ?>; +
FG#C + CGML + :;:LN%
75 Iron – 59 % 44.5 d Bone marrow
92&,
function;
diagnose
anemias
2; Gallium – ). +. , % 78.3 h Whole-body scan
83-.
67 for tumors
;7 Selenium – ). +. , % 118 d Pancreas scan
8: /,
75
63< %
820( Krypton – 13.3 s Lung ventilation
81m scan Figure No.5 Nuclear Fission
63< # • Self-propagating chain reaction begins when a neutron
86 /( Strontium 22.2 m Scan for bone
- 81 disease, including collides with a nucleus of uranium-235.
cancer • No change in atomic and mass number but production of
55< #, % new elements occur
:812 Technetiu 6.01 h Kidney scan
m – 99m
383 Iodine – 8.04 d Diagnosis of
763
131 thyroid
malfunction
35; Mercury – ). +. , % 63.1 h Kidney scan
6=45
197
9=3 Thallium - ). +. , % 3.05 d Hear scan and
6316
201 exercise stress
test
Table 2. Uses of Radioactivity
• Most of radioactive isotope are used in medical imaging
but in very minimal amount because it can cause damage

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 4

 TRANS: NUCLEAR REACTION

Figure No.6 Nuclear Fission

• Larger nucleus to smaller nucleus = neutrons and gamma
particles
o Neutrons is used to bombard another set of elements
o Gamma particles is a source of energy and a product
coming from the nuclear fission
• Producing neutron and gamma particles.
• It occurs in a series of reaction
• Use of nuclear energy; higher energy yielding results to
higher temperature
o Higher temp à higher pressure à possibility of
explosion
• Prevent explosion
o Cool down reaction vessel: use materials/mixture that
contains water
o If there is steam or smoke there is an ongoing nuclear
fission happening

• Today more than 15% of the electrical energy in the

United States is supplied by nuclear power plants.
• Disposal of spent but still radioactive nuclear fuel
materials is a major long-term problem.
• Spent fuel contains high-level fission products together
with recoverable uranium and plutonium.
• In addition, there are radioactive wastes from nuclear
weapons programs, research reactors, and so forth.
• Recently the government gave its final approval to store
nuclear wastes at a site deep under Yucca Mountain in
Nevada.

REFERENCES

Notes from the discussion by Mark Kevin Devanadera

University of Santo Tomas powerpoint presentation

ARIZABAL, CASTAÑEDA, CELLONA, HORCA, LOPEZ, PAUIG, QUEMQUEM, RODRIGUEZ | 1A-MT 5