DSA QB NOTES MODULE1

1)Define data structures? How they are classified? Explain its various

operations? What is a structure in C? How is it different from an array?

Explain with example how a structure is declared and initialized?

ANS-Data structures are specialized formats for organizing and storing data to perform operations
efficiently. They provide a way to manage and organize data so that it can be accessed and modified
effectively. Different data structures are suitable for different types of applications and operations.

Classification of Data Structures:

Data structures can be classified into two main types:

Primitive Data Structures:

These are the basic data types, such as integers, floats, characters, etc.

They directly operate upon the machine instructions.

Composite Data Structures:

These are constructed by combining primitive data types and other composite types.

Examples include arrays, structures, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, and graphs.

Operations on Data Structures:

Common operations on data structures include:

Traversal: Visiting all elements of the data structure.

Insertion: Adding new elements.

Deletion: Removing elements.

Search: Finding the location of a particular element.

Sorting: Arranging elements in a specific order.

Merging: Combining two data structures into one.

Structure in C:

In C, a structure is a user-defined data type that allows combining different types of data under a single
name. It is used to group variables of different data types.

Difference Between Structure and Array:

Array: An array is a collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory locations.

Structure: A structure is a collection of elements of different data types, grouped under a single name.

Declaration and Initialization of Structure in C:

Here's an example of declaring and initializing a structure in C:

Copy code

#include <stdio.h>

// Define a structure named 'Person'

struct Person {

char name[50];

int age;

float height;

};

int main() {

// Declare and initialize a structure variable

struct Person person1 = {"John Doe", 25, 5.9};

 // Access and print structure members

printf("Name: %s\n", person1.name);

printf("Age: %d\n", person1.age);

printf("Height: %.2f feet\n", person1.height);

return 0;

In this example, a structure named Person is defined with three members: name, age, and height. An
instance of this structure (person1) is declared and initialized in the main function. The members of the
structure are accessed using the dot (.) operator.

This program declares a structure representing a person, initializes an instance of that structure, and
prints the person's information.

2) Write a C program with an appropriate structure definition and

variable declaration to read and display information about 5

employees using nested structures. Consider the following fields like

Ename, Empid, DOJ (Date, Month, and Year) and Salary (basic, DA,

HRA)

ANS-#include <stdio.h>

// Define a structure for Date

struct Date {

int day;

int month;

int year;
};

// Define a structure for Salary

struct Salary {

float basic;

float da;

float hra;

};

// Define a structure for Employee

struct Employee {

char ename[50];

int empid;

struct Date doj;

struct Salary salary;

};

int main() {

// Declare an array of structures to store information for 5 employees

struct Employee employees[5];

// Read information for each employee

for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {

printf("Enter details for Employee %d:\n", i + 1);

 printf("Name: ");

scanf("%s", employees[i].ename);

printf("Employee ID: ");

scanf("%d", &employees[i].empid);

printf("Date of Joining (DD MM YYYY): ");

scanf("%d %d %d", &employees[i].doj.day, &employees[i].doj.month, &employees[i].doj.year);

printf("Salary Details (Basic DA HRA): ");

scanf("%f %f %f", &employees[i].salary.basic, &employees[i].salary.da, &employees[i].salary.hra);

printf("\n");

// Display information for each employee

printf("Employee Information:\n");

for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {

printf("Employee %d\n", i + 1);

printf("Name: %s\n", employees[i].ename);

printf("Employee ID: %d\n", employees[i].empid);

printf("Date of Joining: %d-%02d-%02d\n", employees[i].doj.year, employees[i].doj.month,

employees[i].doj.day);

printf("Salary Details:\n");

printf(" Basic: %.2f\n", employees[i].salary.basic);

printf(" DA: %.2f\n", employees[i].salary.da);

 printf(" HRA: %.2f\n", employees[i].salary.hra);

printf("\n");

return 0;

This program defines structures for Date, Salary, and Employee. The Employee structure has members
for employee name, employee ID, date of joining, and salary details. The program uses an array of
Employee structures to store information for 5 employees. It then reads and displays the information for
each employee using nested structures.

3)How does a structure differ from a union? Mention any 2 uses of structure.

What is a bit field? Why are bit fields used with structures?

ANS-**Difference Between Structure and Union:**

A structure and a union are both user-defined data types in C that allow grouping different types of
variables under a single name. The main difference lies in how they allocate memory for their members.

1. **Memory Allocation:**

- **Structure (`struct`):** Allocates memory for each member separately, resulting in the cumulative
size equal to the sum of the sizes of its members. Each member has its own memory space.

- **Union (`union`):** Allocates memory in such a way that all members share the same memory
space. The size of a union is determined by the largest member.

2. **Use Cases for Structures:**

- **Grouping Data:** Structures are used to group variables of different data types into a single unit,
allowing the organization of related information.

- **Passing Multiple Parameters:** When a function needs to take multiple parameters of different
types, using a structure can simplify the function signature by passing a single structure parameter.
**Bit Field:**

A bit field is a feature in C that allows the allocation of specified number of bits for a member within a
structure. It is declared using a colon (`:`) followed by the number of bits. Bit fields are often used to
represent packed data structures, especially when memory is a concern.

**Why Use Bit Fields with Structures:**

1. **Memory Efficiency:** Bit fields help in optimizing memory usage by allowing you to pack multiple
variables into a single word or byte.

2. **Flags and Configuration:** Bit fields are often used to represent flags or configuration options
where each bit can be a separate Boolean value, and the entire bit field can represent a set of options
compactly.

Here's a brief example to illustrate the use of a bit field:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Define a structure with bit fields

struct Flags {

unsigned int flag1 : 1; // 1 bit

unsigned int flag2 : 1; // 1 bit

unsigned int flag3 : 1; // 1 bit

// ...

};

int main() {
 // Declare a structure variable

struct Flags myFlags;

// Initialize bit fields

myFlags.flag1 = 1;

myFlags.flag2 = 0;

myFlags.flag3 = 1;

// Access and display bit fields

printf("Flag 1: %u\n", myFlags.flag1);

printf("Flag 2: %u\n", myFlags.flag2);

printf("Flag 3: %u\n", myFlags.flag3);

return 0;

```

In this example, the `Flags` structure is used to represent three Boolean flags using bit fields. Each flag
occupies one bit, allowing efficient use of memory.

4 How a structure can be parsed to a function through pointers? Explain

with example.

4 Jul 18
ANS-Passing a structure to a function through pointers in C is a common practice when you want to
modify the structure's contents inside the function and have those changes reflected outside the
function. This is especially useful when dealing with large structures as passing them by value may lead
to inefficiencies due to the copying of the entire structure.

Here's an example illustrating how to pass a structure to a function using pointers:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Define a simple structure

struct Point {

int x;

int y;

};

// Function to modify the structure using pointers

void modifyPoint(struct Point *point) {

// Increment x and y values

point->x++;

point->y++;

int main() {

// Declare a structure variable

struct Point myPoint = {10, 20};

 // Display the initial values

printf("Before modification: x = %d, y = %d\n", myPoint.x, myPoint.y);

// Pass the structure to the function by reference (using a pointer)

modifyPoint(&myPoint);

// Display the modified values

printf("After modification: x = %d, y = %d\n", myPoint.x, myPoint.y);

return 0;

```

In this example:

1. The `Point` structure has two members: `x` and `y`.

2. The `modifyPoint` function takes a pointer to a `Point` structure as its parameter.

3. Inside the function, the arrow operator (`->`) is used to access members of the structure through the
pointer.

4. The `main` function declares a `Point` variable (`myPoint`), initializes it, and then calls the
`modifyPoint` function, passing the address of `myPoint`.

5. Changes made to the structure inside the `modifyPoint` function are reflected in the original structure
outside the function.

This way, using pointers to structures allows functions to modify the actual content of the structure
rather than working with a copy, providing efficiency and flexibility.
5 What is a pointer? What are the uses of pointers in C?

8 Jan 18,

Jan 19.

Jan 20

ANS-**Pointer in C:**

A pointer in C is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. In other words, it
"points" to the memory location of a data item. Pointers are a powerful feature in C, providing flexibility,
efficiency, and the ability to work directly with memory.

**Uses of Pointers in C:**

1. **Dynamic Memory Allocation:**

- Pointers are crucial for dynamic memory allocation using functions like `malloc`, `calloc`, `realloc`, and
`free`. They allow the creation of data structures whose size can be determined at runtime.

```c

int *arr = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));

```

2. **Passing Parameters to Functions:**

- Pointers are often used to pass parameters to functions by reference. This enables the function to
modify the actual values of the variables passed.
 ```c

void modifyValue(int *x) {

(*x)++; // Increment the value pointed to by x

// ...

int num = 10;

modifyValue(&num);

```

3. **Arrays and Strings:**

- Pointers are closely associated with arrays. The name of an array is a pointer to its first element.

```c

int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

int *ptr = arr; // ptr points to the first element of the array

```

- Similarly, strings in C are represented as arrays of characters, and pointers are used to manipulate and
traverse them.

```c

char str[] = "Hello";

char *ptr = str; // ptr points to the first character of the string
 ```

4. **Data Structures:**

- Pointers are extensively used in implementing various data structures like linked lists, trees, and
graphs. They allow dynamic linking of nodes.

```c

struct Node {

int data;

struct Node *next;

};

```

5. **File Handling:**

- Pointers are used in file handling operations to navigate through files, read/write data, and manage
file positions.

```c

FILE *filePtr;

filePtr = fopen("example.txt", "r");

```

6. **Function Pointers:**

- C supports function pointers, allowing functions to be assigned to variables and passed as arguments.
This is useful for implementing callbacks and creating flexible and reusable code.

```c
 int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;

int (*ptr)(int, int); // Function pointer declaration

ptr = add; // Assign function to pointer

int result = ptr(2, 3); // Call function through pointer

```

7. **Pointer Arithmetic:**

- Pointers can be incremented and decremented, allowing efficient traversal of arrays and other data
structures.

```c

int arr[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

int *ptr = arr;

printf("%d\n", *ptr); // Access the first element

printf("%d\n", *(ptr+2)); // Access the third element

```

Pointers in C provide a level of control and access to memory that contributes to the language's
efficiency and versatility. They are a fundamental aspect of the language and are used in various
programming scenarios.
6 Write a C program to read ten integers and store them in an array using

pointers. Print their sum and average.

6 Jan 19,

Jul 21

Jan 20

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C program that uses pointers to read ten integers, stores them in an array,
and then calculates and prints their sum and average:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

// Declare an array to store ten integers

int numbers[10];

// Declare a pointer to the array

int *ptr = numbers;

// Read ten integers using pointers

printf("Enter ten integers:\n");

for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {

scanf("%d", ptr + i);

 }

// Calculate the sum

int sum = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i) {

sum += *(ptr + i); // Dereference the pointer to access array elements

// Calculate the average

float average = (float)sum / 10;

// Print the sum and average

printf("Sum: %d\n", sum);

printf("Average: %.2f\n", average);

return 0;

```

In this program:

- An array `numbers` of size 10 is declared to store the integers.

- A pointer `ptr` is declared to point to the first element of the array.

- Using a loop, the program reads ten integers from the user and stores them in the array using the
pointer.

- Another loop calculates the sum of the numbers by dereferencing the pointer to access array elements.
- The average is calculated by dividing the sum by the number of elements (10).

- The program then prints the sum and average.

Note: While reading and writing data using pointers, it's important to ensure that the pointer remains
within the bounds of the allocated memory to avoid undefined behavior. In this example, the loop
conditions ensure that the pointer stays within the valid range.

7 Write a note on static and dynamic memory allocation and explain with

examples.

8 Jul 19

ANS-**Static Memory Allocation:**

Static memory allocation refers to the allocation of memory at compile-time. The memory for variables is
allocated before the program runs and is fixed throughout the program's execution. In C, static memory
allocation is commonly associated with:

1. **Global Variables:**

- Variables declared outside any function, known as global variables, are statically allocated.

- They have a fixed memory location and retain their values throughout the program's execution.

```c

#include <stdio.h>
 int globalVariable = 10;

int main() {

printf("Global Variable: %d\n", globalVariable);

return 0;

```

2. **Static Variables:**

- Variables declared with the `static` keyword inside a function are also statically allocated.

- They retain their values between function calls.

```c

#include <stdio.h>

void incrementAndPrint() {

static int count = 0; // Static variable

count++;

printf("Count: %d\n", count);

int main() {

incrementAndPrint();

incrementAndPrint();
 return 0;

```

**Dynamic Memory Allocation:**

Dynamic memory allocation involves allocating memory during the program's execution. C provides
functions like `malloc`, `calloc`, `realloc`, and `free` for dynamic memory allocation and deallocation. This
enables the creation of data structures with sizes determined at runtime.

1. **malloc:**

- Allocates a specified number of bytes of memory.

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int *dynamicArray;

dynamicArray = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));

if (dynamicArray != NULL) {

for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {

dynamicArray[i] = i * 2;

}
 // Access and use the dynamic array

// Free the dynamically allocated memory when done

free(dynamicArray);

} else {

printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

return 0;

```

2. **calloc:**

- Allocates a specified number of blocks of memory, each with a specified number of bytes.

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int *dynamicArray;

dynamicArray = (int *)calloc(5, sizeof(int));

if (dynamicArray != NULL) {

// Access and use the dynamic array

 // Free the dynamically allocated memory when done

free(dynamicArray);

} else {

printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

return 0;

```

3. **realloc:**

- Changes the size of a previously allocated block of memory.

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int *dynamicArray;

dynamicArray = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));

if (dynamicArray != NULL) {

// Access and use the dynamic array

 // Change the size of the dynamic array

dynamicArray = (int *)realloc(dynamicArray, 10 * sizeof(int));

// Access and use the resized dynamic array

// Free the dynamically allocated memory when done

free(dynamicArray);

} else {

printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

return 0;

```

Dynamic memory allocation provides flexibility but requires proper management to avoid memory leaks
or accessing memory after it has been freed. Always remember to free dynamically allocated memory
using the `free` function to prevent memory leaks.

8 With a suitable example, explain dynamic memory allocation for 2-d arrays. 6 Jul17

Jul 19

ANS-Dynamic memory allocation for a 2D array involves creating a matrix (2D array) with variable
dimensions determined at runtime. C provides a way to achieve this using pointers and dynamic memory
allocation functions like `malloc`, `calloc`, `realloc`, and `free`.
Here's an example of dynamic memory allocation for a 2D array:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

// Declare variables for dimensions

int rows, cols;

// Get dimensions from the user

printf("Enter the number of rows: ");

scanf("%d", &rows);

printf("Enter the number of columns: ");

scanf("%d", &cols);

// Declare a pointer to a pointer to int (int**)

int **matrix;

// Allocate memory for the rows

matrix = (int **)malloc(rows * sizeof(int *));

// Check if memory allocation is successful

if (matrix == NULL) {
 printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

return 1; // Exit with an error code

// Allocate memory for each column in every row

for (int i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {

matrix[i] = (int *)malloc(cols * sizeof(int));

// Check if memory allocation is successful for each row

if (matrix[i] == NULL) {

printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

// Free previously allocated memory

for (int j = 0; j < i; ++j) {

free(matrix[j]);

free(matrix);

return 1; // Exit with an error code

// Input values into the 2D array

printf("Enter elements of the matrix:\n");

for (int i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {

 for (int j = 0; j < cols; ++j) {

scanf("%d", &matrix[i][j]);

// Display the 2D array

printf("Entered matrix:\n");

for (int i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {

for (int j = 0; j < cols; ++j) {

printf("%d\t", matrix[i][j]);

printf("\n");

// Free the allocated memory

for (int i = 0; i < rows; ++i) {

free(matrix[i]);

free(matrix);

return 0; // Exit successfully

```

In this example:
- The user is prompted to enter the number of rows and columns.

- Memory is dynamically allocated for the rows using `malloc` and then for each column in every row.

- The program then reads the elements of the 2D array from the user.

- It displays the entered matrix.

- Finally, it frees the dynamically allocated memory to avoid memory leaks.

This program demonstrates dynamic memory allocation for a 2D array, allowing the creation of matrices
with sizes determined at runtime.

9 What is the difference between int*a and int a[5] and int*[5]? 6 Jan 19

The declarations `int* a`, `int a[5]`, and `int* a[5]` are different and represent different types in C.

1. **`int* a`:**

- This declares a pointer to an integer.

- The variable `a` is a pointer that can store the memory address of an integer variable.

- Example:

```c

int num = 42;

int* a = &num; // 'a' is a pointer to an integer

```

2. **`int a[5]`:**
 - This declares an array of integers with a fixed size of 5.

- The variable `a` is an array that can store five integer values.

- Example:

```c

int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // 'a' is an array of integers

```

3. **`int* a[5]`:**

- This declares an array of pointers to integers with a fixed size of 5.

- The variable `a` is an array where each element is a pointer to an integer.

- Example:

```c

int num1 = 10, num2 = 20, num3 = 30, num4 = 40, num5 = 50;

int* a[5] = {&num1, &num2, &num3, &num4, &num5}; // 'a' is an array of pointers to integers

```

In summary:

- `int* a`: Pointer to an integer.

- `int a[5]`: Array of integers with a fixed size of 5.

- `int* a[5]`: Array of pointers to integers with a fixed size of 5.

It's essential to understand the difference, as they have distinct use cases and behaviors. The array of
pointers allows you to have an array where each element points to an integer, providing flexibility in
managing dynamic memory and data structures.

10 Write a C program using pointers to swap two (numbers) characters. 6 Jan 18,Feb 23

Jan 19.

Jan 20

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C program using pointers to swap two characters:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function to swap two characters using pointers

void swapChars(char *a, char *b) {

char temp = *a;

*a = *b;

*b = temp;

int main() {

char char1, char2;

// Input two characters from the user

printf("Enter the first character: ");

 scanf(" %c", &char1); // Note the space before %c to consume any leading whitespace

printf("Enter the second character: ");

scanf(" %c", &char2);

// Display the original characters

printf("Original characters: char1 = %c, char2 = %c\n", char1, char2);

// Swap the characters using the swapChars function

swapChars(&char1, &char2);

// Display the swapped characters

printf("Swapped characters: char1 = %c, char2 = %c\n", char1, char2);

return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `swapChars` function takes two character pointers as parameters and swaps the values they point
to.

- The `main` function declares two characters (`char1` and `char2`).

- The user is prompted to input two characters.

- The original characters are displayed.

- The `swapChars` function is called to swap the values of `char1` and `char2`.
- The swapped characters are displayed.

This program demonstrates how to use pointers to swap the values of two characters in C.

11 What is a pointer variable? How do you declare and initialize the pointers?

How do you access the value pointed by a pointer?

8 Jul17

Jul 19

ANS-**Pointer Variable:**

A pointer variable in C is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. It "points" to the
location in memory where a specific value is stored. Pointers play a crucial role in dynamic memory
allocation, data structures, and efficient manipulation of data.

**Declaration and Initialization of Pointers:**

To declare a pointer variable, you specify the data type followed by an asterisk (`*`), and then the
variable name. Here's the general syntax:

```c

datatype *pointerVariable;

```

- `datatype`: The data type of the variable that the pointer will point to.

- `pointerVariable`: The name of the pointer variable.

To initialize a pointer, you can either assign it the address of an existing variable or use the `NULL`
pointer constant to indicate that the pointer doesn't currently point to a valid memory location. Here are
examples:

```c

int *intPointer; // Declaration of an integer pointer

double *doublePointer; // Declaration of a double precision floating-point pointer

int number = 42;

int *ptrToNumber = &number; // Initialization with the address of 'number'

char *charPointer = NULL; // Initialization with NULL (no valid address assigned yet)

```

**Accessing the Value Pointed by a Pointer:**

To access the value pointed to by a pointer, you use the dereference operator (`*`). Here's how you can
access the value stored at the memory location pointed to by a pointer:

```c

int number = 42;

int *ptrToNumber = &number; // Pointer initialized with the address of 'number'

// Accessing the value pointed to by 'ptrToNumber'

int value = *ptrToNumber;

// Now, 'value' contains the value stored at the memory location pointed to by 'ptrToNumber'

```
In the example above, `*ptrToNumber` is used to access the value stored at the memory location
pointed to by `ptrToNumber`. It's important to note that the data type of the pointer should match the
data type of the variable it points to, ensuring correct interpretation of the data at that memory location.

12 Write a C program to find the smallest element in the array (using

pointer and function?

6 Jul18,

Jul19,

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C program that finds the smallest element in an array using pointers and a
function:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function to find the smallest element in the array

int findSmallestElement(int *arr, int size) {

// Assume the first element is the smallest

int smallest = *arr;

// Iterate through the array to find the smallest element

for (int i = 1; i < size; ++i) {

if (*(arr + i) < smallest) {

smallest = *(arr + i);

}
 return smallest;

int main() {

int size;

// Input the size of the array

printf("Enter the size of the array: ");

scanf("%d", &size);

// Declare an array of the given size

int array[size];

// Input elements into the array

printf("Enter %d elements:\n", size);

for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {

scanf("%d", &array[i]);

// Find the smallest element using the function and pointers

int smallestElement = findSmallestElement(array, size);

// Display the result

printf("The smallest element in the array is: %d\n", smallestElement);

 return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `findSmallestElement` function takes a pointer to an array and its size as parameters.

- It uses a pointer to iterate through the array and find the smallest element.

- The `main` function prompts the user to input the size of the array and its elements.

- It then calls the `findSmallestElement` function to find the smallest element.

- The result is displayed.

This program demonstrates how to use pointers and functions to find the smallest element in an array.

13 What do you mean by casting pointers? Give example. 6 Jan 18,

Jul 19

ANS-**Casting Pointers:**

Casting pointers involves converting a pointer from one data type to another. This is done to allow the
pointer to point to a different type of data or to suppress type mismatch warnings. Casting pointers
should be done with caution, as it can lead to undefined behavior if not done correctly.

Here's a simple example to illustrate casting pointers:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int integerVariable = 42;

double doubleVariable = 3.14;

// Declare two pointers of different types

int *intPointer = &integerVariable;

double *doublePointer = &doubleVariable;

// Cast the int pointer to a void pointer

void *voidPointer = (void *)intPointer;

// Cast the void pointer back to an int pointer and dereference it

int result = *((int *)voidPointer);

// Print the result

printf("Original Integer: %d\n", integerVariable);

printf("Result after casting: %d\n", result);

return 0;

```
In this example:

- An `int` variable (`integerVariable`) and a `double` variable (`doubleVariable`) are declared.

- Two pointers (`intPointer` and `doublePointer`) are declared, pointing to their respective variables.

- The `intPointer` is then cast to a `void` pointer (`voidPointer`).

- The `voidPointer` is cast back to an `int` pointer, and the value it points to is dereferenced and stored in
the `result` variable.

- The result is printed to the console.

This example demonstrates casting an `int` pointer to a `void` pointer and then back to an `int` pointer.
While casting pointers, it's crucial to ensure that the types are compatible to prevent unintended
consequences and undefined behavior. In practice, casting pointers is often necessary when working
with generic interfaces or handling memory allocation.

14 What is pointer to an array and array of pointers? Explain with example. 6

Jan 19

ANS-**Pointer to an Array:**

A pointer to an array is a pointer that points to the first element of an array. The syntax involves
declaring a pointer and assigning it the address of the first element of the array.

```c

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

int *ptrToArray = arr; // Pointer to the first element of 'arr'

```

In this example, `ptrToArray` is a pointer to the first element of the array `arr`. You can use pointer
arithmetic to access other elements of the array through the pointer.

```c

printf("First element: %d\n", *ptrToArray); // Accessing the first element

printf("Second element: %d\n", *(ptrToArray + 1)); // Accessing the second element

```

**Array of Pointers:**

An array of pointers is an array where each element is a pointer. Each pointer can point to an individual
variable or the first element of an array.

```c

int num1 = 10, num2 = 20, num3 = 30;

int *arrPtr[3] = {&num1, &num2, &num3}; // Array of pointers

```

In this example, `arrPtr` is an array of pointers. Each element of the array (`arrPtr[0]`, `arrPtr[1]`,
`arrPtr[2]`) is a pointer pointing to an integer variable.

You can access the values through these pointers:

```c

printf("Value pointed by arrPtr[0]: %d\n", *arrPtr[0]);

printf("Value pointed by arrPtr[1]: %d\n", *arrPtr[1]);

printf("Value pointed by arrPtr[2]: %d\n", *arrPtr[2]);

```

These concepts become particularly useful in scenarios where you need to work with arrays and pointers
simultaneously. For example, arrays of pointers are commonly used in implementing arrays of strings or
dynamic arrays. Pointer to an array can be useful when you need to pass an entire array to a function.

15 What is dangling pointer reference and how to avoid it?

8 Jan 19

ANS-**Dangling Pointer:**

A dangling pointer is a pointer that continues to point to a memory location after the memory has been
freed or deallocated. Dereferencing a dangling pointer can lead to undefined behavior, as the memory it
points to may have been reallocated for other purposes or might not be accessible anymore.

Dangling pointers often arise in the following scenarios:

1. **Freeing Memory and Keeping the Pointer:**

```c

int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int));

free(ptr);

*ptr = 42; // Dangling pointer

```

2. **Returning Local Variable Address:**

 ```c

int *getLocalAddress() {

int num = 42;

return &num; // Dangling pointer when the function returns

int *ptr = getLocalAddress();

*ptr = 42; // Dangling pointer

```

**Avoiding Dangling Pointers:**

To avoid dangling pointers, consider the following best practices:

1. **Nullify Pointers After Freeing:**

```c

int *ptr = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int));

free(ptr);

ptr = NULL; // Nullify the pointer

```

2. **Avoid Returning Pointers to Local Variables:**

```c

int *getLocalAddress() {

int *num = (int *)malloc(sizeof(int));

 *num = 42;

return num; // Correct: Memory is dynamically allocated

int *ptr = getLocalAddress();

free(ptr);

```

3. **Use Smart Pointers (in C++):**

In C++, smart pointers (e.g., `std::shared_ptr`, `std::unique_ptr`) automatically manage the memory
they point to, reducing the chances of dangling pointers.

4. **Be Careful with Pointer Arithmetic:**

When using pointer arithmetic, be cautious to avoid going out of bounds of the allocated memory.

5. **Avoid Using Pointers After Scope Exit:**

Avoid using pointers to local variables outside their scope.

By following these practices, you can minimize the chances of encountering dangling pointers and
improve the robustness of your code. Always ensure that pointers are either pointing to valid memory
locations or are set to `NULL` after the memory they point to has been freed

16 What are the various memory allocation techniques? Explain how

memory can be dynamically allocated using malloc()?

8 Jul 17,

Jul 19,
Jan20

ANS-**Memory Allocation Techniques:**

Memory allocation in programming involves reserving a block of memory to store data. There are two
main techniques for memory allocation:

1. **Static Memory Allocation:**

- Memory is allocated at compile-time.

- The size is fixed and determined before the program runs.

- Variables are created with a fixed size.

- Example: Array declarations, global variables.

```c

int arr[5]; // Static memory allocation

```

2. **Dynamic Memory Allocation:**

- Memory is allocated at runtime.

- The size can be determined during program execution.

- Dynamic allocation is done using pointers and specific functions (e.g., `malloc`, `calloc`, `realloc`).

- Example: Pointers and data structures like linked lists, trees.

```c

int *dynamicArray = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int)); // Dynamic memory allocation

```
**Dynamic Memory Allocation using `malloc()`:**

The `malloc()` function in C (Memory Allocation) is used to dynamically allocate a specified number of
bytes of memory. It stands for "memory allocation." The syntax is as follows:

```c

void *malloc(size_t size);

```

- `size`: The number of bytes to allocate.

- Returns a pointer to the beginning of the allocated memory block.

Here's an example demonstrating dynamic memory allocation using `malloc()`:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {

int *dynamicArray;

int size;

// Input the size of the array from the user

printf("Enter the size of the array: ");

scanf("%d", &size);
// Dynamically allocate memory for the array

dynamicArray = (int *)malloc(size * sizeof(int));

// Check if memory allocation is successful

if (dynamicArray == NULL) {

printf("Memory allocation failed.\n");

return 1; // Exit with an error code

// Input values into the dynamically allocated array

printf("Enter %d elements:\n", size);

for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {

scanf("%d", &dynamicArray[i]);

// Display the entered array

printf("Entered array:\n");

for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {

printf("%d ", dynamicArray[i]);

// Free the dynamically allocated memory

free(dynamicArray);
 return 0; // Exit successfully

```

In this example:

- The user is prompted to input the size of the array.

- Memory is dynamically allocated for the array using `malloc()`.

- Values are input into the dynamically allocated array.

- The entered array is displayed.

- Finally, the dynamically allocated memory is freed using `free()` to prevent memory leaks.

Remember to always check if the allocation was successful (i.e., the returned pointer is not `NULL`) and
to free the allocated memory when it is no longer needed.

17 List and explain the functions supported by C for dynamic allocation. 6 Jan 19

18 Consider two polynomials A(x)=2x1000 + 1 and B(x)= x

4+10x3+3x2+1,

show diagrammatically how these two polynomials can be stored in a

single 1-D array. Also give its C representation.

6 Feb 23

ANS-**Functions Supported by C for Dynamic Allocation:**

C provides several functions for dynamic memory allocation, primarily through the `<stdlib.h>` header.
Here are some commonly used functions:

1. **`malloc(size_t size)`:**

- Allocates a specified number of bytes of memory.

- Returns a pointer to the beginning of the allocated memory block.

```c

int *arr = (int *)malloc(5 * sizeof(int));

```

2. **`calloc(size_t num, size_t size)`:**

- Allocates memory for an array of elements, initializing all bytes to zero.

- Returns a pointer to the beginning of the allocated memory block.

```c

int *arr = (int *)calloc(5, sizeof(int));

```

3. **`realloc(void *ptr, size_t size)`:**

- Changes the size of the previously allocated block of memory.

- Returns a pointer to the beginning of the reallocated memory block.

```c

int *newArr = (int *)realloc(arr, 10 * sizeof(int));

```
4. **`free(void *ptr)`:**

- Deallocates the memory block previously allocated by `malloc`, `calloc`, or `realloc`.

- The pointer `ptr` should point to a memory block previously allocated with one of the allocation
functions.

```c

free(arr);

```

These functions are essential for managing dynamic memory in C. It's important to handle dynamic
memory carefully to avoid memory leaks and undefined behavior.

**Representation of Polynomials in a Single 1-D Array:**

For representing polynomials in a single 1-D array, you can use an array to store the coefficients. The
index of the array corresponds to the power of the variable. For example:

Consider the polynomials:

- \( A(x) = 2x^{1000} + 1 \)

- \( B(x) = x^4 + 10x^3 + 3x^2 + 1 \)

To represent these polynomials in a single 1-D array, you can create an array where each index
corresponds to the power of \( x \), and the value at that index is the coefficient:

```c

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 1001 // Size of the array (maximum power + 1)

int main() {

int A[SIZE] = {0}; // Initialize array for A(x) with zeros

int B[SIZE] = {0}; // Initialize array for B(x) with zeros

// Assign coefficients for A(x)

A[1000] = 2;

A[0] = 1;

// Assign coefficients for B(x)

B[4] = 1;

B[3] = 10;

B[2] = 3;

B[0] = 1;

// Display the representation of A(x)

printf("A(x): ");

for (int i = SIZE - 1; i >= 0; --i) {

if (A[i] != 0) {

printf("%dx^%d ", A[i], i);

if (i > 0) {

printf("+ ");

}
 }

printf("\n");

// Display the representation of B(x)

printf("B(x): ");

for (int i = SIZE - 1; i >= 0; --i) {

if (B[i] != 0) {

printf("%dx^%d ", B[i], i);

if (i > 0) {

printf("+ ");

printf("\n");

return 0;

```

This program represents \( A(x) \) and \( B(x) \) in a single 1-D array using the indices as the powers of \
( x \) and the values as the coefficients. The representations are then displayed.

19 For the given sparse matrix and its transpose, give the triplet

representation using one dimensional array. A is the given sparse

matrix, b will be its transpose

5 Jul 18, March 21

ANS-

```

A sparse matrix is a matrix that contains a significant number of zero elements. The triplet
representation of a sparse matrix is a compact way of representing the non-zero elements using an array.
Each non-zero element is represented by a triplet (row, column, value).

Let's consider a sparse matrix \( A \) and find its triplet representation. We'll then compute the transpose
matrix \( B \) and represent it as well.

**Given Sparse Matrix \( A \):**

```

A=|00010|

|02000|

|00300|

|40005|

```

**Triplet Representation of \( A \):**

```

| Row | Column | Value |

|-----|--------|-------|

|0 |3 |1 |

|1 |1 |2 |

|2 |2 |3 |
|3 |0 |4 |

|3 |4 |5 |

```

Now, let's find the transpose matrix \( B \) and its triplet representation:

**Transpose Matrix \( B \):**

```

B=|0004|

|0200|

|0030|

|1000|

|0005|

```

**Triplet Representation of \( B \):**

```

| Row | Column | Value |

|-----|--------|-------|

|0 |3 |4 |

|1 |1 |2 |

|2 |2 |3 |

|3 |0 |1 |

|4 |4 |5 |

```
The triplet representation is obtained by iterating through the matrix, identifying the non-zero elements,
and storing their row, column, and value in a one-dimensional array. The arrays for both \( A \) and \( B \)
can be used to efficiently represent and process sparse matrices.

20 What is a polynomial? What is the degree of the polynomial? Write a

function to add two polynomials?

5 March 22

ANS-**Polynomial:**

A polynomial is a mathematical expression consisting of variables (or indeterminates) and coefficients,

combined using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents. The general
form of a polynomial is:

\[ P(x) = a_nx^n + a_{n-1}x^{n-1} + \ldots + a_2x^2 + a_1x + a_0 \]

Here:

- \( P(x) \) is the polynomial.

- \( x \) is the variable.

- \( a_n, a_{n-1}, \ldots, a_2, a_1, a_0 \) are coefficients.

- \( n \) is the degree of the polynomial, representing the highest power of \( x \) with a non-zero
coefficient.

**Degree of a Polynomial:**
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of the variable in that polynomial. It is determined by
finding the largest exponent with a non-zero coefficient.

For example, in the polynomial \( P(x) = 3x^4 - 2x^2 + 5x + 1 \), the degree is 4 because the term with \
( x^4 \) has the highest power.

**Function to Add Two Polynomials:**

Here's a simple C function to add two polynomials. The function takes the coefficients and degrees of
two polynomials as input and returns the coefficients of the sum polynomial:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#define MAX_DEGREE 100

// Function to add two polynomials

void addPolynomials(int coef1[], int deg1, int coef2[], int deg2, int result[]) {

int maxDegree = (deg1 > deg2) ? deg1 : deg2;

for (int i = 0; i <= maxDegree; ++i) {

result[i] = 0; // Initialize result coefficients

if (i <= deg1) {

result[i] += coef1[i]; // Add coefficients from the first polynomial

}
 if (i <= deg2) {

result[i] += coef2[i]; // Add coefficients from the second polynomial

int main() {

int coef1[] = {3, 0, -2, 5, 1}; // Coefficients of the first polynomial: 3x^4 - 2x^2 + 5x + 1

int deg1 = 4; // Degree of the first polynomial

int coef2[] = {2, 0, 4}; // Coefficients of the second polynomial: 2x^2 + 4

int deg2 = 2; // Degree of the second polynomial

int result[MAX_DEGREE + 1]; // Coefficients of the result polynomial

// Add two polynomials

addPolynomials(coef1, deg1, coef2, deg2, result);

// Display the result polynomial

printf("Resultant Polynomial: ");

for (int i = deg1; i >= 0; --i) {

printf("%dx^%d ", result[i], i);

if (i > 0) {

printf("+ ");
 }

printf("\n");

return 0;

```

This program defines a function `addPolynomials` that adds two polynomials and a `main` function to
demonstrate its usage. The result is displayed in the standard polynomial form.

21 For a given sparse matrix A and its transpose, give the triplet

representation. A is the given sparse matrix, and B will be its transpose.

6 Jun17, Jan 18,

Jan 19

ANS-Sure, let's consider a sparse matrix \( A \) and find its triplet representation. We will then compute
the transpose matrix \( B \) and represent it as well.

**Given Sparse Matrix \( A \):**

\[ A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & 0 & 0 \\ 4 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 5 \
end{bmatrix} \]

**Triplet Representation of \( A \):**

\[
\begin{align*}

&\begin{bmatrix} \text{Row} & \text{Column} & \text{Value} \\ 0 & 3 & 1 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 2 & 3 \\ 3 &
0 & 4 \\ 3 & 4 & 5 \end{bmatrix}

\end{align*}

\]

Now, let's find the transpose matrix \( B \) and its triplet representation.

**Transpose Matrix \( B \):**

\[ B = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 4 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 5 \
end{bmatrix} \]

**Triplet Representation of \( B \):**

\[

\begin{align*}

&\begin{bmatrix} \text{Row} & \text{Column} & \text{Value} \\ 0 & 3 & 4 \\ 1 & 1 & 2 \\ 2 & 2 & 3 \\ 3 &
0 & 1 \\ 4 & 4 & 5 \end{bmatrix}

\end{align*}

\]

In the triplet representation, each row corresponds to a non-zero element in the matrix, and the
columns represent the row index, column index, and the value at that position. For \( A \), we have
identified the non-zero elements as \( \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\} \) and their corresponding positions. The same
process is applied to find the triplet representation of \( B \), which is the transpose of \( A \).

22 Write a program that reads a character string and finds the number of
vowels and consonents in it?

6 Jul 19

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C program that reads a character string and finds the number of vowels
and consonants in it:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <ctype.h> // For using isalpha() and tolower()

// Function to count vowels and consonants in a string

void countVowelsAndConsonants(const char *str, int *vowels, int *consonants) {

*vowels = 0;

*consonants = 0;

while (*str != '\0') {

char ch = tolower(*str); // Convert to lowercase for case-insensitive comparison

if (isalpha(ch)) {

if (ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u') {

(*vowels)++;

} else {

(*consonants)++;

}
 str++;

int main() {

char inputString[100];

// Input a string from the user

printf("Enter a string: ");

fgets(inputString, sizeof(inputString), stdin);

// Remove the newline character from the input (if present)

if (inputString[strlen(inputString) - 1] == '\n') {

inputString[strlen(inputString) - 1] = '\0';

int numVowels, numConsonants;

// Count vowels and consonants using the function

countVowelsAndConsonants(inputString, &numVowels, &numConsonants);

// Display the result

printf("Number of vowels: %d\n", numVowels);

printf("Number of consonants: %d\n", numConsonants);

 return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `countVowelsAndConsonants` function takes a character string, and two pointers to integers
(`vowels` and `consonants`) are used to store the counts.

- The function iterates through each character in the string, converts it to lowercase for case-insensitive
comparison, and checks whether it is a vowel or a consonant using the `isalpha()` function.

- The `main` function reads a string from the user using `fgets`, removes the newline character from the
input (if present), and then calls the `countVowelsAndConsonants` function.

- Finally, the program displays the counts of vowels and consonants.

23 Write a program to determine whether the given string STR is palindrome

or not?

6 Jan 19

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C program that determines whether a given string is a palindrome or not:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

#include <ctype.h>

// Function to check if a string is a palindrome

int isPalindrome(const char *str) {

int length = strlen(str);

int start = 0;

int end = length - 1;

while (start < end) {

// Skip non-alphanumeric characters from the beginning

while (!isalnum(str[start]) && start < end) {

start++;

// Skip non-alphanumeric characters from the end

while (!isalnum(str[end]) && start < end) {

end--;

// Compare the characters (case-insensitive)

if (tolower(str[start]) != tolower(str[end])) {

return 0; // Not a palindrome

// Move to the next pair of characters

start++;

end--;

}
 return 1; // Palindrome

int main() {

char inputString[100];

// Input a string from the user

printf("Enter a string: ");

fgets(inputString, sizeof(inputString), stdin);

// Remove the newline character from the input (if present)

if (inputString[strlen(inputString) - 1] == '\n') {

inputString[strlen(inputString) - 1] = '\0';

// Check if the input string is a palindrome

if (isPalindrome(inputString)) {

printf("The string is a palindrome.\n");

} else {

printf("The string is not a palindrome.\n");

return 0;

```
In this program:

- The `isPalindrome` function checks if a given string is a palindrome.

- It uses two pointers (`start` and `end`) to compare characters from the beginning and end of the string.

- Non-alphanumeric characters are skipped, and the comparison is case-insensitive.

- The `main` function reads a string from the user, removes the newline character, and calls the
`isPalindrome` function to determine if the string is a palindrome or not.

24 What is an algorithm? Explain the criteria that an algorithm must satisfy? 4 Jan 18,

Jan 19

ANS-**Algorithm:**

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or a set of rules for performing a specific task or solving a
particular problem. It is a finite sequence of well-defined, unambiguous instructions that, when
executed, produce a certain output or achieve a specific goal. Algorithms are fundamental to computer
science and programming, providing a systematic way to approach problem-solving and computation.

**Criteria for a Good Algorithm:**

An algorithm must satisfy several criteria to be considered effective and useful. These criteria ensure that
the algorithm is well-defined, efficient, and applicable to the intended problem. The key criteria for a
good algorithm include:

1. **Well-Defined Steps:**
 - The algorithm must have clear, unambiguous, and well-defined steps. Each step should be precisely
articulated, leaving no room for interpretation or confusion.

2. **Finiteness:**

- The algorithm must have a finite number of steps. It should eventually terminate after a finite number
of operations, providing a result or output within a reasonable amount of time.

3. **Input:**

- The algorithm should specify the input it expects, including the format and constraints. It must be
able to handle a range of inputs within its defined scope.

4. **Output:**

- The algorithm should produce a well-defined output or result based on the given input. The output
should satisfy the requirements of the problem it is designed to solve.

5. **Correctness:**

- The algorithm should produce the correct output for all valid inputs. It must accurately solve the
problem it was designed for, meeting the specified requirements.

6. **Efficiency:**

- An algorithm should be efficient in terms of time and space complexity. It should use resources (such
as CPU time and memory) reasonably and not be overly complex or wasteful.

7. **Robustness:**

- The algorithm should be robust, meaning it should handle unexpected inputs or edge cases gracefully,
without crashing or producing incorrect results.

8. **General Applicability:**
 - An ideal algorithm should be designed to solve a general class of problems rather than being specific
to a single instance. It should be adaptable to various scenarios within its problem domain.

9. **Independence:**

- The steps of the algorithm should be independent of the underlying hardware or programming
language. It should provide a solution that is platform-independent and language-agnostic.

10. **Ease of Understanding:**

- An algorithm should be designed and documented in a way that is easy to understand and
implement. It should be readable, maintainable, and comprehensible to others.

By adhering to these criteria, algorithms become reliable tools for problem-solving, providing a
structured and systematic approach to computation.

25 Write a function to sort integers using selection sort algorithm. 6 Jul 19

ANS-Certainly! The selection sort algorithm works by repeatedly finding the minimum element from the
unsorted part of the array and putting it at the beginning. Here's a simple C function that implements
the selection sort algorithm to sort an array of integers:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function to perform selection sort on an array of integers

void selectionSort(int arr[], int n) {

int i, j, minIndex, temp;

 for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) {

// Assume the current index is the minimum

minIndex = i;

// Find the index of the minimum element in the unsorted part

for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++) {

if (arr[j] < arr[minIndex]) {

minIndex = j;

// Swap the found minimum element with the first element

temp = arr[minIndex];

arr[minIndex] = arr[i];

arr[i] = temp;

// Function to print an array

void printArray(int arr[], int size) {

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {

printf("%d ", arr[i]);

printf("\n");

}
int main() {

int arr[] = {64, 25, 12, 22, 11};

int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);

printf("Original array: ");

printArray(arr, n);

// Perform selection sort

selectionSort(arr, n);

printf("Sorted array: ");

printArray(arr, n);

return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `selectionSort` function performs the selection sort algorithm on an array of integers. It uses two
nested loops to iterate through the array, finding the minimum element in the unsorted part and
swapping it with the first element of the unsorted part.

- The `printArray` function is a utility function to print the elements of an array.

- In the `main` function, an array is initialized, and its original and sorted versions are printed before and
after applying the selection sort algorithm.
You can use this as a template for sorting other arrays of integers using the selection sort algorithm.

26 Give ADT of sparse matrix and show with suitable example sparse

matrix representation storing triples. Give sample transpose function to

transpose function to transpose sparse matrix.

8 Jan 2017

Jan 18,

Jan 19

ANS-**Abstract Data Type (ADT) of Sparse Matrix:**

A sparse matrix is a matrix in which a large number of elements are zero. To represent a sparse matrix,
an abstract data type (ADT) can be defined. The ADT for a sparse matrix typically includes the following
operations:

1. **Initialization:** Initialize an empty sparse matrix.

2. **Insertion:** Insert a non-zero element at a specified position in the matrix.

3. **Deletion:** Delete a non-zero element from a specified position in the matrix.

4. **Access:** Retrieve the value of a specified element in the matrix.

5. **Transpose:** Compute the transpose of the sparse matrix.

6. **Display:** Display the contents of the sparse matrix.

**Sparse Matrix Representation (Triple Representation):**

One common way to represent a sparse matrix is using a triplet format. Each non-zero element is
represented by a triple (row, column, value). Here is an example:

Consider the following sparse matrix:

```

A=|00010|

|02000|

|00300|

|40005|

```

The triplet representation for this sparse matrix is:

```

| Row | Column | Value |

|-----|--------|-------|

|0 |3 |1 |

|1 |1 |2 |

|2 |2 |3 |

|3 |0 |4 |

|3 |4 |5 |

```
**Sample Transpose Function:**

Here's a sample C function to compute the transpose of a sparse matrix using the triplet representation:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Structure to represent a triplet (row, column, value)

struct Triple {

int row;

int col;

int value;

};

// Function to compute the transpose of a sparse matrix

void transposeSparseMatrix(struct Triple A[], int numRows, int numCols, struct Triple B[]) {

int numTerms = A[0].value; // Number of non-zero terms in A

int rowTerms[numCols]; // Count of non-zero terms in each column of A

int startingPos[numCols]; // Starting position of each column in B

// Initialize rowTerms and startingPos arrays

for (int i = 0; i < numCols; i++) {

rowTerms[i] = 0;

startingPos[i] = 0;

}
 // Count the number of non-zero terms in each column of A

for (int i = 1; i <= numTerms; i++) {

rowTerms[A[i].col]++;

// Calculate the starting position of each column in B

startingPos[0] = 1;

for (int i = 1; i < numCols; i++) {

startingPos[i] = startingPos[i - 1] + rowTerms[i - 1];

// Transpose the matrix

for (int i = 1; i <= numTerms; i++) {

int j = startingPos[A[i].col]++;

B[j].row = A[i].col;

B[j].col = A[i].row;

B[j].value = A[i].value;

// Set the properties of the transpose matrix

B[0].row = numCols;

B[0].col = numRows;

B[0].value = numTerms;

}
// Function to display a sparse matrix

void displaySparseMatrix(struct Triple matrix[]) {

int numRows = matrix[0].row;

int numCols = matrix[0].col;

int numTerms = matrix[0].value;

printf("Sparse Matrix Representation:\n");

printf("| Row | Column | Value |\n");

printf("|-----|--------|-------|\n");

for (int i = 1; i <= numTerms; i++) {

printf("| %-3d | %-6d | %-5d |\n", matrix[i].row, matrix[i].col, matrix[i].value);

printf("\n");

int main() {

// Example sparse matrix A

struct Triple A[] = {

{4, 5, 5},

{0, 3, 1},

{1, 1, 2},

{2, 2, 3},
 {3, 0, 4},

};

int numRowsA = 4;

int numColsA = 5;

// Display original sparse matrix A

printf("Original Sparse Matrix A:\n");

displaySparseMatrix(A);

// Transpose matrix B

struct Triple B[A[0].value + 1];

transposeSparseMatrix(A, numRowsA, numColsA, B);

// Display transposed sparse matrix B

printf("Transposed Sparse Matrix B:\n");

displaySparseMatrix(B);

return 0;

```

In this example:

- The `struct Triple` represents a triplet (row, column, value).

- The `transposeSparseMatrix` function calculates the transpose of a sparse matrix A and stores the
result in matrix B using the triplet representation.

- The `displaySparseMatrix` function is a utility function to display the contents of a sparse matrix.

This program demonstrates the triplet representation and the transpose operation for a sample sparse
matrix. The matrix A and its transpose B are displayed for verification.

27 Write the Knuth morris pratt pattern matching algorithm and apply the

same to search the pattern ‘abcdabcy’ in the text

‘abcxabcdabxabcdabcabcy’.

6 Jan 18,

Jan 19

ANS-The Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP) algorithm is a linear-time pattern matching algorithm used to search
for occurrences of a pattern in a text. It avoids unnecessary comparisons by exploiting information about
the pattern itself. Below is the implementation of the KMP algorithm in C and its application to search for
the pattern 'abcdabcy' in the text 'abcxabcdabxabcdabcabcy':

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

void computeLPSArray(char* pattern, int M, int* lps) {

int len = 0;

int i = 1;

lps[0] = 0;
 while (i < M) {

if (pattern[i] == pattern[len]) {

len++;

lps[i] = len;

i++;

} else {

if (len != 0) {

len = lps[len - 1];

} else {

lps[i] = 0;

i++;

void KMPSearch(char* pattern, char* text) {

int M = strlen(pattern);

int N = strlen(text);

// Create an array to store the longest prefix suffix values for the pattern

int lps[M];

computeLPSArray(pattern, M, lps);
 int i = 0; // Index for the text

int j = 0; // Index for the pattern

while (i < N) {

if (pattern[j] == text[i]) {

j++;

i++;

if (j == M) {

printf("Pattern found at index %d\n", i - j);

j = lps[j - 1];

} else if (i < N && pattern[j] != text[i]) {

if (j != 0) {

j = lps[j - 1];

} else {

i++;

int main() {

char text[] = "abcxabcdabxabcdabcabcy";

char pattern[] = "abcdabcy";

 printf("Text: %s\n", text);

printf("Pattern: %s\n", pattern);

printf("Indices where pattern is found:\n");

KMPSearch(pattern, text);

return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `computeLPSArray` function computes the Longest Prefix Suffix (LPS) array for the pattern.

- The `KMPSearch` function performs the actual pattern matching using the computed LPS array.

- The `main` function provides an example where the pattern 'abcdabcy' is searched in the text
'abcxabcdabxabcdabcabcy'.

When you run this program, it will output the indices where the pattern is found in the given text. In the
provided example, the pattern 'abcdabcy' is found at index 15 in the text.

28 Write a C function to concatenate Fname an Lname of a person without

using any library functions.

6 Jan 2017, feb 22

ANS-Certainly! Here's a simple C function to concatenate the first name (`Fname`) and last name
(`Lname`) of a person without using any library functions:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function to concatenate first name and last name

void concatenateNames(const char* Fname, const char* Lname, char* fullName) {

// Copy the characters of Fname to fullName

int i = 0;

while (Fname[i] != '\0') {

fullName[i] = Fname[i];

i++;

// Concatenate a space

fullName[i] = ' ';

i++;

// Copy the characters of Lname to fullName

int j = 0;

while (Lname[j] != '\0') {

fullName[i + j] = Lname[j];

j++;

}
 // Add the null terminator at the end

fullName[i + j] = '\0';

int main() {

char firstName[] = "John";

char lastName[] = "Doe";

char fullName[50]; // Assuming the maximum length of the full name is 50 characters

// Concatenate names using the function

concatenateNames(firstName, lastName, fullName);

// Display the concatenated full name

printf("Full Name: %s\n", fullName);

return 0;

```

In this program:

- The `concatenateNames` function takes the first name (`Fname`), last name (`Lname`), and an array
(`fullName`) as parameters.

- It uses two loops to copy the characters of `Fname` and `Lname` into `fullName` and inserts a space
between them.
- The `main` function provides an example where the first name "John" and last name "Doe" are
concatenated, and the result is displayed.

Note: Make sure that the `fullName` array has enough space to accommodate both the first and last
names along with the space in between. Adjust the array size accordingly based on your requirements.

29 What do you mean by pattern matching? Let P and T be strings with

lengths R and S respectively and are stored as arrays with one character

per element. Write a pattern matching algorithm that finds index P in T.

Also discuss about this algorithm.

8 Jan 18,

Jan 19

ANS-**Pattern Matching:**

Pattern matching refers to the process of finding the occurrences of a particular pattern within a larger
text or string. In the context of string processing, a "pattern" is a sequence of characters that you want to
find within another string, often called the "text" or "source."

The goal of a pattern matching algorithm is to determine whether the pattern occurs in the text and, if
so, at which position(s). This is a fundamental operation in computer science and is widely used in
various applications, including text processing, data mining, bioinformatics, and more.

**Brute-Force Pattern Matching Algorithm:**

A simple and straightforward pattern matching algorithm is the brute-force method. In this algorithm,
we compare the pattern with each possible substring of the text, moving one character at a time. The
algorithm involves checking whether the pattern matches the current substring at each position. If a
match is found, the starting index of the match is recorded.

Here's a basic implementation of the brute-force pattern matching algorithm in C:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

// Brute-force pattern matching algorithm

int bruteForcePatternMatching(char* pattern, char* text) {

int m = strlen(pattern);

int n = strlen(text);

for (int i = 0; i <= n - m; i++) {

int j;

for (j = 0; j < m; j++) {

if (text[i + j] != pattern[j]) {

break;

if (j == m) {

// Pattern found at index i

return i;

}
 }

// Pattern not found

return -1;

int main() {

char pattern[] = "P";

char text[] = "This is a sample text for pattern matching.";

// Perform pattern matching

int index = bruteForcePatternMatching(pattern, text);

if (index != -1) {

printf("Pattern found at index %d\n", index);

} else {

printf("Pattern not found in the text.\n");

return 0;

```

**Algorithm Discussion:**
1. The `bruteForcePatternMatching` function takes the pattern and text as input parameters.

2. It iterates through each possible starting position in the text where the pattern could match.

3. For each starting position, it compares the characters of the pattern with the corresponding characters
in the text.

4. If a complete match is found, the function returns the starting index of the match.

5. If no match is found after checking all possible starting positions, the function returns -1.

While the brute-force method is straightforward, it may not be the most efficient for large texts or
patterns. More advanced algorithms like the Knuth-Morris-Pratt (KMP) algorithm or the Boyer-Moore
algorithm offer better time complexity for pattern matching in certain cases.

30 List and explain in detail, three types of structures used to store the

strings.

ANS-There are several data structures used to store strings, each with its own advantages and use cases.
Here are three types of structures commonly used to store strings:

1. **Arrays of Characters:**

An array of characters is a simple and straightforward data structure for storing strings. In languages
like C, a string is represented as an array of characters terminated by a null character (`'\0'`). For
example:

```c

char str1[] = "Hello, World!";

```
 - **Advantages:**

- Simple and easy to use.

- Direct access to individual characters.

- Efficient for small strings with known sizes.

- **Disadvantages:**

- Fixed size, which may lead to memory wastage for variable-length strings.

- Inefficient for operations like insertion or deletion in the middle of the string.

2. **Linked Lists of Characters:**

A linked list of characters represents a string using a linked list structure, where each node contains a
character and a pointer to the next node. This dynamic structure allows for more flexibility in handling
variable-length strings:

```c

struct Node {

char data;

struct Node* next;

};

struct Node* head = NULL; // Head of the linked list

```

- **Advantages:**
 - Variable-length strings can be efficiently handled.

- Dynamic memory allocation allows for more flexibility.

- Supports easy insertion and deletion of characters.

- **Disadvantages:**

- Higher overhead due to the need for pointers.

- Sequential access is required for most operations.

3. **Dynamic Arrays (or Dynamic Strings):**

Dynamic arrays are resizable arrays that can grow or shrink in size dynamically. In some programming
languages, libraries or classes exist for dynamic strings, like `std::string` in C++. These structures
automatically manage memory and provide a flexible interface for string operations:

```c

// Using a dynamic array in C++

#include <string>

std::string str2 = "Hello, World!";

```

- **Advantages:**

- Resizable, accommodating variable-length strings efficiently.

- Dynamic memory management handled automatically.

- Supports a wide range of string operations efficiently.

 - **Disadvantages:**

- Overhead due to dynamic memory management.

- Implementation-dependent, and performance may vary.

Each of these structures has its own trade-offs, and the choice depends on the specific requirements of
the application. For small and fixed-size strings, arrays of characters may be sufficient. For variable-length
strings with dynamic operations, linked lists or dynamic arrays may be more appropriate. The choice
often depends on factors like memory efficiency, ease of use, and the operations required for a particular
application.