INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

Article | DOI: 10.2478/ijssis-2023-0009 Issue 1 | Vol. 16 (2023)

Multiple Sensor based Human Detection Robots: A Review

A. Vellingiri1, K. Mohanasundaram2,*,
K.S. Tamilselvan3, R. Maheswar 4
and N. Ganesh5 Abstract
1
KPR Institute of Engineering and Many natural disasters occur in today’s world, resulting in the loss
Technology, Coimbatore, India of human life. The application of sensor technology would not stop
natural disasters from happening, but it will help those who are
2
Department of EEE, KPR Institute
affected. It will take time and effort to find the humans who are still
of Engineering and Technology,
alive beneath the rubbles. Ordinary bots that are assigned to rescue
Coimbatore, India
missions involving the discovery of living humans trapped beneath
3
Department of ECE, KPR Institute massive piles of debris are ordinarily subject to repeated harm arising
of Engineering and Technology, from continuous contact with the damaged structures. As a result, a
Coimbatore, India significant demand for sensors exists. Sensors are becoming more
important as a means of gathering sensory data from the affected
4
Department of ECE, Center for
area. It is possible to locate humans who are still alive, as well as
IoT and AI (CITI), KPR Institute
ascertain the condition of victims who require immediate medical
of Engineering and Technology,
attention in order to survive, using this information. The primary goal
Coimbatore, India
of this study is to provide an overview of current sensor-based rescue
5
Department of Mechanical robot research. Several papers were reviewed in the areas of design,
Engineering, KPR Institute of interfacing, controlling, simulation, and applications. Furthermore,
Engineering and Technology, this review discusses the use of sensors in the detection of humans
Coimbatore, India as well as the potential for future developments.
*Email: mohanasundaram.k@kpriet.
ac.in Keywords
Sensors, controllers and drivers, GPS module, human detection,
This paper was edited by
natural calamities, SAR.
Subhas Chandra Mukhopadhyay.
Received: May 24, 2022

1. Introduction ­ rocesses whose satisfaction would be essen-

p
tial and indispensable for the sustenance of life,
A disaster, in general, is a sudden calamity that such as nutrition, health, and shelter, with the
causes significant damage to people’s lives and prop- extent of the deterioration depending on the
erty. Natural disaster damage is not quantifiable and severity and intensity of the disaster. A disaster
varies according to geographical location, climate, may well be described as a severe disturbance
and earth surface type/vulnerability. In general, a dis- in society as well as a loss in environmental
aster has the following effects on the affected areas: resources, the harm inflicted by which over-
whelms the ability of society to continue coping
1. It completely interferes with one’s normal daily with its limited resources.
life.
2. It has a negative impact on emergency response Many natural disasters occur in the modern world,
systems. resulting in the loss of life. We can’t stop natural
3. It results in the deterioration of the mecha- disasters from happening; however, we can assist
nisms in place for attending to the needs and those who are affected by them. Natural disasters

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A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

cause widespread devastation [1], which reduces processing into diverse structures, fiber-based strain
the amount of time available to search for and locate sensors are regarded as a crucial component of
survivors. During that time, it becomes difficult for smart wearables [8].
the rescue team to visit every location. Accordingly, Recent developments in the field of artificial intelli-
to arrive at any given location, the rescue operation gence (AI) have made it possible to build autonomous
always takes what may be construed as a prolonged machines, robots, and gadgets that are notably char-
duration of time starting from the time of disaster. This acterized by the capacity to make choices and carry
situation provides an opportunity to develop a system out activities without the involvement of humans [9].
for rescuing humans while they are still alive. The res- Applications for underwater wireless sensor networks
cue robot can play an important role in this situation (UWSNs) include underwater navigation, environ-
because it is controlled by a human via radio control. ment monitoring, and disaster management. Since
The robot can transmit live images and detect the UWSN nodes are constrained to internal batteries,
humans trapped beneath debris. efficient use of the energy supply becomes crucial
The detection of humans trapped alive beneath [10]. A low-cost robotic device with Raspberry PI as
debris [2] is a main role of the search and rescue an intermediate processor enables post-earthquake
(SAR) robot that works in both public and private set- human live detection, location tracking, environmen-
tings. Apart from safety concerns, the robot can use tal monitoring, and rescue operations. It utilizes radar
this data to plan and accept its next movement in the communication in areas with limited internet access,
surroundings by differentiating between humans and enhancing SAR efficiency [11]. The system uses an
non-animated objects. Onboard sensors are used ARM7 controller, a low-cost camera, and sensors
by the robot to observe the surrounding environ- for human detection. An unmanned vehicle with an
ment and estimate the current location [3] of all rel- infrared (IR) sensor navigates debris, transmitting
evant moving objects within range. Tracking analysis vital data via Zigbee for swift rescue operations [12].
can be used to classify these objects and determine A tested sensor system for detecting humans under
whether they are humans or not. Thanks to recent rubble was found effective, utilizing CO2 sensors for
research and development in mobile robotics and casualty localization and a microphone-based voice
improvements in the computational power of our recognition algorithm. The limitations of this sys-
devices, robots [4] can now process large amounts tem include the difficulty in enabling gas sensor use
of obtained data from the sensor, resulting in the in open spaces and the limited access of thermal
improvement of awareness concerning the situation. cameras [13].
As a result, robots have come into contact with a vari- The application of wireless sensor networks in
ety of other ground vehicles and semi-autonomous mobile rescue robots improves disaster response,
vehicles. ensuring no one is left behind. This system monitors
According to a survey conducted with regard to human presence, weather conditions, and victim loca-
the issue, although sensors are effective at predict- tion, enhancing data transmission efficiency and real-
ing disasters and managing the pre-disaster stage by time monitoring [14]. This is a cost-effective rescue
detecting water levels in floods and fire temperatures, robot that utilizes sensors for detecting living humans
their importance, effectiveness, and greatest impact who are trapped beneath debris and relaying infor-
lie in locating survivors and saving their lives by mation to the rescue team, and thus offers enhanced
detecting vital signs [5]. SAR operations in response reliability. In addition, enhancements are offered too,
to natural or human disasters have the primary goal like IR camera, global positioning system (GPS) sys-
of discovering and saving potential victims as quickly tem for precise location, global system for mobile
as possible; therefore, quick response and accurate communication (GSM) module for extended commu-
actions are required. While normal communications nication range, and metal/bomb detectors for added
may be disrupted, a wireless sensor network can be protection [15]. The Human Detection Robot detects
used to assist the rescue crew. This type of network, human presence by transmitting signals from a trans-
among other benefits, permits data collection close mitter to a receiver and notifying the user with con-
to events and allows persistence over time [6]. The tinuous buzzing. It moves in all directions to expand
topic of monitoring greatly benefits from the devel- the detection area, automatically navigating around
opment of wearable sensors as portable electronic obstacles [16]. The PC-managed robot uses a pas-
devices. Different systems have been suggested to sive infrared (PIR) sensor to detect living humans by
measure various parameters [7]. Because of their sensing their IR radiation, transmitting their location
lightweight design, flexible performance, and ease of wirelessly. This robot is suitable for disaster zones

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

and hazardous areas like boilers and reactors [17]. and Sallis [26] introduces a novel Bernoulli filter with
An autonomous vehicle with advanced sensors and determinantal point processes observations; this pro-
powerful motors saves lives during earthquakes, sur- posed observation model effectively selects groups
passing manual efforts in speed and effectiveness of detections based on high detection scores and low
[18]. A microwave-based life-detection system locates feature correlation, enhancing the filter’s robustness.
buried humans through rubble or other barriers. Oper- The global aviation industry has adopted new tech-
ating at 1150 MHz or 450 MHz, it detects breathing nologies to cope with the impact of the COVID-19
and heartbeat signals. Signal processing can address pandemic. An intelligent mobile robot system is
background noise and operator interference [19]. introduced for guiding passengers at busy airports
A new approach for detecting living humans in through voice communication and face detection.
disaster scenarios combines sensors, the ATMEGA16 The system demonstrates effectiveness in guiding
microcontroller, GSM technology, and programmable passengers to desired areas, as evidenced by the
logic controller (PLC) systems. This user-friendly, eco- implementation process and evaluation [27]. The
nomical, and efficient device provides timely rescue autonomous group interactions for robots (AGIR)
alerts and utilizes a range of sensors for detection framework enables a robot to detect and join social
[20]. A rescue robot aids in various rescue opera- groups based on F-formations, utilizing onboard sen-
tions, such as mining, urban ruins, and emergencies, sors. It detects individuals, estimates positions and
reducing personnel requirements and accessing orientations, identifies groups, and suggests robot
inaccessible areas. It utilizes PIR sensors, radio fre- positions. Simulated evaluations demonstrate high
quency (RF) technology, and ARM7 microcontroller accuracy and real-time performance, validating the
unit (MCU) for motion detection, control, and precise framework’s effectiveness [28].
location tracking [21]. Wearable devices have diverse functions and
Various models have been developed to detect applications, particularly in the medical and health
trapped humans during natural disasters and calam- fields. Cheng et al.’s review [29] highlights recent
ities. These models leverage advancements in advancements in wearable sensors and their role in
technology, such as high-speed technologies and monitoring physiological signals, evaluating body
growing computer capacity, to address challenges movement, and assessing environmental quality. The
involving the identification of human presence under goal is to provide insights and directions for future
debris and in hard-to-reach areas [22]. Ensuring development and wider adoption of wearable devices
secure over-the-air (OTA) software updates in smart across various domains [29]. By utilizing a Fourier
vehicles is crucial for preventing accidents, protecting series and a generalized likelihood ratio test, the sys-
lives, and minimizing property loss. Focus is placed tem accurately identifies breathing patterns and esti-
on maintaining data integrity and service integrity to mates the breathing rate [30]. From common electrical
enhance OTA software update service security in appliances to flourishing intelligent robots, the touch
smart vehicles, considering their impact on future sensor medium has been primarily used for informa-
vehicular applications [23]. Linearization schemes tion transmission between humans and machines.
address nonlinearity in sensing devices, enhancing The unavoidable mechanical wear and user-to-user
measurement accuracy. Different methods for line- transmission of pathogenic microorganisms are the
arizing sensor characteristics are explored, includ- only two serious issues that might arise from this type
ing analog and digital approaches. Analog methods of direct interaction [31]. In social settings and for col-
remain popular, while digital methods offer advan- laboration between teams of humans and robots, a
tages in terms of reduced time, cost, and improved robot’s capacity to recognize and join groups of peo-
accuracy through software techniques [24]. ple is becoming increasingly crucial [32].
Automation technologies leverage cameras and
sensors to collect data and recognize human activ- 2. Related Works
ities. Protecting data and preserving privacy are
paramount, especially when extracting sensitive infor- Several surveys and reviews on ground robot navi-
mation. Jung’s analysis [25] explores current research gation using sensors in both structured and unstruc-
trends, techniques, and challenges in privacy- tured environments have been published in the
preserving human and human-activity recognition. literature. For this purpose, the study of Kabilan et al.
On the other hand, modern visual tracking systems [33] introduces the use of a Raspberry PI with a mid-
rely heavily on the object detection system’s effi- range processor, which was used to develop a robotic
ciency and robustness. The study by Hernández device that can capture human lives upon earthquake

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A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

detection, in addition to being capable of GPS track- of a reduction in power and a minimal cost of image
ing, monitoring of environmental present condition, processing. Finally, it will use a ZigBee Transceiver to
and live video streaming. Many existing systems’ receive the affected human’s longitudinal and latitu-
advantages have been validated and covered by the dinal location and display it on a monitor to expedite
developed device. In the event of natural disaster, the the rescue operation.
machine can also be used to rescue people. Due to In the research of Will et al. [36], a millimeter
the lack of Internet access in these areas, radar com- wave radar system operating at 24 GHz is proposed
munication is preferred over Internet of Things (IoT) in for detecting, tracking, and classifying human tar-
a real-time system. For this project, Kabilan et al. [33] gets. It utilizes linear frequency modulation, multiple
developed a low-cost, self-contained rescue robot. chirps, and advanced signal processing algorithms
With the help of this robot, the success and efficiency to accurately measure distance, angle, and velocity.
of SAR operations can be improved. The module’s The system successfully detects and tracks multiple
functionality was double-checked after it was assem- humans while distinguishing them from other targets.
bled. The robotic device is capable of detecting Izzeldin et al. [37] describe a mobile robot system
humans remaining alive in a post-earthquake situa- with camera-based target detection, as well as ther-
tion; additionally, the device was also endowed with mal and ultrasonic sensors, that has been developed
the capabilities for GPS tracking, monitoring the envi- for autonomous rescue missions in disaster areas. It
ronmental condition, and live video streaming, which effectively detects trapped human victims, enables
were imbibed in it through the use of Raspberry PI. obstacle avoidance, and provides real-time moni-
It has been tested and found to outperform a num- toring through a wireless sensor network, ultimately
ber of already developed systems. The device can reducing human losses and mitigating the impact of
also perform rescue operations in the event of natu- disasters. A device is developed to locate trapped
ral calamities. Radar communication would be pref- individuals in collapsed buildings during natural dis-
erable to IoT in a real-time system because Internet asters. By detecting volatile organic compounds
access would be limited in these areas. (VOCs) and carbon dioxide levels, the device can
Uddin and Islam [34] developed a semi- determine the presence and approximate location of
autonomous mobile rescue robot with PIR sensors trapped individuals, improving rescue missions and
that can detect living humans in an inaccessible loca- potentially saving more lives. In the research of Sikhin
tion in a disaster zone. The robot is controlled and and Harikrishnan [38], it was ascertained that this
communicated with using a joystick and RF technol- system holds applications also in security and sur-
ogy. A gas sensor detects gas leaks inside the build- veillance. According to Lu et al. [39], a high-sensitivity
ing, while an ultrasonic sensor detects obstacles in humidity sensor based on grapheme-anchored pol-
the robot’s path of travel. Additionally, internet pro- yamide 66 enables noncontact human–machine
tocol (IP) cameras are used to monitor and analyze interaction (HMI). This revolutionary technology allows
conditions that will assist human detection in the for noncontact asthma detection, remote alarm sys-
most flexible and successful manner possible. tems, and touchless interfaces in medicine delivery. It
In Muralidhara et al. [35], the authors proposed a denotes the ushering-in of a new era of HMI, reduc-
system for the detection of living humans that cap- ing mechanical wear and cross-infection risks, and
tures images and detects human bodies in disasters offers a strategy for developing smart electronics with
using an ARM7 controller and a low-cost camera noncontact interaction.
with high efficiency. In this example, the Viola–Jones Forest fires pose a serious threat to the environ-
algorithm is implemented using MATLAB software. ment and biodiversity. Early detection is crucial, and
The information about an active human presence will an automated fire alert system is proposed in the
be updated using a set of sensors, including a pulse study of Dasari et al. [40]. This system utilizes smoke
sensor and a temperature sensor. The IR sensor is and fire sensors to detect changes in physical quan-
also used to avoid obstacles. As soon as it detects tities and remotely alerts users via a GSM module. It
a human alive, it uses a sensor to check the affected was rightly pointed out by Dasari et al. [40] that this
victim’s pulse rate and body temperature, and then approach improves forest fire surveillance and ena-
sends this information, as well as the GPS location, bles timely intervention to mitigate damage. Seth et
to the base station through ZigBee module. This al. [41] propose that an autonomous vehicle is real-
method necessitates far fewer images and lesser ized by employing a convolutional neural network
data collection for processing during transmission; (CNN), Raspberry Pi 4, and a 1/10th scale radio-
additionally, it is also characterized by the benefits controlled (RC) car. The system incorporates a

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

camera and ultrasonic sensor for enhanced func- According to the authors, each country is to build a
tionality. Noteworthy aspects include system design, rescue machine that can crawl through earthquake
computer-aided design (CAD) modeling, and track and landslide debris while maintaining signal strength
construction, enabling the training and testing of with low-cost boosters. The robot is capable of mon-
the vehicle’s self-driving capability. This implemen- itoring audio/video using a digital camera with a
tation holds potential for applications in education light-emitting diode (LED) torch. The vehicle’s move-
and robotics, as well as among autonomous vehicle ment is controlled wirelessly, and it exchanges data
enthusiasts. with Wi-Fi beacons. It can also provide a more con-
Dong et al. [42] assert that unmanned aerial vehi- venient way to move in all types of terrain and locate
cles (UAVs) with thermal imaging are essential for victims by using a carbon dioxide sensor.
rapid SAR during natural disasters. A new thermal In the study of Denker and İşeri [47], the research-
image dataset captured by drones is utilized, train- ers have developed SALVOR [47], a mobile SAR.
ing survivor detection models such as YOLOV3 and SALVOR’s operation is based in part on data from
YOLOV3-MobileNetV1. The network is optimized its environmental sensors and in part on instructions
for real-time performance on NVIDIA’s Jetson TX2, from human operators. The robot’s movements were
enabling a survivor detection system on DJI Matrice controlled by a remote controller. Control actions in
210 and Manifold 2-G for post-disaster SAR opera- a robotic system are implemented using Arduino.
tions. As emphasized by Gunawan et al. [43], meth- To receive control commands, the robot commu-
ods for measuring high dynamic range (HDR) image nicates with the operator. The operator can decide
quality are crucial for enhancing user satisfaction what to do with the environmental data that the robot
in HDR-based visual services. The high sensitiv- receives from its sensory components. After a deci-
ity of the human visual system to distortions in HDR sion to take action is made, this process continues
images poses a challenge. Two common methods to work for continuous movement. It does, however,
of HDR image generation are discussed, and the provide information about its surroundings in order to
predominance of full-reference and no-reference gain access to the situation.
quality models is highlighted. There is potential for Hatano [48] developed a robot with two arms –
the development of reduced-reference HDR image this, in turn, will be placed on a moving robot and
quality assessment approaches. A low-cost auton- will perform rescue tasks under harsh conditions.
omous underwater vehicle (AUV) is developed with However, blemishes and defects on the road surface
6-DOF capabilities, employing sensors like a low-cost can be expected to cause undesirable vibrations as
inertial measurement unit (IMU), magnetometer, and well as jerking motions when the robot is moving
water pressure sensor. Onboard instruments and a on rough terrain; such a characteristic would imply
PC104-based data logger collect and process data, that usage of this device, especially with regard to
while real-time validations through hardware-in-the- its particular intended utility in rescuing humans
loop (HIL) simulations confirm the feasibility of the trapped under debris and transporting them to con-
identification methods. It was declared by Hassanein ditions where medical facilities would be available,
et al. [44] that experimental results demonstrate the might cause a negative effect on the victim being
effectiveness of the adaptive controller in controlling rescued, the rescuer, and even the robot itself. Thus,
the AUV’s dynamics in various conditions. Abdul Rauf in order to address this limitation, the author pro-
et al.’s study [45] mentions that the position estima- posed a joint module that reduces impact vibration
tion in UAVs without GPS using simultaneous local- from the environment by using magnetorheological
ization and mapping (SLAM) techniques has been a (MR) fluid.
prominent research area in aerial robotics. Existing Yan et al. [49] proposed a robot that can detect
methods employing sensors like red green blue- living humans. During SAR operations, this provides
depth (RGB-D), light detection and ranging (LiDAR), invaluable assistance and protection to rescue work-
and ultra-wideband (UWB) are reviewed, with prob- ers. This was accomplished by sensing the body
ability-based SLAM (linear Kalman filter [LKF] and temperature of living humans without actually touch-
extended Kalman filter [EKF]) being commonly uti- ing them. In this robot, a thermal sensor, a microcon-
lized. Aerial robots have various applications such as troller, a gas sensor, an high-definition (HD) wireless
rescue, transportation, and military operations. camera, and a variety of other modules collaborate to
In the study of Chowdhury et al. [46], a solution find living victims. To operate the robot’s movements
has been implemented for the creation of a res- and display sensor output values, an Android appli-
cue robot for detecting humans alive in the rubble. cation is being developed.

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A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

Figure 1: Identification of victims in two levels.

3. Methodology This algorithm sends a signal to the ARM7 micro-

controller via the universal serial bus – universal asyn-
This developed robot is controlled by a joystick, chronous receiver and transmitter (USB-UART) cable
which allows the user to maneuver it easily. The RF when it detects a human body. When the system
module is placed to ensure that the system’s data detects a human body, this information will be dis-
are transferred reliably within the disaster zone. played on the liquid crystal display (LCD), as a means
Although there are a variety of sensors and features of sharing the output with the controller. The vehicle
on the market for urban search and rescue (USAR) then moves a short distance toward the injured per-
robots, they are prohibitively expensive. On the other son. Then, using a temperature sensor, pulse sen-
hand, the sensors used in this project are low-cost sors are used to check the affected human’s pulse
and widely available. To reduce power consumption rate in order to determine whether or not the human
and improve rescue speed, the authors of this paper is alive. An unmanned vehicle [50] with a GPS mod-
developed a system with two levels of human sens- ule receives latitude and longitude coordinates from a
ing. A PIR sensor is the first level that detects humans satellite. When the face is detected, the ARM7 micro-
through their radiated IR wave, and an IP camera on controller receives a control signal. Once information
the second level confirms the presence of humans is received that a human has been discovered in a
in disaster-affected areas. The system is reliable for disaster area, the vehicle’s trip to the precise spot is
rescue missions due to the two-level human detec- then initiated, so that the web camera attached to the
tion system (Figure 1). vehicle can capture a more accurate image of the vic-
tim. The Viola–Jones algorithm would then be used
3.1. Viola–Jones Algorithm to identify the living human displayed in the image.

The MATLAB software is used for image process- 3.2. Signal Strengthening with Dijkstra’s
ing algorithms. The Viola–Jones algorithm is used
Algorithm
to detect objects in the vision cascade object
detector. This algorithmic approach can detect a
wide range of modules, including human faces and The system calculates and stores the shortest dis-
upper bodies. Accordingly, the algorithm-based tance between the beacons and the main routers
upper body model is used to enable the robot’s using Dijkstra’s algorithm. The shortest path is used
visual system (including the camera and the logical to relay the signal from the robot to the base. The
circuitry triggering an alert in the case of finding of authors’ main goal was to build an all-terrain robot
a potential match) to recognize humans buried or that could traverse a variety of surfaces, as well as
trapped in the debris. climb to new heights and inclined planes.

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

3.3. D
 etection of Human Presence and therefore that many of the humans trapped inside
Indoor Localization must still be alive. Various mechanisms can be used
to translate the CO2 levels in the air into digital infor-
CO2 sensors and a thermal camera are used to mation, so as to render it suitable for transmission;
accomplish this task. When the CO2 level rises for example, the MQ-7 gas sensor outputs an analog
above a predetermined threshold, the sensor acti- voltage based on the amount of CO2 in the air. Also,
vates the buzzer, signaling the presence of humans some barometric sensors, such as the BMP-280,
or animals exhaling CO2. Furthermore, the thermal were used to determine the bot’s altitude, indicat-
camera detects heat emitted from the human body, ing which floors it was on. Thermal camera sensors
allowing the system to distinguish between a dead were also used, arranged in the form of an 8 × 8 array
and living person. grid-eye that is capable of detecting humans within a
2-m range. Further, a 4-W LED flash light, which can
3.4. SAR Using RF Technology be switched on and off from a distance, was used.
Sharmin et al. [51] further decide to include a small
Efforts were made by Sharmin et al. [51] to develop audio signal receiver (walkie-talkie) on board that can
a low-cost SAR. Since inexpensiveness of the communicate with another one at the station within
end-product was a principal objective motivat- 1 km. As a result, rescuers will be able to communi-
ing the development of this project, the research- cate with the people at the station.
ers ensured that it was created to be low-cost and This robot uses four transmission channels in
simple to build using readily available components, its transmission parts, but each channel operates
thus making it suitable for developing countries like at a different frequency range. The transmitter and
Bangladesh. Because it can be controlled wirelessly receiver on Channel 1 use a 2.4 GHz frequency;
[52] from a station, without requiring specialized and this has as its purpose the robot’s move-
knowledge in robot operation, this developed robot ments in response to user commands. With a fre-
will provide valuable information to human rescu- quency range of 433.4–473.0 MHz, Channel 2 of
ers. It uses the control station to send continuous the onboard HC-12 transceiver module transmits
thermal and video feeds, as well as sensory data all sensor data to the station. Channel 3, which
from the environment, from the disaster area to the operates at 5.8 GHz, involves the transmission of
linked web applications. Using a powerful remote- audio/video signals generated by a first-person view
controlled flash light, it can run through rough ter- (FPV) wide-angle camera with a microphone to the
rain in complete darkness [53]. It can detect and receiver station. Channel 4, which operates at a fre-
communicate with both living humans and rescuers quency of 462.5–462.6 MHz, is dedicated to the
within the rubble. This robot has a variety of features processing of human audio signals as part of the
that can be viewed. walkie-talkie system mentioned above.
Actually, there are three types of parts that make
up a robot design: mechanical parts, electrical parts, 3.4.1. Flow diagram
and transmission parts. When it comes to mechanical
parts, the presently discussed robot has four wheels The robot can be deployed at any point on the site in
on which electrical components were mounted using this flow diagram, while the operator remains safe on
screws and a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) board on the the outside. It can also transmit audio signals from
body of the vehicle. It also has four independent sus- sites whose location or present condition would
pension springs that are controlled by radio link. It necessitate assistance in establishing communica-
can therefore raise itself up slopes of up to 60º and tion with the outside world, in pragmatic terms with
run easily in a variety of terrain conditions. the operator of the robot or the team directing the
The electrical components include microproces- remote phase of the relief operations. Subsequently,
sors and Arduino UNO, which are commonly used the FPV and thermal cameras were placed in differ-
electrical components. Also, some gas sensors are ent locations. Now, the robot is perfectly equipped
used to detect the air quality and CO2 level of the to send the altitude of the human it finds to the res-
atmosphere within the debris, the intention being to cue team. There is also a website with two video
ascertain whether or not the humans inside are still feeds: one from the thermal and the other from the
alive; a greater proportion of CO2 inside may be a ten- FPV camera. Finally, the battery has a minimum run
tative indicator that there is respiration going on, and time of 30 min (Figure 2).

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A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

Figure 2: Flow diagram for rescue mission.

Sensor/sensing
Pros Cons Ref.
technology
Radar Long range It is expensive [4],[54]
No need for line of sight Interference
Offers possibility for computation of target velocity
Target tracking is possible
LiDAR Familiar in robotics High cost [2],[55]
Provides detailed information about Not able to measure distance
the environment given the prevalence of
conditions of heavy rain
(Continued)

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

(Continued)

Sensor/sensing
Pros Cons Ref.
technology
Magnetic It is able to detect metal objects Small range [56]

ToF camera Possible to provide in 3D measurements Less accuracy [57]

Resolution is low
Not possible to deploy in
outdoor operation
Acoustic Wide range Differs in acoustic [58]
Cost effective characteristics based on
different environments
Ultrasonic Wide range Sound is absorbed by [34],[59],[64]
Cost effective clothing and foliage
Optical Wide range Costly [60]
Target identification is easy Need of line of sight
IR and thermal Possibility of detecting a target in the dark In hot environments, [34],[51],[47]
detecting the target is
difficult
RF Easy to install Cables are required along [34],[51],
Affordable the perimeter [47],[61]
Long distance Volumetric range is limited
Motion It is possible to classify the type of Limited range [34],[35],[64]
intrusion based on structures
Cost effective
Seismic Exceptional stealth Differs in each environment [62]
IR, infrared; LiDAR, light detection and ranging; RF, radio frequency; ToF, Time of Flight.

4. Sensors Used in Robots TMP36, and TMP37 are some of the most commonly
used temperature sensors (Figures 3–5).
Many sensors are employed in robots to execute
specific tasks, and we will discuss the sensors and
their functions here.

4.1 A
 nalysis of Human Detection Sensor
with Graph

Various kinds of sensors, presented in the tables

forming part of the forthcoming sub-sections, can
be used to detect living victims under the rubbles. If
our robot is required to work in a desert and transmit
temperature data, a temperature sensor is a simple
solution. Low temperature sensor integrated circuits
(ICs) produce a voltage difference in response to
temperature changes. The ICs LM34, LM35, TMP35, Figure 3: Temperature sensor.

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A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

Figure 4: Gas sensor. Figure 5: PIR sensor. PIR, passive

infrared.

Figure 6: Percentage analysis graph for human detection sensors.

The diagram below (Figure 6) shows how sen- both classes of scenario. Additionally, the presented
sors perform detection under normal conditions, graph also shows differences in value obtained cor-
as well as the results obtained when they are navi- responding to when the human body is still, slowly
gated by 1 km, indicating the level of sensing under moving, or burned.

10
 4.2. Table for Analysis of Comparison Factor

Comparison factor
S. Paper name with Environmental
No. Ref. No. Obstacle Location Live Gas Pulse Temperature
Microphone condition
detection tracking streaming detection sensing sensing
monitoring
1 Living human detection ü û ü ü ü ü û ü
robot in earthquake
conditions [33]
2 SAR system for detection ü û û û ü ü û ü
of living humans by
semi-autonomous mobile
rescue robot [34]
3 Unmanned vehicle for ü û ü û û û ü ü
detection of living humans
during calamity [35]
4 Terminal analysis of the ü û û û ü ü û û
operation of a rescue
robot constructed for
assisting secondary
disaster situations [46]
5 A low cost USAR robot for ü ü û ü ü ü û ü
developing countries [61]
6 Design and ü û û ü ü ü û ü
implementation of a
semi-autonomous mobile
SAR robot [47]
7 Disaster response and ü û û û ü ü û ü
surveillance bot [61]
8 Ground robot for ü û ü û ü ü û ü
detection of living humans
in rescue operations [63]
SAR, search and rescue; USAR, urban search and rescue.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

4.3 Table for Analysis of Technology Comparison Factor

Technology comparison factor

S. No. Paper name with Ref. No. RF Zigbee Android
Bluetooth WiFi IoT
module module app
1 Living human detection robot in û ü û û û ü
earthquake conditions [33]
2 SAR system for detection of living ü û û û û û
humans by semi-autonomous mobile
rescue robot [34]
3 Unmanned vehicle for detection of living û û û û ü û
humans during calamity [35]
4 Terminal analysis of the operation of a û û ü û û û
rescue robot constructed for assisting
secondary disaster situations [46]
5 A low cost USAR robot for developing ü û û û û û
countries [61]
6 Design and implementation of a ü û û û û
semi-autonomous mobile SAR robot [47]
7 Disaster response and surveillance bot [61] ü û û û û û
8 Ground robot for detection of living û ü û û û ü
humans in rescue operations [63]
IoT, Internet of Things; RF, radio frequency; SAR, search and rescue; USAR, urban search and rescue.

4.4. Comparative Study

This comparative study will provide information on the difficulties associated with human detection in a variety
of areas and will assist in future measures aimed at overcoming the drawbacks.

S. No. Paper name Pros Cons Ref.

1 Living human detection Low cost Due to the lack of internet [33]
robot in earthquake More efficient connectivity under circumstances
conditions Live streaming of landslides and avalanches,
More suitable for landslides/ radar communication is preferred
avalanches rather than IoT
2 SAR system Low cost No location tracking and [34]
for detection of More reliable environment monitoring
living humans by Used sensors are cheap and
semi-autonomous easily available
mobile rescue robot Low power consumption
High efficiency
(Continued)

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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON SMART SENSING AND INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS

(Continued)

S. No. Paper name Pros Cons Ref.

3 Unmanned vehicle Low cost No live streaming and [35]
for detection of living More reliable environmental monitoring
humans during calamity Long distance communication
Low power consumption
4 Terminal analysis of the Optimum size and strength No location tracking [46]
operation of a rescue Simple and more reliable
robot constructed for Simple to navigate in all types of
assisting secondary terrain
disaster situations
5 A low-cost USAR robot With walkie-talkie on board, No location tracking [61]
for developing countries rescuers can communicate up to
1 km away
6 Design and Built with a CMOS camera for Camera connection is lost and [47]
implementation of a digital image production major issues on battery power
semi-autonomous
mobile SAR robot
7 Disaster response and Low power consumption No location tracking [61]
surveillance bot Easily controllable
Additionally, flame sensor is used
to detect presence of fire
Low cost and affordable
8 Ground robot for More accurate and efficient No environmental monitoring and [63]
detection of living Improved resuscitation services obstacle detection
humans in rescue for catastrophic victims
operations
CMOS, complementary metal oxide semiconductor; IoT, Internet of Things; SAR, search and rescue; USAR,
urban search and rescue.

4.5. Future Technologies

There are also developments that are underway
AI, the IoT, Big Data, and blockchain are all technol- involving the application of AI in the aftermath of natu-
ogies that are becoming increasingly sophisticated. ral disasters to search for people by listening for their
As a result, these technologies have the potential to breathing and monitoring their heartbeat for signs
help drastically increase disaster response and relief of life. Drones are used to provide supplies such as
capabilities. When innovative concepts and highly food, water, medication, and other materials, which
developed technologies are brought together, new can be delivered remotely.
developments in crisis management are produced.
6. C
 onclusions and Future Work
5. Applications
The focus of this article is on sensor-based SAR jobs,
In military contexts especially, identification of the specifically the mechanical structure, human detec-
presence of living humans in a certain area assumes tion abilities and correspondences, administrator
a vital importance. Further, bots can be used for interface, and programing design. Human detection
cartography and navigation in disaster zones in the is a difficult task that requires a significant amount of
aftermath of catastrophic events such as explosions, time to complete. To expedite the process and thus
accidents, terrorist attacks, and natural catastro- improve the likelihood of reaching a greater num-
phes. Robots are providing assistance to firefighters ber of injured persons alive, thereby saving precious
in various countries throughout the world. AI is being lives, we may recruit the aid of robotics technology,
utilized by bomb squads to assist in the defusing of which, through remotely controlled operations, can
explosives and the disposal of hazardous materials. be deployed in surveying the disaster area for signs

13
A review of sensor-based rescue robots: Vellingiri et al.

of life, so that human intervention can be directed at [2] Yan, Z., Duckett, T. and Bellotto, N “Online
the earliest toward those regions in the most urgent learning for 3D LiDAR-based human detection:
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detecting humans needing urgent aid and saving Technology Conference (R10-HTC), pp. 1–5, Dec 2015.
life. Furthermore, technological superiority ensures [4] Majer, F., Yan, Z., Broughton, G., Ruichek, Y.
that the sensory data sent to the base station are and Krajník, T., 2019, September. “Learning to see
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immobile and/or unable to communicate, in disaster- using sensors and supporting techniques” International
afflicted zones. In the future, we will be able to use the Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction Volume 82, 103295,
MATLAB simulation software tool to process images November 2022.
captured by robots and develop an algorithm for eval- [6] Juan Bravo Arrabal, Pablo Zambrana, J. J.
uating image parameters. Furthermore, we shall pay Fernandez-Lozano, Jose Antonio Gomez-Ruiz, Javier
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an effective means to reduce it. Deployment of Hybrid Wireless Sensor Networks
Based on ZigBee and LoRa for Search and Rescue
Applications” – Received April 7, 2022.
Funding [7] Yuemeng Cheng, Kan Wang, Hao Xu2, Tangan
Li1, Qinghui Jin, Daxiang Cui- “Recent developments in
This research was funded by the project
sensors for wearable device applications” – Springer 2021
“Development of Live Human detecting soft robot for
[8] Wenyue Li, Yanfen Zhou, Yuhao Wang, Liang
earthquake rescue operations” sponsored by DST/ Jiang, Jianwei Ma, Shaojuan Chen and Feng-Lei Zhou
TDT/DDP-44/2021. “Core–Sheath Fiber-Based Wearable Strain Sensor
with High Stretchability and Sensitivity for Detecting
Acknowledgments Human Motion”- Adv. Electron. Mater. 2000865, 2020.
[9] Kamel Boudjita and Naeem Ramzanb-
This work was supported by the project’s principal “Human detection based on deep learning YOLO-v2 for
investigator, Dr. K. Mohanasundaram, and co-principal real-time UAV applications” – Journal Of Experimental
investigator, Dr. K. Tamilselvan; and I express my & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 2021.
gratitude to both of them for allowing me to con- [10] Durairaj Anuradha, Neelakandan Subramani,
duct research at KPR Institute of Engineering and Osamah Ibrahim Khalaf, Youseef Alotaibi, Saleh
Alghamdi and Manjula Rajagopal – “Chaotic Search
Technology, as well as for their valuable time spent
and Rescue Optimization Based Multi Hop Data
developing and designing project work.
Transmission Protocol for Underwater Wireless Sensor
Networks,” Sensors, 2022.
Conflicts of Interest [11] R. Kabilan, K. Lakshmi Narayanan, M.
Venkatesh, V. Vikram Bhaskaran, G. K. Viswanathan,
No conflict of interest exists in relation to the present S. G. Yogesh Rajan, “Live Human Detection Robot in
research. Earthquake Conditions,” Recent Trends in Intensive
Computing, doi:10.3233/APC210286, 2021.
[12] Murulidhara T C, C. Kanagasabapthi, Siva
S Yellampalli “Unmanned Vehicle to Detect Alive
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