Geotechnical Engineering

1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering, as the name implies, concerns the applica-
tion of civil engineering technology to some aspect of the earth. Usually,
the geotechnical engineer is concerned only with the natural materials
found at or near the surface of the earth. Civil engineers call these earthen
materials soil and rock SOf/ in an engineering sense, is the relatively loose
agglomerate of mineral and organic materials and sediments found above
the bedrock. Soils can be relatively easily broken down into their con-
stituent mineral or organic particles. Roclcs, on the other hand, have very

mineral grains together. This is true whether the rock is massive bedrock or
a piece of gravel found in a clay soil. The dividing line between soil and
rock is arbitrary, and many natural materials encountered in engineering
practice cannot be easily classified. They may be either a “very soft rock”
or a “very hard soil.” Other scientific disciplines have different meanings
for the terms soil and rock. In geology, for example, rare means all the

mineral particles are bound together. Soils to a geologist are just decom-
posed and disintegrated rocks generally found in the very thin upper part
of the crust and capable of supporting plant life. Similarly, pedology (soil
science) and agronomy are concerned with only the very uppermost layers
of soil, that is, those materials relating to agriculture and forestry. Geotech-
nical engineers can learn much from both geology and pedology. Both

nical engineering and there is considerable overlap between these fields.

confusion, especially for the beginner.

2
Introductlon to Gaatachnlcal Angy ,j„g

Geotechnical engineering has several different aspects or emphases.

foil mechanics is the branch of geotechnical engineering concerned with
the engineering mechanics and properties of soil, whereas rock mechanics is
concerned with the engineering mechanics and properties of rock, usually
but not necessarily the bedrock. Soil mechanics applies the basic principles
of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and the
mechanics of materials to soils. In other words, soil rather than water or
stecl or concrete, for example, now becomes the engineering material
whose properties and behavior we must understand in order to build with
it or upon it. A similar comment could also be made for rock mechanics. It
should be noted, however, that there are significant differences between
the behavior of soil masses and rock masses, and in principle there is not

Foundation engineering applies geology, soil mechanics, rock mecha-

engineering esign an construction o ounda-
tions for civil engineering and other structures. The foundation engineer
must be able to predict the performance or response of the foundation soil
or rock to the loads imposed by the structure. Some examples of the kinds
of problems faced by the foundation engineer include foundations for

port structures for radar towers, as well as foundations for oil and other
kinds of tanks and offshore structures. Even ships must have a dry dock
during construction or repairs, and the dry dock must have a foundation.
The support of rockets and appurtenant structures during construction and
launch h
problems. Related geotechnical engineering problems facing the founda

of permanent and temporary earth-retaining structures, problems of con-

struction, controlling water movement and pressures, and even the mainte-
nance and rehabilitation of old buildin s. Not onl mu
safely support the static structural and construction loads, but it must also

If you think about it, it is impossible to design or construct any civil

ing oun ion soi
and rocks to some extent, and this is true whether the structure is built on
e eart or is extraterrestria . The performance, economy, and safety of
any civil engineerin structure ultimatel
controlled by its foundation.
Earth materials are often used as a construction material because
they are the cheapest possible building material. However, its engineering
properties such as strength and compressibility are often naturally poor,
and measures must be taken to densify, strengthen, or otherwise stabilize
and reinforce soils so that they will perform satisfactorily in service.
and aqueducts are examples of earth structures, and the geotechnical
engineer is responsible for their design and construction. Dam safety and
rehabilitation of old dams are important aspects of this phase of geotechni-
cal engineering. Also related, especially for highway and airfield engineers,
is the design of the final surface layer on the earth structure, the pavement.
Here the overlap between the transportation and geotechnical disciplines is

Rock engineering, analogous to foundation engineering for soils, is

concerned with rock as a foundation and construction material. Because
most of the earth’s surface is covered with soil (or water), rock engineering
usually occurs underground (tunnels, underground power houses, petro-
leum storaee rooms, mines, etc.). But sometime.s rrick engineering nectars at
the surface, such as in the case of building and dam foundations carried to
bedrock, deep excavations to bedrock, stability of rock slopes, etc.
In presenting some of the typical problems facing the geotechnical
engineer, we wanted you to see, first, how broad the field is and, second,
how important it is to the design and construction of civil engineering
structures. In a very real sense, geotechnical engineering combines the
basic physical sciences, geology and pedology, with hydraulic, structural,
transportation, construction, and mining engineering.

1 P THF I JNIf3UF NATI IRF OF SIIl

AND ROCK MATERIALS

Geotechnical engineering is highly empirical and is perhaps much

more of an “art” than the other disciplines within civil engineering because
of the basic nature of soil and rock materials They are often highly
variable, even within a distance of a few millimetres. Another way of
saying this is that soils are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials.
That is, their material or engineering properties may vary widely from

nonlinear materials; their stress-strain curves are not straight lines. To

further complicate things (as well as to make them interesting!) soils are
nonconser t›atit›e materials; that is, they have a fantastic memory—they
remember almost everything that ever happened to them, and this fact
strongly affects their engineering behavior. Instead of being isotropic, soils
are typically anisotropic, which means that their material or engineering

for the mechanical behavior of engineering materials assume that the

materials are homogeneous and isotropic, and that they obey linear stress-
strain laws. Common engineering materials such as steel and concrete do
 Introductlon to Geotechnlcal Engineering

not deviate too significantly from these ideals, and consequently we can
use, with discretion, simple linear theories to predict their response under
engineering ioaas. Witii soiis ana rocK, we are not so ioriunaie. as you
shall see in your study of geotechnical engineering, we may aisume a linear
stress-strain response, but then we must apply large empirical correction or
“safety” factors to our designs to account for the real material behavior.
Furthermore, the behavior of soil and rock materials in situ is often
r•nvi»rn s•n rar enntrn1l*•rl by jriin t<, tra etiires, weak layers anrl erines, srnrl
other “defects” in the material; yet our laboratory tests and simplified

of the soil and rock. That is why geotechnical engineering is really an “art”
rather than an engineering science. Successful geotechnical engineeñng
depends on the good judgment and practical experience of the designer,
constructor, or consultant. Put another way, the successful geotechnical
engineer must develop a “feel” for soil and rock behavior before a safe and
economic foundation design can be made or an engineering structure can
be safely built.

1.3 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY

Because of the nature of soil and rock materials, both laboratory and
field testing are very important in geotechnical engineering. One way that
student engineers can begin to develop a feel for soil and rock behavior is
to get some experience in the laboratt)ry by performing the standard tests
for classification and engineering properties on many different types of
soils and rocks. In this way the novice begins building up a “mental data
bank” of how certain soils and rocks actually look, how they might behave
should, for example, the amount of water present change, how they might
l• oh o xzo i i nr1r•r ri itfr•ron t tr in ri e ref r•n oi n r•r•ri n a Iron rlc n nr1 wh a I th e re ri oe nf
probable numerical values is for the different tests. This is sort of a
DK11 K@fifiW1 H81W88 àWm%DO, DW .à.W. MI.m88 WM mà m kmm%m “”‘“” - --”’ “"” “--‘-”
or rock type, you will in advance have some idea as to the engineering
proniems you wiii encounter at tnat site. r ou can also negin to juó ge, at
least qualitatively, the validity of laboratory and field test results for the
materials at that site. So laboratory as well as field experience is important
for vou to hem develon a “feel” for soil and rock behavior. Of course. iust
as with any other subject, this exposure in the laboratory to soil And rock
properties and behavior must be complemented by a diligent study of the
theoretical, empirical, and design components of geotechnical engineering
pi«cu c.
 1.4 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

Rather than attempt an all-inclusive approach to geotechnical en-

gineering, thG primary emphasis in this text will be on the engineering
behavior of soil materials. Soil mechanics and the analysis and design of
foundations and earth structures is generally a fairly straightforward, but
creative, application of mechanics, strength of materials, and elementary
structural engineering. Often the key in the successful practice and applica-
tioii of geotechnical engineering lies in a sound knowledge and understand-
ing of the engineering properties and behavior of soils in situ, when they
are subjected to their engineering loads and environmental conditions.
Therefore we feel that the beginning student must first develop an appreci-
ation for the engineering properties of soils as distinct from other common
civil engineering materials before proceeding to instruction in the analysis
and design phases of foundation and earthwork engineering.
This is an elementary text, and the approach we have tried to follow
is to emphasize the fundamentals, with an eye toward the practical
applications that you as a practicing civil engineer are likely to encounter
in your engineering practice. Finally, we hope you will know enough about
soils and soil deposits to avoid serious mistakes or blunders in those
aspects of your professional career that involve soil and soil materials.
In the first part of the book, we introduce some of the basic
definitions and index properties of soil that are used throughout the book.
Then some common soil classification schemes are presented. Classification
of soils is important because it is the “language” engineers use to com-
municate certain general knowledge about the engineering behavior of the
soils at a particular site. The rest of the book is concerned with the
engineering properties of soil, properties that are necessary for the design of
foundations and earth structures. Topics covered include how water affects
soil behavior, their shrinkage and swelling characteristics, and their per-
meability (how water flows through soils). Then we get into the compressi-
bility of soil, which is the important engineering property one needs to
predict the settlement of engineering structures constructed on soil masses.
Finally, we describe some of the elementary strength characteristics of
both granular and cohesive soils. Soil strength is important, for example,
for the design of foundations, retaining walls, and slopes.
Much of the practice of geotechnical engineering depends on topics
that include geology and the nature of landforms and soil deposits. You
• re strringly ericciuraged to take n physical • gerilogv or an engineering
geology course in connection with your studies of geotechnical engineer-

5
 InFoductlon to Geotechnical Engineering

It is hoped that with the background of this text, you will be prepared
ter a fwllm w up wm ui ac iii JuuiiJaiiuii aim cytr iii wuI k ciigiliccl iIig, ytju
should know how to obtain the soil properties required for most designs,
am you snoui‹i nave a pretty good idea as to the probable range of values
for a given property if you know the general classification of the soil.
Finally, you should have a fairly good idea of what to look for at a site,
how to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes, and be aware of your own
limitations and knowledge of soils as an engineering material.

1.5 SOIL FORMATION AND THE NATURE

OF SOIL CONSTITUENTS

‘hemical“ weathering’ d composes the m*nerals“in the“rocks by oxidation,

reuuciion, caroonaiion, am otner cnemicai processes. generally, cñ emicai
weathering is much more important than physical weathering in soil
formation. In short then, soils are the products of the weathering of rocks.
Soils at a particular site can be residual (that is, weathered in place) or
transported (moved by water, wind, glaciers, etc.), and the geologic history
of a particular deposit significantly affects its engineering behavior.
The nature of soil constituents is discussed in greater detail throughout
tiiis rtext. or now, we want to maxe a iew points just to set tne stage ior
what we are about to study. You already have a layman’s idea about soil.
At least you know in general what sand and grat›el are, and perhaps you
even have a eeneral idea about fine-erained soils such as .vi/r.t and r/m•
These terms have quite precise engineering definitions as we shall later
1.6 Hlstozlc•l Development of Geotechnical Engineering

see, but for now the general concept that soils are particles will suffice.
Particles of what? Well, usually particles of mineral matter or, more
simply, broken up pieces of rock that result from the weathering processes
we spoke of previously. If we just talk for now about the size of the

minerals, whereas sands are even smaller and each grain usually contains
only a single mineral. If you cannot sec each grain of a soil, then the soil is
either a silt or a clay or a mixture of each. In fact, natural soils generally
are a mixture of several different particle sizes and may even contain
organic matter. Some soils such as pe’at may be almost entirely organic.
Futhermore, because soils are a particulate material, they have voids, and
the vnids are isxua'lly filled with water and air It is the phyxicnl and
chemical interaction of the water and air in the voids with the particles of

behavior so complicated and leads to the nonlinear, nonconservative, and

anisotropic mechanical behavior we mentioned previously. Now, if you
add the variability and heterogeneity of natural soil deposits due to the
capriciousness of nature, you probably can begin to see that soils are
indeed complex engineering and construction materials. Helping you put
some order into 'this potentially chaotic situation is our primary objective

1.6 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

As long as people have been building things, they have used soils as a

Chinese, and Indians knew about constructing dikes and levees out of the
soils found in river flood plains. Ancient temples and monuments built all
around the world involved soil and rock in some way. The Aztecs con-
structed temples and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico
long before the Spaniards arrived in the New World. European architects
and builders during the Middle Ages learned about the problems of
settlements of cathedrals and large buildings. The most noteworthy exam-
ple is, of course, the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Scandinavians used timber
piles to support houses and wharf structures on their soft clays. The
“design” of foundations and other constructions involving soil and rock
was by rule of thumb, and very little theory as such was developed until
the mid-1700’s.
Coulomb is the most famous name of that era. ife was interested in
the problems of earth pressures against retaining walls, and some of his
calculation procedures are still in use today. The most common theory for
 Introduction to Gaotechnlcsl Enelneedng

the shear strength of soils is named after him. During the next century, the
French engineers Collin and Darcy (D’Arcy) and the Scotsman Rankine

with failures in clay slopes as well as the measurement of the shear strength
of clays. Darcy established his law for the flow of water through sands.
Rankine developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against
retaining walls. In England, Gregory utilized horizontal subdrains and
compacted earth-fill buttresses to stabilize railroad cut slopes.
By the turn of the century, important developments in the field took
place in Scandinavia, primarily in Sweden. Atterberg defined the con-
sistency limits for clays that are still in use today. During the period
1914 —1922, in connection with investigations of some important failures in
harbors and railroads, the Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State
Railways developed many important concepts and apparatuses in geotech-
nical engineering. Methods for calculating the stabilitY of slopes were
developed. They developed subsurface investigation techniques such as
weight sounding and piston and other types of samplers. They understood
important concepts such as sensitivity of clays and consolidation, which is

thought to be absolutely impervious, but the Swedes made field measure-

ments to show that they weren’t. The Commission was the first to use the
word geotechnical (Swedish: geotek niska) in the sense that we know it
today: the combination of geology and civil engineering technology.
Even with these early developments in Sweden, the father of soil
mechanics is really an Austrian, Prof. Karl Terzaghi. He published in 1925
the first modern textbook on soil mechanics, and in fact the name “soil
mechanics” is a direct translation of the German word erdbaumechanik,

very creative engineer. He wrote several important books and over 250
technical papers and articles, and his name will appear many times in this
book. He was a professor at Robert College in Istanbul, Technische
Hochschule in X’ienna, M. I. T., and at Harvard University from 1938 until
his retirement in 1956. He continued to be active as a consultant until his
death in 1963 at the age of 80.

mechanics is Prof. Arthur Casagrande, who was at Harvard University

from 1932 until 1969. You will see his name often in this book because he
made many important contributions to the art and science of soil mecha-
nics and foundation engineering. Other important contributors to the field
include Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff, Skempton, and Bjerrum. Since the
1950’s the field has grown substantially and the names of those responsible
fnr its rapid advancement are tr›r› numerr›ii.s tri mentirin
1 7 Notea on Svmbola and Unita

and engineering geology in the United States. Before the Second World
War, the subject was offered only as a graduate course in very few
universities. After the war, it became common for at least one course in the
subject to be required in most schools of civil engineering. In recent years
graduate programs in all phases of geotechnical engineering have been
implemented at many universities, and there has been a real information

published during the past two decades.

Important recent developments you should know about include de-
velopments in earthquake engineering and soil dynamics, the use of digital
computers for the solution of complex engineering problems, and the
introduction of probability and statistics into geotechnical engineering
analysis and design.

1.7 NOTES ON SYMBOLS AND UNITS

At the beginning of each chapter, we list the pertinent symbols

introduced in the chapter. As with most disciplines, a standard notation is
not universal in geotechnical engineering, so we have tried to adopt the
symbols most commonly used. For example› the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM, 1979) has a list of Standard Definitions of

653, which was prepared jointly some years ago with the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and the International Society of Rock Mecha-
nics (ISRM). Recently the International Society for Soil- lVlechanics and
Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE, 1977) published an extensive list of
symbols. Although there are some deviations from this list because of our
personal preference, we have generally tried to follow these recommenda-
tions.
Units used in geotechnical engineering can be politely called a mess

jumbled mixture of cgs-metric, Imperial or British Engineering units and

hybrid European metric units. With the introduction of the universal and
consistent system of units, “Le Systeme International d’Unités” (SI) in the
United States and Canada, we believe it is important that you learn to use
those units in geotechnical engineering practice. However since British
Engineering units are still commonly used, it is important that you become
familiar with the tvpical values of both sets of units. To assist you with unit
conversion where necessary, we have included a brief explanation of SI
 Index and Classification

2.2 lNTf3ODUGTlON
In this chapter we introduce the basic terms and definitions used by
geotechnical engineers to index and classify soils. The following notation is
used in this chapter.

Symbol Dimension Unit Definition

Activity (Eq. J-23)

Coefficient of’curvature (Eg. 2-20)
icient oormity Diameter for IN
finer by weight
3 me er or iner y wei
0 mmdiameter for 60% finer by weight
Void ratio (Eg. 2-1)
Liquidity index (Eq. 2-23)

kg Total mass
‘8 F'4ass of solids
k8 wa

PI or Ip Plasticity index (Eq. 2-22) Plastic

PL or »p limit
Oegree of saturation (Eg. 2-d)
SL OF 5hrinkage limit
*Pg to ume of air Total volume
er content
Total, wet, or moist density (Eg. 2-6)

Oiy density (Eg. 2-9)

kg/ maSaturated density (Eg. 2-10)

10
2.2 Baalc Definitions and Phase Relations

In this list, L = length and M -- mass. When densities of soils and

water arc expressed in kg/m', the numbers are rather large. For instance,
the density of water pp is lIXD kg/m°. Since 1000 kg = 1 Mg, to make the
numbers more manageable, we will usually use Mg/m' for densities. If you
are unfamiliar with SI metric units and their conversion factors. it would
be a good idea to read Appendix A before proceeding with the rest of this

RELATIONS

In general, any mass of soil consists of a collection of solid particles

with voids in between. The soil solids are small grains of different minerals,
whereas the voids can be filled either with water, air, or filled partly with
both water and air (Fig. 2.1). In other words, the total volume K, of the soil
mass consists of the volume of soil solids K, and thee volume of voids K,.

Fig. 2.1 Soil skeleton contain-

ing solid particles (S) and voids
witn air (A) anO water (W}.

the volume“of air K . We can schematically represent these three phases in

•t pnase âfa cam (Eig. 2.2j in wnicn eacn or me tnree pnases is siiown
separately. On the left side we usually indicate the volumes of the three
phases; on the right side we show the corresponding masses or the phases.
Even though only two dimensions are shown in the phase diagram, total
volume is any convenient unit volume such as m° or cm .
In engineering practice, we usually measure the total volume K„ the
mass of water 3fp, and the mass of dry solids M . Then we calculate the
cut or tire virtues ‹rim the mass-voiume reiaiionsñ ips tnat we neea. most or
these relationships are independent of sample size, and they are often
dimensionless. rhey are very simple and easy to remember, especially if
12 Index and Claoslfloatlon Propsrtlec où SO!!6

Volume Mass

V — Water --- @ " M

V,
M,
Fig. 2.2 Volumetric and mass
M,
relationships for a soil shown in a
phase dicgram.

you draw the phase diagram. They probably should be memorized, but as
you work phase problems memorization will occur almost automatically.
There are three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotechnical
engineering, and these can be determined é iirertlv from the phase diagram.
Fig. 2.2.
l. The aid ratio, e*, is defined as

where K, = volume of the voids, and

V —— volume of the solids.
The void ratio e i ri nnrm elly expresseü as a ‹:lerimal Th e frt0 EÎlYtllTT1
possible range of e is between 0 and co. However typical values of void
ratios for sands may range from 0.4 to about 1.0; typical values for clays
vary from 0.3 to 1.5 and even higher for some organic soils.
2. The porosiy ri is defined as

n —— —" ›( 100 (%)

(2-2)
i

K, = total volume of soil sample.

Porosity is traditionally expressed as a percentage. The maximum
range of ri is between 0 and lOOTo. from 2.2 and Eqs. 2-1 and 2-2, it can be
shown that
e
n -— (2-3a)
I -J- e
and
2.2 aactc Definitions end Phaas Rela€on•

3. The degree of saturation S is defined as

(2-4)

The degrcc of saturation tells us what percentage of the total volume of

voids contains water. If the soil is completely dry then S -— O'7o, and if the
pores are completely full of water, then the soil is fully saturated and
S -- l00To.
Now let us look at the other side, the mass side, of the phase diagram
ipt Fig 2 7. First let u.s define a mass ratio that is probably the single most
important thing we need to know about a soil. We want to know how
much water is present in the voids relative to the amount of solids in the
soil, so we define a ratio called the water content w as

(2-5)
M

= mass of soil solids.

The ratio of the amount of water present in a soil volume to the
amount of soil grains is based on the dry mass of the soil and not on the
tntal mass The water content, which is usually expressed as a percentage,
can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The natural
water content for most soils is well under lO()To, although it can range up to
500To or higher in some marine and organic soils.
The water content is easily determined in the laboratory. ASTM
(1980), Designation D 2216, explains the standard procedure. A repre-
sentative sample of soil is selected and its total or wet mass is determined.
Then the soil sample is dried to constant mass in an oven at }10°C.
Normally a constant mass is obtained after the sample is left in the oven
verni ht The mass or the drvine. dish mnst, of course. be subtracted from
both the wet and dry masses. Then the water content is calculated
according to Eq. 2-5. Example 2.1 illustrates how the calculations for water
content are actually done in practice.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Given:

A sample of wet soil in a drying dish has a mass of 462 g. After drying in
an oven at 1l0°C overnight, the sample and dish have a mass of 364 g. The
mass of the dish alone is 39 g.
11 Index and Classification Properties or Sotl•

Re

Solution:

Set up the following calculation scheme; fill in the “given” or measured

quantities (a), (b), and (d), and make the calculations as indicated for (c),
(e), and (f).
a. Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 462 g
b. Mass of dry sample + dish - 364 g
c. Mass of water (a — b) = 98 g
ass o is
e. Mass of dry soil (b — d) = 325 g
f. Water content (c/e) X 100To - 30.2%

ordinary chemical balance.

Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is density.

You hnow from physics that density is mass per unit volume, so its units
are kg/m’. (See Appendix A for the corresponding units in the cgs and
British Engineering systems.) The density is the ratio that connects the
volumetric side of the phase diagram with the mass side. There are several

define the total, wet, or moist density p, the density of the particles, solid
density p , and the density of water pp. Or, in terms of the basic masses
and volumes of Fig. 2.2:

(2-6)

(2-8)

In natural soils, the magnitude of the total density p will depend on

how much water happens to be in the voids as well as the density of the
mineral grains themselves, but p could range from slightly above 1 ITD
kg/m' to as high as 2400 kg/m 3 (1.0 to 2.4 Mg/m°). Typical values of p
for most soils range from 2500 to 2800 kg/m' (2.5 to 2.8 Mg/m'). Most
sands have p ranging between 2.6 and 2.7 Mg/m'. For example, a
2.2 Baalc Definitions and Phase Relations 15

common mineral in sands is quartz; its pq —- 2.65 Mg/m°. Mmt clay soils
have a value of p between 2.65 and 2.80 Mg/m', depending on the
prcdominant mineral in the soil, whereas organic soils may have a p as low
3
as 2.5 Mg/m . Consequently, it is usually close enough for geotechnical
work to asJume a p OI 2.65 or 7..70 Mg/m' for most phase problems, unless
a specific value of p, is given.
The density of water varies slightly, depending on the temperature.
when water is at its densest, pq exactly gquals 1t)£IO kg/m'
(l g/cm’), and this density is sometimes designated by the symbol p . For
ordinary engineering work, it is sufficiently accurate to take pp pp —— liXD
kg/m' = I Mg/m'.
There are three other useful densities in soils engineering. They are
the dry density pq, the saturated density p„ t , A nd the submerged or
buoyant density p’.

(2-9)

(2-10)

Strictly speaking, to tal p Should be us ed inlet i£d of pe , in Eq. 2-1 I, but in most
a
cases completely submerged soils are also completely saturated, or at least it is
reasonable to assume they are saturated. The diy density pp is a COlTlmOn
basis for judging the degree of compaction of earth embankments (Chapter 5). A
typical range of values of pg, pq , and p’ for several soil tvpex is shown in
Table 2- I
From the basic definitions provided in this section, other useful
relationships can be derived, as we show in the examples in the next
section.

TABLE 2-1 Some Typical Values for Different Densities of Some

Common Soil Materials’

• Modified after Hansbo (1975).

 2.3 SOLUTION OF PHASE PROBLEMS
Phase problems are very important in soils engineering, and in this
section, with the help of some numerical examples, we illustrate how mytt
phase problems can be solved. As is true for many disciplines, practice
helps; the more problems you solve, the simpler they become and the more
proficient you will become. Also, with practice you soon memorize m,ost of
the important definitions and relationships, thus saving the time of looking
up formulas later on.
Probably the single most important thing you can do in solving phase
problems is to draw a phase diagram. This is especially true for the
beginner. Don’t spend time searching for the o t rormula to plug into.
Instead, always draw a phase diagram and show both the given values and
the unknowns of the problem. For some problems, simply doing this
leads almost immediately to the solution; at least the correct approach to the
problem is usually indicated. Also, you should note that there often are
alternative approaches to the solution of the same problem as illustrated in
xamp

Given:

w —— l0To (Water content)

Compute pp (dry density), e (void ratio), n (porosity), S (degree of satura-

tinn) and p , fsaturated density).

Solution:

Draw the phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.2a). Assume that K, = 1 m .

From the definition of water content (Eq. 2-5) and total density (Eg. 2-
6) we can solve for M and Mp. Note that in the computations water content
is expressed as a decimal.

R -- 1.76 Mg/m' =
2.3 Solution of Phaes Problema 17

Fig. Ex. 2.2a

Substituting Mp -- 0.103f, we get

0.l0ñf, + M
I .76 Mg/m3 = I .0 m3
M -- 1.60 Mg and Mp -- 0.16 Mg
These values are now placed on the mass side of the phase diagram (Fig.
Ex. 2.2b), and the rest of the desired properties are calculated.
From the definition of pp (Eq. 2-8) we can solve for Pp.

or

Pg 1 Mg/m'
Place this numerical value on phase diagram, Fig. Ex. 2.2b.
To calculate . - e must assume a value of the density of the solids
p . Here assume p, -- 2.70 Mg/N. From the definition of p, (Eq. 2-7) we

Mass

Fig. Ex. 2.2b

 can so
M 1.6 Mg
= 0.593 m
P 2.70 Mg/m'
Since K, = K -1- Kp + K„ we can solve for Kg, since we know the other

Vq -- P' -- Vq -- V -- 1.0 -- 0.593 -- 0.160 = 0.247 m’

Once the phase diagram has been filled in, solution of the rest of thé
problem involves just plugging in the respective numbers into the ap-
propriate definition equations. We recommend that when you make the
computations, you write out the equations in symbol form and then insert
the numbers in the same order as written in the equation. Also, it is a good
idea to have the units accompany the calculations.
Solving for the remainder of the required items is easy.
From Eq. 2-9,
g - 6 Mg/m°

From Eq. 2-1,

0.247 + 0.160
0.593
From Eq. 2-2,

1.0
From Eq. 2-4,
1.160lfD = 39.3'«
0.247 + 0.160
The saturated density p„, is the density when all the voids are filled
with water, that is, when S -- l0I)To (Eq. 2-10). Therefore, if the volume of
air Uq were filled with water it wctllld Wei gh O 247 m' x 1 Mg/m3 or 0.247
Mg. Then
p _ Mq + M (0.247 Mg + 0.16 Mg) + 1.6 Mg
- 2.01 Mg/m'
Another, and perhaps even easier way to solve this example problem,
is to assume K, is a unit volume, I m°. Then, by definition, M -- p -- 2.7
ual to 2.70 Mm' . The com letedhase
diagram is shown in Fig. Ex. 2.2c.

Mg. Also Kp = M, since pp = 1 Mg/m°; that is, 0.27 Mg of water occupies

 2.3 Solution of Phaae Problems

a volume of 0.27 m°. Two unknowns remain to be solved before we can

proceed: they are Kg and K,. To obtain these values, we must use the given
information that p —— 1.76 Mg/m'. From the definition of total density
(Eq. 2-6),
M 2.97 Mg
p -— 1.76 Mg/m° =

Solving for K„

V, _ 2.97 Mg
= 1.688 m'
P 1.76 Mg/m’
Therefore

You can use Fig. Ex. 2.2c to verify that the remainder of the solution is
identical to the one using the data of Fig. Ex. 2.2b.
Volume (m^ ) Mass (Mg)

Fig. Ex. 2.2c

EXAMPLE 2.3

Required:

Express the porosity n in terms of the void ratio e (Eq. 2-3a) and the void
ratio in terms of the porosity (Eq. 2-3b).

Solution:

Draw a hase dia ram (Fig. Ex. 2.3a).

For this problem, assume K, = 1 (units arbitrary). From Eq. 2-1,
 Index and Ctaa•lflcatlon Propartl•s of solia

Fig. Ex. 2.3b

e
1 + e
Equation 2-3b can be derived algebraically or from the phase dia-
gram IFie. Ex. 2.3b). For this case. assume K = 1.
From Eq. 2-2, U, = n since K, = 1. Therefore K, = I -- n. From Eq.
2-1 1, the definition of e --- Vp/ V . So

(2-3b)

EXAMPLE 2.4

c. +v for S -- 1(XI9’o
6. p , toe S -- I I'7o

Solution:

F¥••w phase diagram (Fig Ex 2 A)

a. Since no volumes are specified, assume P, - 1 m'. Just as in
tutlon ol Phaes Probloma

From Eq. 2-9,

and M -— p,K, (from Eq. 2-7). So

2.65
= ! .636 Mg/m'
1 + 0.62
Note: The relationship

is often very useful in phase problems.

Volume (m 3 ) Mass (Mg)

We know that
from Eg. 2-5)andIf, - p V

since K, — I m'

2.65(I + 0.15)
- 1.88 Mg/&
1 + 0.62
is reions p is o
 Ind•x and Ct•estflcatlon Propartjeo of 8olla

Check:

-- l ’88 = 1.636 Mg/m'

You should verify that pq -- p/(1 + w), which is another very useful
relationship to remember.
Vp -- 0.62 m'. From Eq. 2-8, 3fp -- Kppp - 0.62 m' (I Mg/m ) = 0.62 Mg.
Therefore ›r for S --- 10OTo mtlst b0
0.62
2.63

2.65 + 0.62
-- 2.019 or 2.02 Mg/m'
'
Check, by Eq. 2-13:
P,( i + ^) 2.65(1 + 0.234)
' l -1- e = 2.02 Mg/m
1.62

EXAMPLE 2.5

Required:

Derive a relationship between S, e, w, and p .

Solution:

From Eq. 2-4 and Fig. 2.5, we know that -- Se. Fror.i the
p , we can p ace

Volume
Mass

V. = J
S M = V
Fig. Ex. 2.5 I
2 3 solution of Phase Problems

Mq -- ppVp, we now can write the following equation:

My -- pq Vp -- wM s’s

Since K, = I m3,

Equation 2-15 is one of the most useful of all equations for phase
problems. You can also verify its validity from the fundamental definitions
of pq, S, e, w, and p,.
Note that using Eq. 2-15 we can write Eq. 2- 13 another way:

P -- (2-16)

ecomes
p + pre
(2- l7)
""' I -1- e

EXAMPLE 2.6

A silty clay soil with p ---- 27(Xl kg/m', S -- lO0To, and the water content =
46%.

Compute the void ratio e, the saturated density, and the buoyant or
submerged density in kg/m°

Solution:

Place given information on a phase diagram (Fig. Ex. 2.6).

Assume K = 1 m'; therefore M --- V p --- 27tXt k$. From Eg. 2-15,
we can solve for e directly:
+p 0.46 x 27tD
pps lI3£D X 1.0 = 1.242
But e also equals K„ since K, = 1.0; likewise 3fp = 1242 kg since file is
 Index and Claa•lfleatlon Propartlee of Slolla

Fig. Ex. 2.6 S=100%

numerically equal to Kp because pp -— 1000 kg/m3. Now that all the

unknowns have been found, we may readily calculate the saturated density
(Eq. 2- 10).
M, II + M (1242 + 270f1) k
• "' V I + e ( i + 1.24) m3

p + pre 2700 + lIXi0 (1 .242)

- 1758 kg/m°
“' 1 -1- e l + 1.242
When a soil is submerged, the actual unit weight is reduced by the buoyant
effect of the water. The buoyancy effect is equal to the weight of the water
displaced. Thus, in terms of densities, (Eqs. 2-1 l and 2- 17):
p’ -— p„ — pq —— 1758 kg/m° 1000 kg/m3 - 758 kg/m'
t

In this example, p’ is less than the density of water. Go back and look at
Table 2-1 for typical values of p’. The submerged or buoyant density of
soil will be found to be very important later on in our discussion of
consolidation, settlement, and strength properties of soils.

to memorize lots of complicated formulas. Most of them can easily be

2.J Sol! TGxtUrG 25

derived from the phase diagram as was illustrated in the preceding exam-
ples. Just remember the following simple rules:
i. xememner tne oasic aeiinitions o1 n', e, p„ “o, can.
2. Draw a phase diagram.
3. Assume either K, = 1 or K, = 1, if not given.
d Ctften use n Se -— mm .

2.4 SOIL TEXTURE

So far we haven’t said very much about what makes up the “solids”
part of the soil mass. In Chapter 1 we gave the usual definition of soil from
an engineering point of view: the relatively loose agglomeration of mineral
and organic materials found above the bedrock. We briefly described how
weathering and other geologic processes act on the rocxs at or near tne
earth’s surface to form soil. Thus the solid part of the soil mass consists
p mapi y of particles of mineral and organic matter in various sizes and

The texture ot a soil is its appearance or “feel,” and it depends on the

pt;iAtl Vt; pt2,t;$ iiu pli‹ipco UI iFic; {j‹ti ii vic a au w cii au tixc i ange si u*sci i ouizm•i
of those sizes. Thus coarse-grained soils such as sands or grat›els obviously
appear coarse textured, while a fine-textured soil might be composed of
predominantly very tiny mineral grains which are invisible to the naked
eye. Silts and cfqy soils are good examples of fine-textured soils.
The soil texture, especially of coarse-grained soils, has some relation
to their engineering behavior. In fact, soil textur•. has been the basis for
i
agronomy ‘than in soils engineering.“'Still,“ text al*“cla“ssfi tion“te s
(graveis, sands, silts, ana ciaysj are useiui in a generai sense in geoiecnnicai
engineering practice. For fine-grained soils, the presence of water greatly
affects their engineering response—much more so than grain size or
t••tii•• str n • Writer arrects the interaction between the mineral erains.
and this may affect their plasticity and their cohesiveness.

gfained soils. A convenient dividing line is the smallest grain that is visible
to the naked eye. Soils with particles larger than this size (about 0.05 mm)
are called coarse-grained, while soils finer than the size are (obviously)
called fine-grained. Sands and gravels are coarse grained while silts and
clavs are fine orained. Another convenient way to senarate or classify soils
is according to their plasticity and cohesion (physics: cohesion— sticking
 Ind•x and Claealflcatlon Propartlse of Soll•

SiJu Clays
Fíac graioed •p
Càonot sec

Cohcsiooless Cohcsionless Nonplastic Granular

g }g$(}ç Gohesivc
GraoWar Q1B8tÍC
—
errect or water on engineering ooà avior .
ncldúWcly tM*Lkup•-u-•

ials and dynamic

Important
Effect of bruta sizc distribuüon on engineering bo- havior:

togcther of like materials). For example, sands are nonplastic and non-
cohesive (cohesionless) whereas clays are both plastic and cohesive. Silts
fall between clays and sands: they are at the 5ame time fine-grained yet
nonplastic and cohesionless. These relationships as well as some general
engineering
characteristics are presented in Table 2-2. You will need to
obtain some practice, best done in the laboratory, in identifying soils
according to texture and some of these other general characteristics such as
plasticity and cohesiveneS5. Also you should note that the terni cfpy refers
both to specífic minerals called cf‹;y minerals (discussed inSOÚSiSSfiOD
Chapter 4) and
to soils which contain clay minerals. The behàViof Of Some \

affected by the presence of clay minerals. In geotechnical engineering, for

simplicity such soils are usually called clays, but we really mean soils in
which the presence of certain clau mir1Rt•z2l affects their behaoior.

DISTRIBUTION

xs supgcsi‹xt in the preceding section, the size of the SOi1 article,

especially for granular soils, has SOD¥fl effcct on engineering behavior.
Thus, for classification purposes, we are often interested in the particle or
grain sizes present in a particular soil as well as the distribution of those
sizes.
2.5 aratn Size and Grain 9Ize Dlatzlbutlon 27

M.KT. = I 'lassachuse tts Inst • tu ie of Technology’( T ay Tar. \ 9*8)

Fig. 2.3 Grain size ranges according to savaral engineering soil

classification syetems (modified after Al-Hussaini, 1977}.

The range of possible particle sizes in soils is tremendous. Soils in

rnnge from boulders nr cnhhles of several centimetres in diameter down to
ultrafine-grained colloidal materials. The maximum possible range is on
the order of 10', so usually we plot grain size distributions versus the
logarithm of average grain diameter. Figure 2.3 indicates the divisions
between the various textural sizes according to several common engineer-
ing classification schemes. It should be noted that traditionally in the
United States the units for the various sizes depend on the grain size. For
materials greater than about 5 mm (abOut 1/4 in.), inches are commonly
used, although millimetres could be used just as well. Grain sizes between
5 mm and 0.074 mm are classified according to U.S. Standard sieve
number, which of course can be related to a specific grain size as shown in
Fig. 2.3. Soils finer than the No. 200 sieve are usually dimcnsioned in
millimetres or, for the x'ery fine-grained colloidal particleș, in micrometres.
How is the particle size distribution obtained? The process is called
mechanical analysis or the gradation test. For coarse-grained soils, a si‹n:e
performed in which a sample of dry soil is shaken mechanically
through a series of woven-wire square-mesh sieves with successively smaller
openings. Since the total mass of sample is known, the percentage retained
or passing each size sieve can be determined by weighing the amount of
soil retained on each sieve after shaking. Detailed procedures for this test
are specified by ASTM (1980), Designations C 136 and D 422. The
correspond ing AASHTO (1978) test standards are T 27 and T 88. The U.S.
Standard sieve numbers commonly employed for the particle size analysis
of soils are shown in Table 2-3. SirlCe Soil particles are rarely perfect
spheres, when we speak of particle diameters, we really mean an equi lent
particle diameter as determined by the sieve analysis.

TABLE 2-3 U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes and

Their Corresponding Open Dimension
U .S. Standard Sieve Opening
Steve No. (mm)

4 #75
10 2.X
40 0.425

0. 15

2X 0.075

It turns out that the sieve analysis is impractical for sieve openings
less than about 0.05 to 0.075 mm (No. 200 U.S. Standard sieve). Thus for
the fine-grained soils, silts, and clays, the hydrometer analysis is commorily
used. The basis for this test is Stoke’s law for falling spheres in a viscous
fluid in which the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain diameter
and the densities of the grains in suspension and of the fluid. The grain
diameter thus can be calculated from a knowledge of the distance and time
of fall. The hydrometer also determines the specific gravity (or density) of
the suspension, and this enables the percentage of particles of a certain
equivalent particle diameter to be calculated. As With thC SÍCVe aRalysis,
2.5 Graln Size and Grain Size Dl•trlbutlon

the percentage of total sample still in suspension (or already out of

suspension) can therefore readily be determined. Detailed procedures for
the hydrometer test are given by ASTM (1980), Designation D 422, and
AASHTO (1978) Standard Method T 88. The U.S.B.R. (1974) and U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers ( 1970) also have similar standardized procedures
for this test.
The distribution of the peTcentage of the total sample less than a
certain sieve size or computed grain diameter can be plotted in either a
histogram or, more commonly, in a cumulative frequency diagram. The

whereas the percentage by weight (or mass) of the total sample either
passing (finer than) or retained (coarser than) is plotted arithmetically on
the ordinate (Fig. 2.4). Note that this figure could just as well be plotted
with the smaller grain sizes going towards the right. Some typical grain size
distributions are shown in Fig. 2.4. The well-graded soil has a good
representation of particle sizes over a wide range, and its gradation curve is
smooth and generally concave upward. On the other hand, a poor/J graded
soil would be one where these is either an excess or deficiency of certain
sizes or if most of the particles are about the same size. The uniform
gradation shown in Fig. 2.4 is an example of a poorly graded soil. The gap-
graded or skip-graded soil in that figure is also poorly graded; in this case,
the proportion of grain sizes between 0.5 and 0.1 mm is relatively

We could rif criurxe rihtain the u.sua I statistic:a I parameters (mean

median, standard deviation, etc.) for the grain size distributions, but this is
more commonly done in sedimentary petrology than in soil mechanics. Of
course the range of particle diameters found in the sample is of interest.
Besides that, we use certain grain diameters D which correspond to an
equivalent “percent passing” on the grain size distribution curve. For
example, D p is the grain size that corresponds to 10To of the sample
passing by weight. In other words, 10To of the particles are smaller than the
diameter D g. This parameter locates the grain size distribution curve
(GSD) along the grain size axis, and it is sometimes called the effective size.
The coefficient of uniformity C is a crude shape parameter, and it is defined
as

(2-19)

where Dp —— grain diameter (in mm) corresponding to 60% passing, and

D,O = grain diameter (in mm) corresponding to 10To passing, by

Actually, the uniformity coefficient is misnamed since the smaller the

 Sieve a lalysis
(U.S. Stanc ard si eve)

No. 200 100 40 10 4 8 in. 4 in. 3,

100 1
0

80 Uniform
r 20

than) by weight (or

Percent passing (finer

Percent retained (coarser

60
.

40
h

40
60
“

Well 9 a ded

2O G ap gra ded m<

80

0
lilL ill i L1 l 1 1/ i 7 11 1
0.001
0. )1 0. 1 10 00
Grain diameter (mm)

Fig. 2.4 Typical grain si re distribut ons.

 2.5 Grain Size and Grain Size DlatzlbuUon

“disuniformitv.” For examole. a C. -- I would be a soil with only one

grain size. Very poorly graded soils, for example, beach sands, have C ’s
of

Occasionally, the Cq can range up to ltXl0 or so. As an example, the clay

c cor rim ter iai i or or u v iiic stun in woiiimi iii‹n nuts ‹t np th octwccn •ti)Q AtlU
500; the sizes range from large boulders down to very fine-grained clay
particles.
Another shape parameter that is sometimes used for soil classifica-
tion is the coefficient of cur ture defined as
( D3 ) 2
(2-20)
( D, )(D )
where D3 = grain diameter (in mm) corresponding to 30To passing by
weight (or mass). The other terms were defined previously.
A soil with a coefficient of curvature between l and 3 is considered
to be well graded as long as the C is also greater than 4 for gravels and 6
fnr so nris

Given:

The grain size distribution shown in Fig. 2.4.

Solution:

For Eqs. 2-19 and 2-20 we need D. . D.c- and D.c frir each orndntinri curve
in Fig. 2.4.
* Well-graded soil; simply pick off the diameters corresponding to
10%, 30%, and 60To passing.
D q -- 0.02 mm, Dg -- 0.6 mm, Dg -- 9 mm
»
D 9
“” D, 0.02
32 Index and Ctaaslflcatlon Propartlca of Solls

From Eq. 2-20,

( D )' (0.6)2
3 =2
( D,q)( D ) (0.02)(9)

b. Gap-graded soil; use same procedure as in (a):

Did = 0.022, D p —— 0.052, Dg —— 1.2

=55

1-rom kq. 2-20,

2
( Dao) _ (0.052)
2
= o. i
( D, )(Dg) (0.022)(1.2)

Even though by the uniformity coefficient criterion, this soil is well

graded, it fails the coefficient of clirvature criterion. Therefore it is indeed

c. Uniform soil; use same procedure as in (a):

D ' 0.3 Duo 0.43 D6Q' 1).55
From Eg. 2-19,
0.55
io 0.3
( D 0)2 _ (0.43)2
= I.12
( D io )( D ) (0 •3)(0.55)

This soil is still poorly graded even though the C, is slightly greater
than unity; the Cp is very small.

2.6 PARTICLE SHAPE

The shape of the individual particles is at least as important as the

grain size distribution in affecting the engineering response of granular
soils It is nossible to quantify shape according to rules developed by
sedimentary petrologists, but for geotechnical engineering purposes such
refinements are rarely warranted. C)n1y a qualitative shape determination is
usually made as part of the visual classification or soils. Coarse-grained
soils are commonly classified according to the shapes shown in Fig. 2.5.

Rounded Su brounded

Fig. 2.5 Typical shapes of coarse-grained bulky particles. (Photograph

by M. Surendra )

A distinction can also be made between particles that are bulky and
*hr <o which are rieerllelike or flakv Rica flakes are an excellent example
of the latter, and OttaWa Sand is an example of the former. Cylinders of
each differ drastically in behavior when compressed by a piston. The bulky
grains hardly compress at all, even when in a very loose state, but the mica
flakes will compress, even under small pressures, up to about one-half of
their criminal volume. When we discuss the shear strength of sands, you
will learn that grain shape is very sigoificant in determining the fractional
characteristics c›f granular soils.
 2.7 ATTERBERG LIMITS AND
CONSISTENCY INDICES

We mentioned fTable 2-2) that the presence of water in the voids of a

soil can especially affect the engineering behavior of fine-grained soils. Not
only is it important to know how much water is present in, for example, a
natural soil deposit (the water content), but we need to compare or scale
this water content against some standard of engineering behavior. This is
what the Atterberg limits do—they are important limits of engineering
behavior. If we know where the water content of our sample is relative to
the Atterberg limits, then we alreadY know a great deal about the engineer-
ing response of our sample. The Atterberg limits, then, are water contents
at certain limiting or critical stages in soil behavior. They, along with the
natural water content, are the most important items in the description of
fine-grained soils. They are used in classification of such soils, and they are
useful because they correlate with the engineering properties and engineer-
ing behavior of fine-grained soils.
The Atterberg limits were developed in the early 1900’s by a Swedish
soil scientist, A. Atterberg (191 I). He was working in the ceramics in-
dustry, and at that time they had several simple tests to describe the
plasticity of a clay, which was important both in molding clay into bricks,
for example, and to avoid shrinkage and cracking when fired. After many
experiments, Atterberg came to the realization that at least two parameters
were required to define plasticity of clays— the upper and lower limits of
plasticity. In fact, he was able to define several limits of consistency or
behavior and he developed simple laboratory tests to define these limits.
They- are

1. Upper limit of viscous flow.

2. Liquid limit—lower limit of viscous flow.
3. Sticky limit—clax loses its adhesion to a metal blade.
4. Cohesion limit—grains cease to cohere to each other.

6. Shrinkage limit—lower limit of volume change.

He also defined the plasticity index, which is range of water content
where the soil is plastic, and he was the first to suggest that it could be
used for soil classification. Later on, in the late 1920’s K. Terzaghi and A.
Casagrande (1932b), working for the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads, stan-
dardized the Atterberg limits so that they could be readily used for soils
classification purposes. In present geotechnical engineering practice we
usually use the liquid limit ILL or w, ). the plastic limit (PL or wp), and
sometimes the shrinkage limit (SL or wS ). The sticky and the cohesion
limits are more useful in ceramics and agriculture.
 Brittle
soli 1 Plastic sol id L quid
State
i I
W ter cc ntent
0 w %
Li juidit S PL LI = LL
index Lf < 0 J 0< < LI -
LI > 1
L

P
St ess-st ain:
w<P
L
w L

7 " 7

Fig . 2.6
Wa er content continuum showing th a vari bus ›t a soil as well as the generalized stress-strE in
re ›pons 3. states
 Index an€l Claaalflcatlon Properties oC 6olla

Since the Atterberg limits are water contents where the soil behavior
chances, we can show these limits on a water content continuum as in Fig.
2.6. Also shown are the types of soil behavior for the given ranges of water
contents. As the water content increases, the state of the soil changes from
a brittle solid to a plastic solid and then to a viscous liquid. We can also
show on the same water content continuum the generalized material
response (stress-strain curves) corresponding to those states.
You may recall the curves shown in Fig. 2.7 from fluid mechanics,
where the shear velocity gradient is plotted versus the shear stress. Depend-
ing on the water content, it is possible for soils to have a response
represented by all of those curves (except possibly the ideal Newtonian
liquid). Note, too, how different this response is from the stress-strain
behavior of other engineering materials such as steel, concrete. or wood.

0 *yield

Fig. 2.7 Behavior of several materials including soils over a range of

water contents.

Atterberg’s original consistency limit tests were rather arbitrary and

not easily reproducible, especially by inexperienced operators. As men-
tioned, Casagrande (1932b, 1958) worked to standardize the tests, and he
developed the liquid limit device (Fig. 2.8) so that the test became more