jtroduction Biomolecules : Molecules of organi sich build up living systems an ete compoun, s . Tequis ‘ govth and maintenance arg called bono for thei ils proteins, carbohydrates ete, ecules, ¢, #1 CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are q nitydroxy aldehydes or ch units on hydrolysis, sko called saccharides (G; Cubohydrates have the ames is sucrose. General formula : C, (4,0) y, 10.1.1 Classification of Carbohydrates ; On the basis of hydrolysis, cabohydrates into three groups : (@ Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate that cannot tehydrolysed further to give simple unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is ¢. alled monosaccharides. eg, Glucose, fructose, ribose etc. cfined as optically acy 'Y activ, Maatescompounds wbiehyies ‘Ost of the carbohydrat eek: Sakcharon mean $e von mean Sugat), ‘most common sugar used inner we can divide Colly.0g + HJO—E*_, No reaction Glucose or fructose ii) Oli ides : hat yield two (i Oligosaccharides : Carbohydrate th ‘ten monosaccharides units, on hydrolysis are called “ipa divided into : Oligosaccharides are further vide a (a) Disaccharides: Which yield ‘wo mone, saccharides on hydrolysis. ¢.g., su maltose. a Trisaccharides : Which yield ree monosaccharides on hydrolysis. tains Tetrasaccharides: Which yield fur monosaccharides on hydr Starchyose ade (i) Polysaccharides : Carbohydrates which Yi TE large number of monosacchari @) © ~ Brief Review et” hydrolysis sare . cellulose, elycoge Polysaccharides, ©, starch, (Cou, bral 0O9)n cellulose Hy + nHjO_Me MCeH,0 ese) Carbohydrate Reducing car which Teduce Fehlj all Monosaccharid Non-reducin; which do not r S may also be classified as : rbohydrates : Those carbohydrates ing’s reagent or Tollen’s reagent, eg., eS are most of, disaccharides, 10.1.2 Monosaccharides : ‘Ifamonosaccharide contains known as an aldose Imown as ketose, an aldehyde group, itis and if it contains a keto group, itis Glucose Itis a monosacchavide, Itoccurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. Preparation of Glucose : @ From sucrose (Cane sugar) : CiaHa201 + H,0 EY , cg,0,+ CoHi20¢ Sucrose Water Structure of Glucose : Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. Structure of glucose : ‘HO (CHOH), CH,OH Above structure is given on the basis of evidences : 1. Its molecular formula was found to be CgH,0¢. Glucose Fructose HO ~CH ~CH~CH, ~CH, MiLHest_, CH3 ~CH2 ~CHy 2. atom, ‘chee CH,OH issey ‘Scanned with CamScannerIt shows that six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain, 3. The reaction shown below confirms the presence of carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose : i Ci=N-On NILON | (CHOW), Sixes? (quot, CHAOH CHAOH (Oxime) CHO cue I 1 ~ HCN (HOH), Wienges? (GHOH), CHJOH CH,OH (Cyanohydrin) CHO coon | | (CHO, Sates (CHOI, CH,OH CH,OH (Gtvcose) (Ghiconie ai) ‘The above reaction indicates the presence of carbonyl group as aldehyde group. 4. Acetylation of Glucose : This indicates the presence of five ~OH groups. CHO CHO | ig HOH, Aste eivdre | (CH_O-C-CH,), | CH,-O-C-CH, (Glncos pent acetate 5. This reaction shows the presence of primary alcoholic (-OH) group in glucose. CHO (Glucose) cHO COOH COOH | sdaton | (CHOR), PEE (CHOH), Dison (CH0H, 5 CH,OH coo HOH (Gicose) Sscharic acid Ghaonie eid Spatial Arrangements : Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom and can thus exist in two optically active forms, called D- form (OH group on the right side of lowest asymmetric carbon) and L-form L-OH group on the left side of the lowest asymmetric carbon). The sugars having same configuration as D-gly- ceraldehyde are known as D-sugars while that of L-glyceraldehyde as L-sugars. FH20H =O HO-C- H~C-OH <—D-Configuration—> H-C-OH } H,0H DC) “Friese H-C-OH H-C-OH “HOH BE) dlucose Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-Glucose, “D’ before the name of glucose represents the relative configuration whereas (+) represents dextrorotatory nature of molecule and (-) represents laevorotatory nature of compound. HO CHO i-OH HO-CI HOH CH,OH )~Giyceradehyde () Glyceraldebyde ‘or D-(+) Glyceraldehyde or L-{-) Glyceraldehyde Cyclic structure of Glucose : The structure of glucose explained most of its properties but the following reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure. 1. Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2, 4-DNP test, Schiff’s test and it does not form the hydrogen sulphite addition product with NaHSO;. 2. The penta acetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free~CHO group. 3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as a and B, This behaviour could not be explained by open chain Structure of glucose. It was proposed that one of ~OH gp. may add to ~CHO and form a cyclic hemical structure this explains the absence of -CHO group. i at ts wC-on] He HO-C-H H4-OH H Hot HOS 0 H Son H 4-on, H 4_on HS SL 3 d Hon a 6 CH,OH CH,OH CH, OH a-D-(+)}-Glucose B-D-(+) -Glucose ‘Scanned with CamScanner. The diastereomers resulting from Jed anomers. Anomers differ only in the arbon-I and this carbon atom referred o;ecarvoncan easily be stingished from same om i the rng 8 i is joined to wo exon glucose and P-D-gicoseare anomers, cu, enon ‘ Hou \ 0 HO on Ho\Y, on non non oe ba ‘eeD-(4)-Glucopyranose —_B-D-(+)-Glucopyranose Haworth structure of glucose Fructose : It i a ketohexose and obtained by «of dissaccharide, (sucrose). Fructose : Cs Hyz O ins ketone group at carbon number 2 and six jeht chain. It is appropriately written as 10.41 an gro tFe s ireontains gs in sta Cg Hyz O6 + Ce Hi2 O6 Sucrose D-(++Glucose D-(-)}-Fructose The two monosaccharides are held together by @ glycosidic linkage between C, of a-glucose and C> of B- fructose. Since, the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is non- reducing sugar, ScHoH seth H (orrcese win AY HO\ on H 6 o. HOH,C (Fructose unit) 5} 2 x HO, 7 CH,OH al 3B ot oH OH Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose, Since the laevorotation of fructose is more than dextrorotation of glucose. Hence, the mixture becomes laevorotatory. ‘Scanned with CamScannerThus, hydrolysis of sucro: sign of rotation from dextr. is named as Invert Sugar. (i) Maltose : se brings about a change in the © (+) to laevo (~) and the product cH,oH H OH - D-Gicose Glycosidie ‘Linkage a D-Giucose The free aldehyde group can be produced C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows: areducing sugar. Gii) Lactose (milk sugar) : It is reducing sugar. 6 CH,OH reducing properties so itis 8 D-uoose 10.1.5 Polysaccharides : ‘They contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. ( Starch: It is a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components-Amylose and Amyiopectin. 6 a ‘ CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH 3 H H H ay ha i ' HH HOH out FS Link Link Amylose CH,OH CH,OH H sk ou Hod On HL _scpceaaniente [— linkage Or HON nas CH,OH cu, CH,OH A HH H tot 1H it 14} Loy ' ou f uf HOH a Cy-Cya. CyCea- Cryst lnkage lyon linkage “Amylopesin jose is a water soluble componen, consttes about 15-20%. of Sar Chemically ai is a long unbranched ne eg wet units held by C1-Ca atyos es 2 oe : Jlopectin is insolu and con, avout 80-85% of starch. It is a branched chain po} ey @_D-Glucose units in which chain is for" Cy-Cy elyeosidic linkage whereas branching ogy, " C\-Ceelycosidic Linkage. / (ii) Cellulose : It is a straight chain potysa, composed only of B-D-glucose units which are, tlycosidic linkage between C, of one Glucose uni ” anit of the next glucose unit. , HOH, | Cettulose (iif) Glycogen : It is known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather moe highly branched. Itis present in liver, muscles and brain, 10.1.6 Importance of Carbohydrates : (®) Carbohydrates are essential for life both plansani animals. Honey has been used for a long time s an instant source of energy by ‘vaids’ in ayurvedit system of medicines, (ii) The carbohydrates act as storage of energy fo the functioning of living organisms. In cast o emergency like illness or fasting, they supply energy. Starch is major food reserve in plants a alycogen in animals. (Gi) They form structural materials for cells. Ft example, cellulose is present in the cell wall! the plant cells, 5 (é) Carbohydrates provide raw materials for 8! {important industries such as textiles, paper, aot breweries ete. “ ‘Scanned with CamScannery monosaccharides, D-ribose and D-2- wt yribose are present in nucleic acids. These eo gtzol the transmission of hereditary effets ei, one generation to another and also feo thesis of proteins. bins onosaccharide, ribose is an essential o9 ME ponent of ATP which acts as an energy carpney of the cells during metabolism of eames, proteins and fas. fi pROTEINS 1? sures of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, a fish etc. They occur in every part of the body and 1 pe fundamental basis of structures and functions of 16 proteins are polymers of a-amino acids. ie jp2t Amino Acids + ‘ynino acids consist of (-NH,) and (-COOH) joconal FOURS. . p-pending upon the relative position of amino group sib respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be gasified as 4, B, 7, 6 and so on, only a-amino acids are obtained on hydrolysis of ons. R-CH-COOH I NH ce-amino acid (R= Side chain) 1022 Classification of Amino Acids : Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral ending upon the relative number of amino and carboxyl roups, Ifnumber of amino and carboxyl groups are equal, ‘beamino acid is neutral. ifmore number of amino groups are there, then amino ids are basic. e.g., 2, 6-Diaminohexanoic acid. Itmore carboxyl groups are there, then amino acids "acid. eg, Glutamic acid. ang tmino acids which are synthesized in our bodys Non-essential amino acids. The amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the cuenta Tust be obtained through diet, are known as amino acids. a citer ion : In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group tite Ra and amino group can accept proton giving bt coat ion known as Zwitter in. This is neutral x 's both + ve and —ve charges. It behaves as both acidic and basic. Except glycine, all other naturally occurring c-amino acids are optically active. i i eas aS RGEC NH) *NH3 (@witerion) 10.2.3 Structure of Proteins : Peptide are amide linkage which links a-amino acids. The amide linkage is called peptide bonds. H.N - CH, COOH + HN - CH ~ COOH -1,0| CH; H,N- CH, (CO=NH- a COOH Peptide linkage: CH; Glycylalanine (Gly-Ala) Peptides are classified as (depending upon number of amino acids) = (@ Dipeptides: (ii) Tripeptides (iii) Tetrapeptides Dipeptide : When two amino acids react this result in elimination of HO molecule and formation of peptide bond. The product thus formed is called dipeptide. .g-, glycylalanine, Polypeptides : When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, the product are called polypeptides. Classification of Proteins = On the basis of their molecular shape : (a) Fibrous proteins : When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre. Like structure i8 formed. Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. e.g., Keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles) etc. (®) Globular proteins : This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape. There are usually soluble in water e.g., insulin and alburins. Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different levels. i.e., (i) Primary, (ii) Secondary, (iii) Tertiary, (iv) Quaternary. @ Primary structure of proteins : Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in protein has amino acids linked with each other in a specific ‘sequence and itis this sequence of amino acids that is said to be the primary structure of that protein. Any change in ‘Scanned with CamScannerthis primary structure i.e,, the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein, (i Secondary structure of proteins : The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which along polypeptide chain can exist, They are found to exist in two different types of structures (1) a-helix (2) B-pleated sheet. a-helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds by twisting into a right handed screen (helix) with the -NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the >C=0 ofan adjacent turn of the helix. In B-structure all peptide chains are stretched out the nearly maximum extension and then laid side by side which are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. <—54.pm—> Hf HOR K RH RCH RG ey a a HER ~ HOR , a ae B-pleated sheet structure of proteins . ary structure of proteins : It iif) Tertiary 5 ae (i elding ofthe pobypertide sins. "Pte, ine ives rise to major molecular shape, ie, 4 : nd Globular proteins. ture of proteins : The .) Quaternary struc p The pg Co) Qf or more polypeptide cha vibes c each ther is known as quaternary structure, 0 aturation of proteins = aie protein Protein found in biological : ' tmnique 3-dimensional structure and biological ag, eal tive protein. Due to physical changes like eee hemical change like change np in temperature or cher elie can hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Thi aia of protein. During 4 destroyed but 1° : E eg: 7 (i) The coagulation of egg white on boiling. (i) Curdling of milk. enaturation, 2° and 3° structures ay structures remain intact. 10.3 ENZYMES It is a biocatalysts which involves in a sequence reactions andall these reactions occur in the body under yey tnild conditions. Almost all enzymes are globular proteins, Maltase (Enzyme) The ending of the name of an enzyme is-ase. Orxidoreductase : The enzyme which catalyse te oxidation of one substrate with simultaneous reaction another substrate are called oxidoreductase enzymes. 10.3.1 Mechanism of Enzyme acti Enzymes are needed in small quantities for progress of reaction. Similar to action of chemical catalyst, enzyms reduce the magnitude of activation energy. eg, Ci Hen 2CgH 1206 10.4 VITAMINS They are organic compounds required in the dietia small amount to perform specific biological functions ir normal maintenance of optimum growth and health oft organism, 10.4.1 Classification of Vitamins : [> Fat soluble vitamins ‘> Water soluble vitamins Vitamins Depending upon their solubility in water and fat 4 ‘Scanned with CamScannerje vitamins : Vitamins which are soluble in ots insoluble in water are kept inthis group, s pide ins A, D, Band K. i oe vit eye) Night bndness Yeast, ik, green | Bor! ber (loss of ‘vegetables and cereals] appetite, retarded rowth) Cheiosis (issuing at comers of mouth and ps), digestive csorders ‘and burning sensation of the skin, Milk, eggutite, liver kidney \nanin8s| Yeast ik ego yolk, | Convulsions + yedoxne)|eareals and grams 1 eernin Bia |Meat f'sh, egg and | Pemicious anaemia \s | curd (RBC deficient in haemoglobin) warinc | Citus fnits, amla and | Scury (bleding gums) ee 20)) 97000 leat vegetables 5 \vtanind | Exposure to sunlight, |Rickets (tone fish and egg yok | deformities in chien) and osteomalacia (soft bones and jin pain in adults) le janine |Vegetable oils ike | ncreased tegiliy of wheat germ oll, | RBCs and muscular sunflower oi etc {weakness 2 \enink | Green leafy Increased blood cating vegetables ime 10.5 NUCLEIC ACIDS The particles in nucleus of the cell are responsible for heredity, are called chromosomes which are nade-up of proteins and another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids. ‘Nucleic acids are of two types : (i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (@) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) ‘Therefore, nucleic acids are long chain polymers of Mcletides, so they are also called polynucleotides. 10.5.1 Chemical composition of Nucleic acids = Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields & Pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen containing hetero cyclic compound called bases. In DNA, the sugar moiety is [J-D-2-dcoxyribose Whereas in RNA, itis -D-ribose. 3 5 Hone 9 on pone O._ OH z =~ NJ NA H\H OH /H OH OH on H B-D- ribose B-D-2deoxyribose DNA contains four bases : (0 Adenine (A) (i) Guanine (G) (id) Cytosine (C) (iv) Thymine (T) In RNA, fourth (iv) base is replaced by Uracil (U) Purines = NH. oO be £ NN, N. v As ANS Be A Niece; 7 J NANA NAAN = deine 4) Gussie 6) Pyrimidines : NH) fe} oO I HG I tL wet, ¢ NH He Ss 1 I | HC IC. IC, Neg Ay Xeg Baw Sy H H q epee) -—- 10.5.2 Structure of Nucleic Acids : Auunit formed by the attachment ofa base to 1’ position of sugar is known as nucleoside. When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5" position of sugar moiety, we get nucleotide. ‘Scanned with CamScannerOH OH Nucleoside Nucleotides are formation we g Dinucleotide : Pentose sugar. The ct is dinucleotide. Simple version of nucleic acid chain are below : Base —suger—rhospate -fe—rostae} some n James Watson and Francis Crick double helix structure, (#) Two nucleic acid chains are bound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. (i) Two strands are complementary to each other because hydrogen bonds are fornitd between pair of base i.e., Adenine bonds with thymine wheteas cytosine bonded with guanine. Base OH OH Nucleotide joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3" carbon atoms ott 5 end of chain I 5 . tg 0-CH, 0 =O 3! end of chain In secondary structure of RNA, helices are pres which are only single stranded. RNA molecules are of three types : (O messenger RNA (m-RNA) (i) ribosomal RNA (7-RNA) (iii) transfer RNA (RNA) 10.5.3 Biological functions of Nucleic acids : (@ DNA isa chemical basis of heredity and maybe tegarded as the reserve of genetic information. Gi) A DNA molecule is capable of self-duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands at transferred to daughter cells. (iii) Actually, the proteins are synthesized by vais RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the synthe of particular protein is present in DNA. ‘Scanned with CamScanner