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Revenue-Based Allocation of Electricity Network Charges for Future

Distribution Networks

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DOI: 10.1109/TPWRS.2022.3176186

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1728 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 2, MARCH 2023

Revenue-Based Allocation of Electricity Network

Charges for Future Distribution Networks
Juan J. Cuenca , Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Emad Jamil , and Barry P. Hayes , Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—This paper investigates the economic implications that the negative technical effects of local energy markets. Framed
high penetrations of distributed energy resources (DER) have in in this, the authors found a gap in the literature corresponding
future distribution networks, and proposes a novel scalable scheme to an effective simulation-based comparison of these different
for the assignment of use of network charges based on individual
participant nodes’ revenue. For validation purposes, a techno- proposals.
economic simulation is proposed to understand how power and Furthermore, while there is significant research on the tech-
revenue flows will change. A year-long high-resolution quasi-static nical and economic considerations around the large-scale im-
time series (QSTS) simulation, two price schemes, four trading plementation of new technologies in the electricity sector for
environments, and four DER allocation methods from the literature individual participants, the implications for grid operators have
are used to study economic benefits for individual participants
and the supplier. Testing is performed using the IEEE 33-bus and been passed over. Technical losses, paired with operation, in-
123-bus networks, and an Irish urban medium voltage feeder. vestment and maintenance of transmission and distribution net-
Revenue flow is presented as an indicator of which participant works represent costs that traditionally have been transferred
nodes are profiting more from grid usage, and therefore should be to the end user [9], and with the evolution of the sector, must
responsible for greater network charges, this is validated against be reformulated. These costs are expected to change with the
traditional and alternative schemes. Important reductions in use
of network charges are seen especially by participant nodes with introduction of new technologies because aside from power
a higher PV generation-to-load and self-consumption rates. The flows, revenue flows are expected to change once distribution
proposed method is only relevant when dynamic tariffs are in place networks achieve high penetration of DER. This is explained by
and/or local trading is enabled. Ultimately, results suggest that the the stochastic nature of energy demand and generation plants
income from network charges received by the supplier is increased that use non-dispatchable renewable sources, changing energy
when dynamic tariffs are used.
policy and price schemes, and the possible trading environments
Index Terms—Allocation of network charges, distribution with different rules allowing or restricting local trading.
network planning, distributed energy resources, local electricity The research community highlighted from an early stage the
markets, resource allocation.
necessity and potential benefits of modifying network charges
for the electricity sector as a response to new developments [10].
I. INTRODUCTION
The economic implications of DER installations considering
OVERNMENTS and regulators are showing an increas-
G ing interest in the transformation of the electricity sector
towards one that uses the existing infrastructure more efficiently,
existing network charges methodologies has been explored [11],
[12]. As discussed in [13], it is possible to consider the supplier as
an active participant that must take a portion of network charges.
includes renewable energy sources, evolves towards a high pen- Nonetheless, after a review of the literature, the authors did not
etration of distributed energy resources (DER) and is fair with its find alternatives for the fair allocation of network charges.
participants [1]. This translated into multidisciplinary studies for Investigating industry and technical reports from national and
planning of distribution networks. The literature offers different supranational entities, it was found that tariff methodologies
DER allocation methods that shed light on how future grids across Europe are the responsibility of each national regulatory
will distribute generating resource amongst participants [2]–[4]. authority, and they are periodically amended [9]. The tariffs are
Multiple market environments are proposed for the local trading currently calculated based on energy flow, installed power, fixed
of energy resources [5]. Studies present the simultaneous analy- charges or a combination of these. Most European countries
sis of technical and economic constraints [6]–[8] trying to reduce allocate charges for energy consumption, and an increasing
number of them allocate also for energy injected to the grid [14].
Manuscript received 11 March 2022; revised 12 May 2022; accepted 16 May However, no novel methodologies are being considered for the
2022. Date of publication 20 May 2022; date of current version 27 February
2023. This work was supported by the Department of Business, Enterprise allocation of charges between users [9]. This is the case not
and Innovation, under the Government of Ireland’s Project 2040 Plan CENTS only for Europe: while 44% of the price paid on average by end
Project, under Contract DT 2018 0040-D. Paper no. TPWRS-00362-2022. (Cor- users in the United States comes from network charges, there
responding author: Juan J. Cuenca.) (Corresponding author: Juan J. Cuenca.)
The authors are with the School of Engineering and Architecture, are no alternative methodologies proposed for their calculation
University College Cork, T12K8AF Cork T12 K8AF, Ireland (e-mail: and allocation [15]. The opportunity for more sophisticated tariff
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]). structures has been noted [14] and it was highlighted that any
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2022.3176186. structural changes in these should be well publicised to minimise
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2022.3176186 negative impacts to end users [16].

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
CUENCA et al.: REVENUE-BASED ALLOCATION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORK CHARGES FOR FUTURE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS 1729

The fair assignment of network charges is a paramount topic

for grid operators, it is important to address how these will
be calculated and distributed amongst users. Accordingly, this
paper offers a novel methodology for the fair assignment of
use of network charges based on individual participant nodes’
revenue. Pairing energy offers and requirements obtained from
power flow simulations with different trading environments and
price schemes result in revenue flows. These can be translated
into grid usage, and subsequently, use of network charges. Fig. 1. Overview of the proposed methodology: simulation of electricity
It is expected that users with DER often acting as gener- distribution network and assignment of use of network charges.
ators (i.e., not acting as a traditional load or generating for
self-consumption, but actively exporting) will see an increase and prices particular to that case, framed in the applicable trading
in charges, while those that make a less intensive use of the and market clearing rules (i.e., the power flow and market sim-
network (e.g., through local generation for self-consumption) ulations are not required in real applications, only for validation
will see a reduction in charges. Moreover, as noted in [16], the in this paper).
change in the distribution of these charges can impact positively First, using the distribution network data, together with
or negatively users without DER as well (e.g., if a single user demand and generation profiles simulated, and state-of-the-
installs DER for its consumption, his charges will be reduced, art DER allocation methods selected from the literature, a
while the rest of the users will see an increase). Nonetheless, year-long high-resolution quasi-static time series simulation
adjusting charges to users that decrease/increase their use of the (QSTS) will be performed to obtain power flows and energy
grid can translate into increased social welfare, while encour- offers/requirements. Performing a power flow simulation, node
aging users to become active participants, without affecting the voltages, loading of lines, losses, energy bids and offers can
interests of the supplier. be calculated. Second, the energy offer/requirement of each
This methodology also presents an important tool that makes participant node in each time step will be run through different
possible an effective comparison of potential DER distributions, price schemes and trading environments to match buyers and
price schemes and trading environments. The main contributions sellers, and identify transacted prices. Note that for the purpose
of the paper are:
r Presenting a novel formulation for the fair assignment of this study, participants represent non-dispatchable loads and
generation resources, this means that there is no need for optimal
of use of network charges that is based on revenue (an power flow simulations, and the market clearing can follow the
indicator of which participant nodes are using the grid bids and offers resulting from the AC power flow calculations.
more intensively), and validating it against traditional and This is possible because no flexible resources are considered as
alternative assignments.
r Performing a high resolution long-term technical- discussed ahead in Section III-D.
For applications of this work, information sharing between
economic simulation of multiple scenarios with different the supplier and trading platforms is necessary. It is required
DER distributions, price schemes and trading environ- for the supplier (or any potential entity in charge of use of
ments to identify the behaviour of future individual revenue network charges calculation and allocation) to have access to
flows.
r Making use of the proposed use-of-network charges as- individual revenue information. In cases where the supplier is
trading directly with the user, the information is already available
signment methodology to carry out an effective comparison (e.g., as part of the smart-metering scheme and relevant princing
of the studied scenarios and issue recommendations based scheme). Alternatively in case of a hypothetical local trading
on the results. scenario (e.g., as defined later in Section III-C), it is possible
The remainder of this manuscript is structured as follows: to either share the revenue of participants with the supplier, or
Section II presents the methodology and mathematical formula- fully take control over the assignment of use of network charges
tion, Section III presents the details for the techno-economic to later aggregate and settle with it.
simulations performed as part of this study, as well as the
assumptions and limitations of this work. Results are displayed
A. Revenue-Based Allocation of Network Charges
in Section IV and the paper is closed with conclusions and
recommendations in Section V. The traditional allocation of network charges consists of
distributing the charges amongst participants based on their
total energy import over a long span (in the order of months).
II. METHODOLOGY Keeping the granularity selected for this problem, and without
A techno-economic simulation of a distribution network is losing generality, (1) shows that the traditional charges Ωtrad i,t
proposed. An overview of the proposed methodology is pre- for participant i are the result distributing all costs for the time
sented in Fig. 1. It is important to note however that in real step t. Operation, maintenance and investment costs (grouped
scenarios only the economic balancing and assignment of use in Φsupl
t ), plus technical losses (these last obtained multiplying
of network charges would be necessary, as all preliminary steps losses Γm,t in every line m by the electricity price offered by the
would be performed contrasting real energy requirements, offers supplier αsupl,t
sell
) are divided amongst participants for each time
1730 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 2, MARCH 2023

step t. The distribution is made based on the participant’s

 active
energy import i,t relative to that of all users j∈N j,t . Note
that i,t is active energy import only when greater than zero.
 
  i,t
Ωtrad = Γm,t × αsupl,t
sell
+ Φsupl ×
j∈N j,t
i,t t
m∈L

i,t ≥ 0 ∀ i, j ∈ N, ∀ t (1)
Fig. 2. Comparison of installed capacities given selected DER allocation
With the large-scale adoption of smart-metering schemes it methods for the test network 1, IEEE 33-bus radial distribution network.
is now possible to evaluate grid usage in near-real time (i.e.,
it is possible for the supplier to access consumption patterns
with enough granularity). Using (2) it is possible to include an this is reflected in higher network charges).
alternative way to distribute network charges: not only quanti-  
  |Ψi,t |
fying energy import, but also energy export over shorter spans Ωi,t =
rev
Γm,t × αsupl,t + Φt
sell supl
×
(in the order of minutes). The active energy offer/requirement m∈L j∈N |Ψj,t |

from participant node i is represented by i,t , it is modelled as (6)

import when positive and export when negative. The alternative There are different views on whether generation units must be
distribution of network charges Ωalt subject to use of network charges. It can be argued that traditional
i,t , equivalent to net metering,
is therefore computed as the participant’s fraction of the total generators provide a service required by final users and in this
active energy (either import or export) using the absolute value. unidirectional paradigm it is reasonable to allocate them in one
end or the other (i.e., in any case these would be paid by the
  end user). However, the appearance of DER is making the flows
  |i,t |
Ωalt + Φsupl × of revenue and electricity change, therefore the use of network
i,t = Γm,t × αsupl,t
sell
j∈N |j,t |
t
m∈L charges must be calculated also for users with DER capabilities
(2) exporting energy, as this represents another type of service. This
The active energy νi,supl,t transacted between participant is reflected in the absolute value of the revenue in (6) and is
nodes i and the supplier must be calculated first as in (3): it is the one of the highlights of this work compared to traditional and
difference between the active energy (either import or export) alternative allocation of charges.
and active energy νi,j,t transacted with every other participant
j. The price αi,supl,t at which the participant i will trade with B. DER Allocation Methods
the supplier is obtained using (4), a binary variable μi,t which
Size and location of DER is expected to impact the flow
depends on whether the transaction is for purchase or sale and
buy of energy and subsequently revenue between participant nodes
corresponding supplier buy αsupl,t and sell αsupl,t
sell
prices for
and the supplier, to account for this, the authors performed an
the time step. Finally, it is possible to compute the revenue Ψi,t
extensive review of allocation papers in the literature. Over the
for each participant node i. This is done by adding the resulting
more than 60 potential publications, four papers were selected
income or spend of each transaction with other participant nodes
to represent hypothetical scenarios for high penetration of DER
and the supplier at the respective price using (5).
in the IEEE 33-bus network [17]–[20]. These methods were
 selected because they have a large penetration of DER and do
νi,supl,t = i,t − νi,j,t (3) not present voltage or line-loading issues as discussed in [20].
j∈N Fig. 2 presents an overview of installed capacities for generation
 (1−µi,t )  sell (µi,t ) across this test network’s topology.
buy
αi,supl,t = αsupl,t × αsupl,t (4) The IEEE 123-bus network is not present in most DER
 allocation papers. Considering that the proposed methodology
Ψi,t = (νi,j,t × αi,j,t ) + νi,supl,t × αi,supl,t (5) is designed for participants that can be either consumers or
j∈N prosumers (i.e., there is no exclusive generation participant),
one of the allocations proposed in [21] was selected for this
At last, network charges Ωrev
i,t of each time step (i.e. technical purpose.
losses, plus operation, investment and maintenance charges) Similarly, following the review of common practices for
will be calculated and distributed amongst participant nodes distribution system allocation rules found in [22], two rules
depending on the absolute value of their revenue νi,j,t respec- of thumb were selected to represent future high penetration
tive to that of all others using (6). This is the proposed and scenarios for the case study: allowing the installation of 15%
preferred methodology as it captures not only individual usage of the distribution transformer kVA rating and the installation
patterns (both consumption and excess), but local energy trading, of 15% of the peak load of the studied node. To complement
dynamic pricing from the supplier and congestion concerns this, the local rule for allocation particular to the case study
indirectly (i.e., when the grid is congested, local trading prices in [23] was selected for investigation. A summary of selected
are expected to increase due to supply/demand balancing, and DER allocation methods can be found in Table I.
CUENCA et al.: REVENUE-BASED ALLOCATION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORK CHARGES FOR FUTURE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS 1731

TABLE I method selected in each iteration of the study. It is assumed that

DER ALLOCATION METHODS SELECTED
the topology is enclosed geographically, therefor the multiplier
applies equally for every generation unit.

III. VALIDATION
The validation process aims to cover different foreseeable sce-
narios in future distribution networks. This section presents the
details of the studied topologies, together with the price schemes
and trading environments to perform the economic balancing
necessary to test the proposed methodology of assignment of
use of network charges.

A. Studied Topologies
r Test Network 1. The modified version of the IEEE 33-bus
C. QSTS Simulation radial feeder consisting of 32 branches and 33 nodes is
used in a variety of distribution network studies across
To ultimately study the flows of revenue and determine the the literature. The bus and branch data, paired with base
resulting assignment of use of network charges, it is important as loads for each bus can be found in [25]. The documenta-
input to have an energy balance that represents future conditions tion includes a synchronous generator that represents the
in a distribution network. In current practices the time step point of connection feeding the system. For the purpose
varies greatly between supplier, country, and metering scheme. of this study, the point of connection will be modelled as
Traditional allocation of network charges is computed in the the supplier and the remaining 32 nodes are distribution
order of months while the alternative and proposed methods transformers that represent individual participant nodes.
can be studied given the technical specifications of the smart r Test Network 2. The IEEE 123-bus network includes
metering device. To perform a robust analysis of the problem a 91 loaded nodes that can be modelled as participants. It
5-minute time step was selected, this allows for enough granu- represents an additional level of complexity considering
larity without becoming an unnecessary computational burden. the larger number of connections. While there are multiple
The test networks and case study are modelled using OpenDSS possibilities for reconfiguration and meshed operation, the
and the COM interface with Matlab through an AC power flow standard configuration was used for the purpose of this
simulation. Details on electricity demand and generation profiles study.
are given in this subsection, these are used to simulate energy r Case Study. A typical urban Irish medium voltage feeder
flows required as input for the economic study. was selected as case study. It has four single-phase loaded
1) Demand Profile: The test networks and case study include buses and 17 three-phase loaded buses for a total of 52 po-
peak load information, but detailed demand profiles are not tential single-phase participant nodes. There are no voltage
available. The CREST demand model [24] was selected to fill or line-loading problems at a peak load of 1713.6 kW and
the gap, it is an open-source high-resolution stochastic domestic 589.1 kVAr in this feeder with a total of 6.16 km of lines
electricity demand model. This model has been validated using operating at 10 kV.
real utility data from the United Kingdom, and it has been
used in numerous distribution system studies. The active power
demand data simulated corresponds to the peak load and it B. Price Schemes Offered by Suppliers
is complemented by reactive power demand that matches the To understand the economic implications of DER develop-
power factor in the documentation. No load-voltage dependency ments in distribution networks, it is important to capture different
considerations are made for the test networks, while the case pricing schemes for purchase and sale of electricity. For the
study modelling follows constant-impedance, constant-current purpose of this study, the authors considered combinations of
and constant-power (ZIP) curves available in the documentation. the following price schemes.
The demand is modelled depending on the peak load and the 1) Energy Purchase: Traditionally, individual users are
amount of customers associated to the node when known, this billed their energy balance over a relatively long period (i.e., in
corresponds to a year-long simulation of demand with 5 minute the order of months) using a flat tariff that captures generation,
resolution equivalent to a leap year analogous to 2020. transmission, distribution and commercialisation costs. There is
2) Generation Profile: For the purpose of this study, a purely no negotiation process because the supplier unilaterally calcu-
photovoltaic (PV) generation profile is suggested. This profile lates these costs as result of price signals from the wholesale
includes seasonal and weather variations for the geographical lo- market, the grid operator and regulator. This scheme is still
cation of the case study and it was simulated using the respective used by the majority of suppliers worldwide [26]. Nonetheless,
functionality of the CREST model. For simplicity, all generators with the need to flatten the demand curve and displace energy
were modelled with a constant power factor equal to one, and as demand away from peak consumption times, and with the roll
a result, each time step presents a generation multiplier that will out of smart metering schemes that allow energy quantification
be applied to the installed capacity determined by the allocation on smaller time steps (i.e., in the order of minutes or hours),
1732 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 2, MARCH 2023

suppliers have developed more dynamic tariffs, the most popular

one currently in use is the time-of-use tariff (ToU), that consists
of a step function assigning different prices for the purchase
of energy depending on the time of the day when the purchase
occurs.
2) Energy Selling: At the beginning of the energy transition,
small scale DER installed by individual users was conceived for
self-consumption combined with in-site energy storage, there-
fore the supplier did not initially pay for energy fed to the grid,
this means that users were only billed for energy consumed. With
the introduction of energy policy aiming to increase the share
of small scale DER installations, regulators around the world
gradually introduced a monetary incentive for energy fed to the
grid, this is known as feed-in-tariff (FiT). Fig. 3. Overview of the simulated scenarios. index corresponds to subsection
The specific prices used for this study correspond to those in text.
in [27]. Other price schemes are under consideration by suppliers
and the research community, including smart contracts and
aggregators [28], [29], however these are still at an early stage D. Considerations and Limitations
and will not be considered for the present study. An overview of the scenarios proposed for the validation
process is presented in Fig. 3, a total of 48 independent year-long
C. Local Trading Environments simulations were performed to offer a robust analysis of the
problem. Nonetheless, a number of potential scenarios are left
It is not only the prices offered by the supplier that define out of scope to simplify the problem:
how the economic balancing will be conducted, different pol- r PV installations have sustained periods of unavailability
icy frameworks are expected to allow or restrict local trading where no local trading occurs. During these, power and rev-
to a certain degree. The following trading environments were enue flows depend only on the demand. Therefore, effects
selected for study in this manuscript: of the proposed methodology are expected to be greater
1) Only the supplier is able to sell energy to participants. with other generation technologies with shorter/fewer pe-
In this trading environment, no policy has been developed riods of unavailability.
to pay incentives for energy fed to the grid. The supplier r Flexibility resources (e.g., energy storage, etc.) are not
offers a FiT equal to zero regardless of the price scheme included in this study.
for purchase of electricity. r Electrification of heat and transport is not considered in
2) Only the supplier is able to trade (sell and purchase) this work.
with participants. For this environment, policy has al- r For the purpose of this study, users represent MV/LV
ready introduced a FiT, every energy unit fed to the grid transformers and the values for energy bids and offers
will be paid to the participant node at this price, trading represent aggregated values of several behind-the-meter
between participants is not allowed. PV installations and non-flexible loads, this means that
3) Local trading is allowed clearing the market with the energy balancing does not follow dispatch rules.
shortest electrical distance. A hypothetical trading sce- r It is assumed in this study that participant nodes do not
nario in which participant nodes are allowed to buy and sell respond to price signals (i.e., there is no demand response
electricity to a participant other than the supplier. There is capabilities), this simplification reduces noise when com-
no decision making process, the market is cleared priori- paring different trading environments and DER allocations
tising trades with the shortest electrical distance criteria from a use of network charges perspective.
similar to the one presented in [30]. r A different allocation of DER results in different energy
4) Local trading is allowed using a zero-intelligence con- and revenue flows, therefore a systematic study of various
tinuous double auction algorithm (ZI-CDA). Partici- allocation methods is required to further explore economic
pant nodes submit their orders (either bid or offer) during implications of high penetration.
each trading slot. All the arriving bids and offers received r While there are certain countries and regulatory frame-
are accumulated in the order book, ordered according to works that allow for network charges to be paid in part
their prices [27], and matched until the market is cleared. through standing charges, these will not be considered for
Partial or unmatched orders are assumed to be fulfilled this study. This is possible in distribution networks where
with the supplier at the pre-defined rates (i.e. FiT, Flat or users are homogeneous (i.e., residential and commercial
ToU). In this paper, Zero-Intelligence agents are adopted: mostly), as standing charges are equivalent for all partici-
a participant node simply bids in the CDA market using pants and can be seen as an offset of the variable charges
random prices within a budget constraint, this prevents calculated in this work.
participants from trading at a loss. A ZI-CDA marketplace r Deregulated market structures require the simultane-
can sustain a high level of efficiency [31]. ous evaluation of different trading schemes and trading
CUENCA et al.: REVENUE-BASED ALLOCATION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORK CHARGES FOR FUTURE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS 1733

environments for participants in the same network. This

increases exponentially the complexity of the problem and
restricts the interpretability of the results. For these reasons,
deregulation was not considered in this study.
The proposed simulated scenarios were selected to cover a
range of foreseeable occurrences in terms of topology, DER
penetration and distributions, price schemes and trading environ-
ments. The objective is threefold: first, to offer a robust validation
process for the proposed methodology (i.e., determining if under
different circumstances the revenue based allocation has a better
performance for social welfare than the traditional and alterna-
tive allocations). Second, to identify patterns amongst different
scenarios to formulate conclusions on preferred DER allocation
methods, price schemes and trading environments. Third, to
contribute to the literature on technical-economic simulation of
distribution networks, as the results from this work may be useful
for future research and applications.

IV. RESULTS
This section presents the results of the study. First, the pro-
posed methodology is studied in detail using one of the scenarios
proposed. Second, the results of all the simulations for the test
networks and case study are presented. At last, an analysis of
the results is performed to identify key benefits of certain DER
allocation methods, price schemes and trading environments.

A. Detailed Results
For this subsection, the following scenario was selected.
Given the demand and PV generation profiles, test network 1
was equiped with the DER allocation proposed in [17], and
the yearly QSTS simulation was performed to obtain an energy
balance (i.e., for each time step, the energy excess or require-
ment of every participant node). Using the price scheme that
includes supplier prices ToU and FiT, combined with the trading
environment that allows local trading clearing the market with
the shortest electrical distance, the economic balancing was Fig. 4. Detailed results for DER allocation method [17] considering ToU and
performed. Ultimately, considering the proposed mechanism for electrical distance over the course of the studied year. (*) Participant nodes with
the assignment of use of network charges, each participant was DER. (a) Installed DER and peak load, (b) energy balance resulting from PF
simulations, (c) economic balance, and (d) assignments of charges.
charged fees corresponding to the addition of technical losses,
operation, investment and maintenance costs. The assignment is
then compared to the traditional and alternative mechanisms to
assign use of network charges. Fig. 4 presents the total values of charges, all the values obtained were included in a scatter plot
the year that follow the sequence presented before. As seen in as function of the ratio between the DER installed capacity and
Fig. 4, the proposed assignment is reducing the use of network peak load of the participant node, this can be seen in Fig. 5. It
charges for some participant nodes and increasing them for was discovered that for the simulated scenarios, there are four
others, at this stage it is not possible to draw conclusions on generation to load zones connected to an increase or reduction
the reasons for these changes. As an example, participant node of charges compared to the traditional assignment.
r Participants with a generation to load ratio lower than
6 has a reduction in use of network charges while participant 24
sees an increase, despite both having DER installed. Similarly 1 (i.e., participant nodes that have less DER installed
participant 8 has a reduction, while participant node 16 presents compared to the peak load) always present a reduction in
an increase, despite them not having generation capabilities. network charges.
r Those with a generation to load ratio between 1 and 5 (i.e.,
participant nodes with similar DER compared to their peak
B. All Simulation Results
load) always present an increase in use of network charges.
To gain a better understanding on the impact that high pene- This can be seen specifically in the enlarged portion of
tration of DER might have in the assignment of use of network Fig. 5.
1734 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 2, MARCH 2023

does not change, the global charges increased between 2.0% and
7.2% for this test network using ToU tariffs as price scheme. The
increase is relatively small, but it suggests that it is in the interest
of the supplier to adopt dynamic tariffs, as these would increase
their income from use of network charges while becoming an
additional incentive for participants to shift their consumption
to less congested time-steps.
For this test network, the largest decrease in use of network
charges when compared to the traditional assignment corre-
sponds to € 9,912, it happened for participant node 6, when
the allocation in [18] is used, paired with the ToU price scheme
and no local trading is allowed. The largest increase in charges
happened to participant node 24, also using [18], ToU price
scheme, and the electrical distance trading environment, this
increase corresponded to € 8,179. This shows how significant
Fig. 5. Scatter plot of use of network charges for participant nodes with
different generation-to-load ratio in the test network using and all DER allo-
use of network charges can be unfairly assigned to a participant
cations [17]–[20]. ToU price scheme. node that is not using the grid as much as others.
Results in Fig. 6 support the hypothesis formulated before:
there appears to be a connection between self-consumption and
r Participants with a ratio between 5 and 7.5 may present an changes in the assignment of charges. For all the scenarios stud-
increase or decrease in charges depending on the trading ied in test network 1, nodes that have a larger self-consumption
environment. rate relative to others benefit from a decrease in network charges,
r Ultimately, those with a ratio higher than 7.5 (i.e., partici- while lower self-consumption rates end in increased charges.
pant nodes that have a very large DER installed compared It is visible especially in Figs. 6(a), 6(b), and 6(c) that partici-
to their peak load), always present a reduction of charges. pant nodes without generation capabilities are seeing very small
These ratios are linked to different levels of self-consumption (close to zero) changes in network charges, leaving them unaf-
for PV installations, and self-consumption levels are indirectly fected. Additionally, when the values for each plot for change in
associated to congestion (i.e., if local consumption is intensive, use of network charges are added the resulting change is zero,
congestion and losses are reduced as discussed in [20]). It is this means that as discussed previously the change of network
important to note that the generation to load ratio of installed charges does not affect the supplier. These results suggest that the
capacity serves only as an indicator: actual self-consumption is proposed methodology exclusively targets users that are making
linked to instantaneous generation and load states. Therefore, it a more (or less) intensive use of the network.
is hypothesised that reductions and increases in use of network It is important to note that both the alternative and proposed
charges assigned through the proposed methodology may be allocation of network charges methodologies represent an im-
linked to levels of self-consumption for two reasons: congestion provement from the traditional method. Participants with gener-
and loss reduction. ation capabilities see a change in network charges, the direction
1) Test Network 1 Results: To identify patterns it is useful of which depends on whether this resource is mostly used locally
to have an overview of all the simulations performed. Given or is fed to the grid. However, the proposed methodology is
all price schemes, DER allocation methods and trading envi- preferred as it not only captures energy fed to the grid, but
ronments studied, a comparison of traditional, alternative, and under which operational circumstance it was fed (i.e., charges
proposed assignment of use of network charges for all partici- are indirectly connected to congestion).
pants in the test network can be found in Fig. 6. Each sub-figure The allocation method [20] presents a higher degree of node
includes first, the traditional use of network charges for each participation (i.e., all participants have DER capabilities), this
participant using different price schemes (i.e., flat tariffs and ToU results in smaller changes in the magnitude of network charges
tariffs), and second, the increase or decrease in use of network compared to the other resource distributions (e.g., those in
charges using the alternative and proposed method. Additionally, Refs. [17]–[19]). Nonetheless, the same connection between
to test the connection between self-consumption and charges self-consumption and change in charges is visible. Notably,
increase/decrease discussed in the previous paragraph, Fig. 6 the energy generated by nodes 24 and 25 in Fig. 6(d) goes
presents the percentage of energy used in the node that came exclusively to self-consumption, and this results in the largest
from self-consumption. It is important to clarify that in every reduction in network charges for the scenario. At last, while
figure given the same price scheme, the global charges are it is noticeable that different trading environments result in
the same (i.e., none of the charge allocation methodologies different magnitudes of increase or reduction, there is not enough
modify the charges, only the way they are distributed among evidence to conclude which are preferred.
participants). 2) Test Network 2 Results: For the largest test network, the
It was discovered that the price scheme has a global impact change in global charges was 1.8% using the time of use tariff.
on how the use of network charges are calculated, therefore in This network has more participant nodes, but only five of them
the overall charges too: while the distribution of network charges have DER capabilities. Results of the simulation for the IEEE
CUENCA et al.: REVENUE-BASED ALLOCATION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORK CHARGES FOR FUTURE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS 1735

Fig. 6. Change in use of network charges assigned to participant nodes in the IEEE 33-bus network using DER allocations in (a) Ref. [17], (b) Ref. [18], (c)
Ref. [19], and (d) Ref. [20].

Fig. 7. Change in use of network charges assigned to participant nodes in the IEEE 123-bus network using DER allocations in [21].

123-bus network are registered in Fig. 7. Responding to the Participant node 34 has a large amount of traditional use of
identification of higher relative revenues, a significant increase network charges assigned to it, and these are greatly reduced
in network charges is seen by participant nodes 72 and 74, this is thanks to the application of the proposed methodology. This is
associated to their smaller self-consumption rates: since most of explained in two ways: first, when local trading is enabled, DER
the energy generated is fed to the grid, these users are assigned participants are offering a cheaper price of electricity compared
larger network charges. In contrast, participant nodes 61, 62, and to the supplier, which ends up in a less intensive flow of revenue
63 see a relatively small increase because most of the energy they for non-DER participants. Second, the more intensive use of
generate is used in self-consumption. the grid (measured through the revenue increase) that DER
For this network and allocation of DER, a benefit in the form of participants have, represents an immediate reduction in network
network charges reduction is seen by all non-DER participants. charges for the rest of the participants.
1736 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 38, NO. 2, MARCH 2023

TABLE II
LOSSES AND CHARGES FOR EACH DER ALLOCATION METHOD TEST NETWORK
- IEEE 33-BUS RADIAL DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

using the Irish supplier allocation rules in [23], corresponding

respectively to € 475 and € 2,100.
Results for the case study do not support the hypothesis
on self-consumption being the sole factor for changes in net-
work charges (e.g., in Fig. 8(a) node 45 has the smallest self-
consumption rate and still benefits from a reduction in network
charges). This initially is attributed to the topological complexity
of real networks, and further investigation is required. It is
hypothesised that changes in network charges are connected
to more than one factor (i.e., not only self-consumption rates).
Nonetheless, it is still possible to test individually that the pro-
posed methodology is correctly identifying which users should
assume larger charges. It was verified that node 45 mentioned
before presents an overall reduction in imported energy and
exported energy, which translates in less intensive use of the grid
and subsequently assigned network charges. This was verified
by brute force for every node and no exceptions were found.
When generation resource is allocated following the 15%
transformer rating rule of thumb, every participant across differ-
ent price schemes and trading environment had an proportional
increase or decrease in grid usage. This is reflected in the fact that
changes in use of network charges in Fig. 8(b) are homogeneous
regardless of trading environment, price scheme, and charge
assignment method.
For this particular DER allocation method, network charges
change is the result of net metering, which in turn would make
the proposed methodology unnecessary. The alternative method-
ology (i.e., net metering) would be preferred if this rule of thumb
is applied.

C. Effect of Losses in Use of Network Charges Calculations

It was mentioned before that network charges are assigned
Fig. 8. Change in use of network charges assigned to participant nodes in
the case study using (a) 15% transformer allocation rule, (b) 15% peak load based on technical losses, operation, investment and mainte-
allocation rule, and (c) the Irish supplier allocation rules in [23]. nance costs. The techno-economic analysis performed in this
study allows to investigate on an important part of the variable
portion of network charges: losses. Table II presents an overview
3) Case Study Results: Results for scenarios with all price of the allocation methods, and corresponding losses over the
schemes, DER allocation methods and trading environments studied year for the test network.
for the Irish MV feeder are presented in Fig. 8. As it occurred Lower yearly losses are present for allocation methods in
with the test networks, the global charges for the case study Refs. [17] and [20]. Since losses are included in the network
increased between 0.9% and 4.9% when time of use tariff is used, charges, results in Table II for calculated charges were as ex-
again suggesting that suppliers benefit from dynamic tariffs. The pected: these methods have fewer charges to settle. The two DER
largest increase and decrease in charges happened for node 43 allocation methods cited before are preferred from a network
CUENCA et al.: REVENUE-BASED ALLOCATION OF ELECTRICITY NETWORK CHARGES FOR FUTURE DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS 1737

charges point of view. As it was previously hypothesised in [20], The connection between self-consumption, losses and net-
this may be explained because these two methods have the high- work charges was explored. Results partially support the hy-
est participation and self-consumption rates as seen in Table I. pothesis that higher self-consumption rates lead to a decrease in
losses and a less intensive use of the grid, which in turn reduces
network charges for participants.
V. CONCLUSION This study was conducted using zero-constraint DER allo-
This paper offers a novel method for the assignment of use cation methods. However, some grids may present congestion
of network charges in distribution networks that is based on issues during certain time steps in the future. The proposed
participant revenue. The approach is in principle scalable to methodology is applicable to congestion cases and in theory
the transmission and lower voltage levels. Extensive simulation contributes to its reduction via increased charges, but it does not
work was performed including multiple DER allocations, price represent a solution to congestion.
schemes and local trading rules. This paper presents an initial It will be possible for future work to further assess the validity
step in the simultaneous simulation of economic and technical of the proposed methodology given additional technologies,
constraints of power systems. pricing schemes, and market structures. A special mention is
It was discovered through simulation work that the price made for the case of deregulation in electricity markets, as the
scheme selected has a very small impact on the assignment of simultaneous occurrence of different pricing schemes coming
network charges. However as the way the charges are calculated from different suppliers provides an interesting research oppor-
varies with the price scheme, the total perceived by the supplier tunity.
changes. Results suggest that the supplier receives more charges
using the ToU price scheme, this is because the majority of ACKNOWLEDGMENT
losses occur in peak consumption times, during time steps that
The authors would like to give special thanks to the CENTS
correspond with a more expensive energy price compared to flat
project industry and research partners, IERC, NUI Galway,
tariff. Suppliers are recommended to adopt dynamic tariffs as
TU Dublin, mSemicon Teoranta, MPOWER, and Community
their income product of use of network charges calculation is
Power for their support and inputs into finalising this article.
expected to increase.
Additional thanks to ESB Networks for providing the case study
Using the proposed methodology does not increase or de-
information used for validation in this work.
crease the amount received by the supplier for network charges,
it does not affect the network charges assigned to participant
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