11.8 X-rays Learning outcomes On completion of this section, you should be able to: 1m explain the process of X-ray production explain the origins of line and continuous X-ray spectra Use the relationship [= /,e™ for the attenuation of X-rays in matter fm discuss the use of X-rays in radiotherapy and imaging in medicine. X-ray production When someone has a broken arm or leg the most common way to view the injury, without doing an internal examination, is to get an X-ray. X-rays are simply shadow pictures of internal structures inside the body, X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal surface with electrons that have been accelerated through a large potential difference. When a charged particle is accelerated, electromagnetic radiation is produced (called Bremsstrahlung radiation). The greater the acceleration of the charged particle, the shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation produced ~ [high voltage |+ supply heated filament (cathode) X-ray window X-rays Figure 11.8.1 A simple diagram showing how X-rays are produced Figure 11.8.1 shows a simple diagram of an X-ray tube. Electrons are produced from a heated cathode by a process called thermionic emission. In this process, electrons escape from the surface of the cathode as a result of heating, ‘The electrons produced in this process are accelerated towards the metal anode, using a very large potential difference (20-100KV}. The electrons gain kinetic energy in the process. When the electrons strike the metal surface, they undergo very large decelerations. Most of the kinetic energy ‘of the electrons is converted into thermal energy. Some of the kinetic energy is converted into radiation, The radiation produced lies in the Xray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The X-rays then exit through the X-ray window. X-ray spectrum Figure 11.8.2 shows a typical spectrum of the X-rays produced in an Xray tube, ‘The spectrum produced shows two distinct components, There is a continuous distribution of wavelengths and a series of sharp high- intensity lines. These lines are characteristic of the metal target being used. There is also a cut-off wavelength. This minimum wavelength is the wavelength emitted when all the kinetic energy of the incident electrons is converted into X-rays.Chapter 11 The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation Ml intensity Hatten spite are characteristic ofthe metal spectrum / wavelength Sharp cut-off + determined by the operating voltage «all the energy of the electron is converted into thermal energy. Figure 11.8.2 Typical spectrum of X-rays during production A continuous spectrum is one in which all frequencies are possible within a frequency range. The electrons hitting the metal target have a wide range of decelerations and this is what gives rise to the continuous spectrum, When electrons strike the metal surface, the electrons that are found in the orbits of the metal atoms become excited and jump to a higher energy level {excitation}, When these electrons fall from a high energy level to a lower energy level {de-excitation) photons of energy arc emitted (Figure 11.8.3). This gives rise to the line spectrum (spikes). The atoms that make up the metal target have distinct energy levels. This means that orbital electrons can only occupy fixed energy levels so different spikes correspond to photons of different energy being released. If a different metal is used for the anode, the high-intensity spikes occur at different positions because different metal atoms have different energy levels. Attenuation of X-rays The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as the radiation passes through matter. Figure 11.8.4 shows what happens to the intensity of a parallel beam of X-rays having an initial intensity /, as it passes through an absorbing medium. The intensity at the point P is given by I = [,e-", where jis called the linear absorption coeificient of the material, Example ‘An X-ray tube operates at SOKV and the current through it is 1.1 mA Calculate: a the electrical power input the speed of the electrons when they hit the target inside the tube € the cut-off wavelength of the X-rays emitted a Power input = IV = 1.1 x 10-* x 50 x 10° = 55W b Gain in kinetic energy of electrons = loss in electrical potential energy jmv! = QV _ 20V y= Pov y = 2X16 x 10? X50 x 10" -\ vir v = 133 x 10's"! Electrons from, the cathode supply energy for the electrons inthe metal ——> atom to be excited & orbital electron (2) Excitation orbital electron oe! > photon released ents , + (6) De-excitation Figure 11.8.3 Excitation of orbital electrons way eons | wo, Lt Figure 11.8.4 Attenuation of X-rays through matter Equation J intensity of X-rays at a distance xm? J, ~ initial intensity of X-rays/W m= i ~ linear absorption coefficient/ x. ~ distance travelled through mediurn/mI Chapter 11. The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation ¢ The minimum wavelength is the wavelength emitted when all the kinetic energy of the incident electrons is converted into X-rays. _ he Be a _ he ve QV” “16 xi? x50 x 10* 2.49 x 107m, Cut-off wavelength 4 = Example ‘The linear absorption coefficient j for bone and muscle are 2.9em~! and 0.95cm™ respectively. A parallel X-ray beam of intensity J, is incident on some muscle tissue of thickness 4.0cm. Below the muscle tissue is some bone of thickness 13cm. Calculate the intensity of the X-ray beam after passing through the muscle tissue and bone. Give the answer in terms of I, Intensity after passing through the muscle tissue = I = Ie" wss40) = 9.02241, Intensity after passing through the bone, T= Lew = 0.0224 7,e7##* 141 = 5.16 x 10) Uses of X-rays X-ray photography X-rays are used to produce shadow photographs of internal structures of the body. They are very penetrating when compared with visible light and are therefore able to pass easily through the body. Different tissues inside the body have different densities. Bone tissue is denser than soft tissue. This means that bones are more effective at absorbing X-rays than soft tissue, As a result there is a contrast between bone and soft tissue on X-ray photographs X-ray computed tomography (CT) rotating X-ray detectors fan-shaped Xray beam motorised platform rotating X-ray source Figure 11.8.5 ACT scannerChapter 11 The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation Ml When X-rays are used to make an image of, for example, a broken leg using photographic film, the photograph is a two-dimensional picture. It gives no perception of depth. Figure 11.8.5 shows a computed tomography (CT) scanner. CT scanners are able to produce very detailed three-dimensional pictures of the body. The patient lies on a movable table. This allows for the patient to be positioned inside a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) CT scanner, ‘Tomography is a technique by which an image of a slice of the body may be obtained. Inside the scanner there is an X-ray source and multiple X-ray detectors. The X-ray source and detectors are rotated about the patient and multiple images of the slice are taken. The patient is shifted along the axis of the scanner and images of multiple slices arc taken, Powerful computers combine the images to produce a three-dimensional picture of the region of the body being investigated Advantages: fast, provides detailed three-dimensional pictures of the body Disadvantage: greater exposure to X-rays than standard imaging techniques ‘Uses: to detect solid tumours and other problems in the abdomen and chest Radiotherapy X-rays are also used in radiotherapy. High-energy X-rays are directed at a person’s body to kill cancer cells and keep them from growing and multiplying, Key points X-rays are produced by bombarding @ metal surface with electrons that have been accelerated through a large potential difference, = The typical spectrum of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube consists of a continuous distribution of wavelengths and a series of sharp high-intensity tines The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as it passes through matter. X-rays are used to obtain shadow pictures of internal structures of the body, three-dimensional images using CT scanners and in radiotherapy in the treatment of cancers