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11.8 X-rays
Learning outcomes
On completion of this section, you
should be able to:
1m explain the process of X-ray
production
explain the origins of line and
continuous X-ray spectra
Use the relationship [= /,e™
for the attenuation of X-rays in
matter
fm discuss the use of X-rays in
radiotherapy and imaging in
medicine.
X-ray production
When someone has a broken arm or leg the most common way to view
the injury, without doing an internal examination, is to get an X-ray.
X-rays are simply shadow pictures of internal structures inside the body,
X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal surface with electrons that
have been accelerated through a large potential difference. When a
charged particle is accelerated, electromagnetic radiation is produced
(called Bremsstrahlung radiation). The greater the acceleration of the
charged particle, the shorter the wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation produced
~ [high voltage |+
supply
heated filament (cathode)
X-ray window
X-rays
Figure 11.8.1 A simple diagram showing how X-rays are produced
Figure 11.8.1 shows a simple diagram of an X-ray tube. Electrons are
produced from a heated cathode by a process called thermionic emission.
In this process, electrons escape from the surface of the cathode as a
result of heating,
‘The electrons produced in this process are accelerated towards the metal
anode, using a very large potential difference (20-100KV}. The electrons
gain kinetic energy in the process. When the electrons strike the metal
surface, they undergo very large decelerations. Most of the kinetic energy
‘of the electrons is converted into thermal energy. Some of the kinetic
energy is converted into radiation, The radiation produced lies in the
Xray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The X-rays then exit
through the X-ray window.
X-ray spectrum
Figure 11.8.2 shows a typical spectrum of the X-rays produced in an
Xray tube,
‘The spectrum produced shows two distinct components, There is a
continuous distribution of wavelengths and a series of sharp high-
intensity lines. These lines are characteristic of the metal target being
used. There is also a cut-off wavelength. This minimum wavelength
is the wavelength emitted when all the kinetic energy of the incident
electrons is converted into X-rays.Chapter 11 The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation Ml
intensity
Hatten spite are
characteristic ofthe metal
spectrum
/ wavelength
Sharp cut-off
+ determined by the operating voltage
«all the energy of the electron is converted into thermal energy.
Figure 11.8.2 Typical spectrum of X-rays during production
A continuous spectrum is one in which all frequencies are possible within
a frequency range. The electrons hitting the metal target have a wide range
of decelerations and this is what gives rise to the continuous spectrum,
When electrons strike the metal surface, the electrons that are found in
the orbits of the metal atoms become excited and jump to a higher energy
level {excitation}, When these electrons fall from a high energy level to a
lower energy level {de-excitation) photons of energy arc emitted (Figure
11.8.3). This gives rise to the line spectrum (spikes). The atoms that
make up the metal target have distinct energy levels. This means that
orbital electrons can only occupy fixed energy levels so different spikes
correspond to photons of different energy being released. If a different
metal is used for the anode, the high-intensity spikes occur at different
positions because different metal atoms have different energy levels.
Attenuation of X-rays
The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as the radiation passes
through matter. Figure 11.8.4 shows what happens to the intensity of a
parallel beam of X-rays having an initial intensity /, as it passes through
an absorbing medium. The intensity at the point P is given by I = [,e-",
where jis called the linear absorption coeificient of the material,
Example
‘An X-ray tube operates at SOKV and the current through it is 1.1 mA
Calculate:
a the electrical power input
the speed of the electrons when they hit the target inside the tube
€ the cut-off wavelength of the X-rays emitted
a Power input = IV = 1.1 x 10-* x 50 x 10° = 55W
b Gain in kinetic energy of electrons = loss in electrical potential energy
jmv! = QV
_ 20V
y= Pov
y = 2X16 x 10? X50 x 10"
-\ vir
v = 133 x 10's"!
Electrons from,
the cathode
supply energy
for the
electrons
inthe metal ——>
atom to be
excited &
orbital electron
(2) Excitation
orbital electron
oe!
> photon released
ents
, +
(6) De-excitation
Figure 11.8.3 Excitation of orbital electrons
way
eons |
wo, Lt
Figure 11.8.4 Attenuation of X-rays
through matter
Equation
J intensity of X-rays at a distance
xm?
J, ~ initial intensity of X-rays/W m=
i ~ linear absorption coefficient/
x. ~ distance travelled through
mediurn/mI Chapter 11. The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation
¢ The minimum wavelength is the wavelength emitted when all the
kinetic energy of the incident electrons is converted into X-rays.
_ he
Be a
_ he
ve
QV” “16 xi? x50 x 10*
2.49 x 107m,
Cut-off wavelength 4 =
Example
‘The linear absorption coefficient j for bone and muscle are 2.9em~! and
0.95cm™ respectively. A parallel X-ray beam of intensity J, is incident on
some muscle tissue of thickness 4.0cm. Below the muscle tissue is some
bone of thickness 13cm. Calculate the intensity of the X-ray beam after
passing through the muscle tissue and bone. Give the answer in terms of I,
Intensity after passing through the muscle tissue = I = Ie"
wss40) = 9.02241,
Intensity after passing through the bone, T= Lew
= 0.0224 7,e7##* 141 = 5.16 x 10)
Uses of X-rays
X-ray photography
X-rays are used to produce shadow photographs of internal structures
of the body. They are very penetrating when compared with visible light
and are therefore able to pass easily through the body. Different tissues
inside the body have different densities. Bone tissue is denser than soft
tissue. This means that bones are more effective at absorbing X-rays than
soft tissue, As a result there is a contrast between bone and soft tissue on
X-ray photographs
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
rotating X-ray detectors
fan-shaped
Xray beam
motorised
platform
rotating X-ray source
Figure 11.8.5 ACT scannerChapter 11 The particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation Ml
When X-rays are used to make an image of, for example, a broken leg
using photographic film, the photograph is a two-dimensional picture.
It gives no perception of depth. Figure 11.8.5 shows a computed
tomography (CT) scanner.
CT scanners are able to produce very detailed three-dimensional pictures
of the body. The patient lies on a movable table. This allows for the
patient to be positioned inside a toroidal (doughnut-shaped) CT scanner,
‘Tomography is a technique by which an image of a slice of the body may
be obtained. Inside the scanner there is an X-ray source and multiple
X-ray detectors. The X-ray source and detectors are rotated about the
patient and multiple images of the slice are taken. The patient is shifted
along the axis of the scanner and images of multiple slices arc taken,
Powerful computers combine the images to produce a three-dimensional
picture of the region of the body being investigated
Advantages: fast, provides detailed three-dimensional pictures of the
body
Disadvantage: greater exposure to X-rays than standard imaging
techniques
‘Uses: to detect solid tumours and other problems in the abdomen and
chest
Radiotherapy
X-rays are also used in radiotherapy. High-energy X-rays are directed
at a person’s body to kill cancer cells and keep them from growing and
multiplying,
Key points
X-rays are produced by bombarding @ metal surface with electrons that
have been accelerated through a large potential difference,
= The typical spectrum of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube consists of a
continuous distribution of wavelengths and a series of sharp high-intensity
tines
The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as it passes through matter.
X-rays are used to obtain shadow pictures of internal structures of the
body, three-dimensional images using CT scanners and in radiotherapy in
the treatment of cancers