Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

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Energy Conversion and Management: X

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A methodology for indoor testing of solar radiation impact on vehicle

cabin temperature☆
Sebastián Aceros a, Davide Currό b, Giuseppe Di Pierro c, Georgios Fontaras c, 1, *,
Pablo Olmeda a, 1, *
a
CMT – Motores Térmicos, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camino de Vera s/n 46022, Valencia, Spain
b
Piksel s.r.l. Milano, Italy
c
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Air conditioning systems for automotive applications are always striving to attain optimal and effective solutions
Vehicle cabin in order to fulfil diverse needs. Yet, to thoroughly evaluate their system performance, it is essential to account for
Solar radiation the influence of solar irradiance on the overall thermal dynamic within vehicle cabin. This study presents an
Thermal behaviour
approach to simulate the impact of solar radiation on vehicle cabin thermal behaviour using electric blankets as a
Cabin thermal model
practical and cost-effective means to replicate solar effects. The methodology combines controlled experimental
Air-conditioning system
tests in a climatic chamber with outdoor tests under natural solar irradiance and ambient conditions. A thermal
model of the cabin is calibrated and validated using the climatic chamber experiments, demonstrating maximum
errors not exceeding 3.5 ◦ C and mean absolute errors (MAEs) below 1.86 ◦ C, showcasing the model’s high
precision. Based on the results obtained from the model, an exponential function was derived that links the
vehicle cabin temperature to solar irradiance. Finally, a heating function is defined, which allows estimating the
temperature profile of the electric blankets based on the irradiance values, obtaining results very similar to those
of the model, with a coefficient of determination of 0.9486. This will allow to accurately predict and control the
internal temperature of a vehicle cabin under varying solar irradiance levels.

EU, the European Commission includes the need to accept mobile air-
1. Introduction conditioning systems as eco-innovation from 1st January 2025 [7]. It
is further well established the importance of evaluating and improving
With the increasing concern for environmental issues, there has been vehicle HVAC systems to meet environmental standards and fulfil the
a growing emphasis on stringent regulations that demand vehicle demands for energy efficiency and occupant comfort [8].
manufacturers to design more efficient cars to comply with new regu­ As consumer expectations for enhanced comfort continue to rise, the
lations [1–4]. As part of these efforts, heating, ventilation, and air energy consumption of these systems becomes a significant concern [9].
conditioning (HVAC) systems play a vital role in providing thermal Numerous studies have focused on evaluating the performance of HVAC
comfort, maintaining a healthy indoor environment for vehicle occu­ systems in vehicles, aiming to achieve efficient and effective solutions to
pants, and ensuring a pleasant driving experience. Additionally, HVAC meet the diverse thermal comfort requirements under various operating
systems significantly impact energy consumption in vehicles, as they conditions [10–12]. However, to comprehensively assess the perfor­
account for a considerable portion of the total energy consumption [5]. mance of HVAC systems, it is crucial to consider the impact of solar
Therefore, evaluating and optimizing the performance of HVAC systems irradiance on the overall thermal behaviour of the vehicle cabin, which
is essential for achieving energy efficiency and occupant comfort goals will be extensively studied and discussed in this study [13].
[6]. It is imperative to assess the performance of these systems under Solar radiation, particularly when the vehicle is exposed to direct
various operating conditions, including ambient temperature, relative sunlight, significantly affects the cabin temperature and creates a ther­
humidity, thermal load, and solar irradiance. In Regulation 2019/631/ mal load that the HVAC system must effectively manage [14].

☆
The views expressed in the paper are purely those of the authors and shall not be considered as an official position of the European Commission.
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Fontaras), [email protected] (P. Olmeda).
1
The two authors have the same contribution to this study.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100474
Received 23 August 2023; Received in revised form 2 October 2023; Accepted 26 October 2023
Available online 29 October 2023
2590-1745/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

Nomenclature Qout,air Heat released from the cabin air volume

Qout,b Heat released from the electric blankets
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle Tair Temperature of the cabin air
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance Tamb Ambient temperature
DNI Direct Normal Irradiance Tb Temperature of the electric blanket
ESTI European Solar Test Installation Tsurf Temperature at the surface in contact with the outside air
EV Electric Vehicle mair Mass of the cabin air
GHI Global Horizontal Irradiance mb Mass of the electric blankets
HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning t0 Start time of the test
JRC Joint Research Centre tf End time of the test
MAE Mean Absolute Error εb Emissivity of the surface of the electric blankets
MSE Mean Squared Error εsurf Emissivity of the vehicle surface
TC Thermocouple h Convection coefficient
VELA Vehicle Emission Laboratory P Electrical power supplied to the electric blanket
VI Vertical Irradiance U Heat transfer coefficient
Cp air Air specific heat capacity k Heating rate parameter
Cp b Blankets specific heat capacity σ Boltzmann constant
Aair Area of the car surface in contact with the cabin air B Temperature difference between the steady-state
Ab Area of the electric blankets surface temperature of the blankets and the ambient temperature
Qin,air Heat received in the cabin air volume

Understanding and assessing the impact of solar irradiance on HVAC incident radiation and the use of glazing with different characteristics
performance is crucial for developing innovative strategies to enhance accurately reproduced the cabin’s dynamics under real outdoor condi­
energy efficiency, optimize thermal comfort, and mitigate the potential tions. Kambly et al. highlight the significant impact of cabin pre­
negative effects of solar radiation on occupants’ well-being [15]. conditioning on electric vehicle (EV) range, particularly for afternoon
Therefore, incorporating solar irradiance as a key parameter in evalu­ trips [22]. Their study offers valuable insights into the influence of cabin
ating and designing HVAC systems is essential for achieving sustainable conditioning loads on EV performance, aiding in the design of envi­
and comfortable vehicle environments. ronmentally friendly vehicles that meet performance requirements. In
Considering the impact of solar irradiance in the evaluation of Marcos et al.’s study, a thermal model of a vehicle cabin is developed
vehicle HVAC systems is of utmost importance. Solar radiation signifi­ and validated under various conditions [23]. The model accurately
cantly affects the energy balance within the vehicle cabin, influencing calculates heat transfer within the cabin and its impact on the vehicle’s
temperature distribution and placing additional workload on the HVAC behaviour and fuel consumption, particularly when utilizing the HVAC
system [16]. However, incorporating solar irradiance into the evalua­ system. Bandi et al.’s study uses three-dimensional unsteady simulations
tion process poses practical challenges. Conducting outdoor tests is to analyse a vehicle cabin’s flow and temperature distribution under
necessary to assess the direct effect of solar irradiance on the cabin’s solar radiation [24]. The findings emphasize the influence of the vertical
interior. Nevertheless, these tests can be arduous due to the fluctuating guide vane angle on flow patterns and identify the optimal vane angle
environmental conditions, making replication of experiments chal­ range (0◦ to 15◦ ) for improved thermal comfort.
lenging [17]. Moreover, the availability and affordability of specialized On the experimental side, researchers have conducted real-world
equipment, such as solar lamps used for simulating solar irradiance in testing to capture the complex interactions between solar radiation,
laboratory settings, are limited, impeding access to many research fa­ cabin temperature, and the HVAC system. These studies have yielded
cilities [18]. Overcoming these practical obstacles concerning solar valuable data on temperature profiles, energy consumption, and thermal
irradiance and finding effective solutions is paramount for accurate comfort under varying solar conditions. In Lahimer et al.’s study, ther­
evaluation and continuous enhancement of HVAC systems. mocouples were used to measure temperatures in different vehicle
A comprehensive review of the existing literature reveals a sub­ zones, demonstrating the effectiveness of the solar chimney technique
stantial body of research focused on the impact of solar irradiance on combined with solar load reduction methods in reducing cabin soak
vehicle HVAC systems. Studies have employed both modelling and temperature [25]. The findings highlight the positive impact of lowering
experimental approaches to investigate various aspects of this topic. cabin soak temperature on human thermal comfort and vehicle perfor­
Computational simulations have been utilized to understand the thermal mance. Kilic et al. conducted an experiment to evaluate the effects of
dynamics, energy consumption, and overall performance of HVAC sys­ ventilation modes on thermal comfort and air quality parameters in a
tems under different solar irradiance conditions. The study by Ramsey vehicle cabin [26]. The results underscore the importance of considering
et al. presents an interconnected model of the comfort and traction solar irradiance in optimizing ventilation strategies for enhanced com­
subsystems in a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) [19]. The simulation fort and energy efficiency. In Al-Kayiem et al.’s research, the effects of
results demonstrate that the energy consumption of the HVAC subsys­ solar radiation on car cabin comfort were investigated, revealing the
tem is influenced by the time of the trip, with afternoon trips on sunny dashboard’s role as a heat sink that dissipates heat to the surrounding air
days consuming more energy due to solar irradiance. Penning et al. particles [27]. The use of a sun shade beneath the front windshield
developed a thermal management system model to predict the driving substantially reduced thermal accumulation, resulting in a 27 % tem­
range of a long-range electric vehicle [20]. They found that variations in perature reduction inside the car cabin. These findings underscore the
glass properties, particularly in relation to solar irradiance, can impact significance of considering solar radiation in optimizing car cabin design
the vehicle range by up to 149 km, emphasizing the significance of for enhanced comfort.
considering these factors for efficient system designs and maximizing Although considerable progress has been made in investigating the
range. In the study by Torregrosa et al., a validated transient thermal effects of solar irradiance on vehicle cabins, the existing literature still
model of a minibus cabin revealed the significant influence of solar ra­ has certain limitations and gaps. Previous studies have primarily focused
diation on the cabin’s thermal behaviour [21]. Accurate calculations of on either modelling or experimental approaches, lacking a

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

comprehensive integration of both aspects to understand the cabin chamber with the vehicle parked and no passengers inside. The tests
behaviour under different solar conditions fully. Furthermore, while were conducted at Vehicle Emission Laboratory (VELA) 8, located at the
some studies have explored the effects of solar irradiance on tempera­ Joint Research Centre (JRC) of the European Commission premises. The
ture profiles and energy consumption, there is a lack of readily repli­ climatic chamber allows for controlled humidity testing of any type of
cable methodologies in the literature for evaluating vehicle performance passenger car between − 30 ◦ C to + 50 ◦ C. The testing conditions in
under different solar irradiance conditions. This is an interesting issue to terms of ambient temperature and relative humidity were estimated
address, as having procedures for conducting controlled and repeatable based on the moderate summer conditions across the EU 27 plus UK
laboratory tests can significantly benefit the automotive industry, either countries [28]. Hence, the experiments took place in a climatic chamber
for improving the design of AC systems or for defining certification set at 26 ◦ C and 50 % relative humidity. Two electric blankets made by
protocols. the RA CO s.a.s. company were placed inside the cabin: one on the front
To address the existing limitations and enhance the understanding of passenger seat and the other on the rear seats (Fig. 1).
solar irradiance’s impact on the thermal behaviour of vehicle cabins, Each electric blanket had an area of 1.14 m2 and a maximum power
this study presents a comprehensive methodology that combines of 600 W. The temperature of the electric blankets was manually regu­
computational modelling and laboratory testing. The primary objective lated using the RA CO s.a.s. temperature control device (Fig. 2). The tests
is to develop a method for simulating the effects of solar radiation on the differed in the temperature set on the electric blankets, which were 40,
thermal behaviour of vehicle cabins using electric blankets as control­ 50, and 60 ◦ C. From our experience, to ensure the system reaches
lable thermal loads, offering a cost-effective alternative to solar lamps. thermal equilibrium, tests are typically conducted for a minimum of 40
The methodology aims to achieve several specific objectives. Firstly, it min.
involves the development of a cabin thermal model and ensuring its An important element of the proposed methodology is the installa­
accuracy by calibrating and validating it against experimental data. This tion of some sheathed thermocouples in key locations. A diagram
step ensures the model’s applicability to different types and sizes of showing the locations of the K-type Class I thermocouples inside the car
vehicles. Secondly, the study aims to establish a correlation between is provided in Fig. 3: the cabin temperature sensors are highlighted in
solar irradiance profiles and the resulting thermal behaviour of the blue colour, the blanket temperature sensors in orange and the chamber
cabin. By utilizing electric blankets as a controlled thermal load in a temperature sensors in grey. Ten sheathed thermocouples (TC) were
controlled laboratory environment, the methodology enables the placed inside the cabin to measure the temperature distribution in
investigation of the cabin’s response, varying the extra heat load different locations, as also described in Table 1. The temperatures are
conditions. recorded using the Dewesoft data acquisition system, while the Yoko­
These innovative approaches enable a more comprehensive evalua­ gawa power analyser is used to measure the current and voltage of the
tion of solar radiation’s impact on vehicle cabins, providing valuable electric blankets later used to calculate the absorbed power.
insights in improving thermal comfort and energy efficiency. The inte­ Type K Class I thermocouples are known for their rapid response and
gration of computational modelling and laboratory testing bridges the wide temperature measurement range, spanning from − 40 ◦ C to
gap between theoretical predictions and real-world scenarios, facili­ 1000 ◦ C, making them a popular choice in various industrial applica­
tating the development of more efficient and reliable automotive air tions [29]. The precision of the Type K Class I thermocouples used in this
conditioning systems that can adapt to variable solar conditions. This study is approximately ± 1.5 ◦ C. The thermocouples were calibrated
pioneering methodology offers a practical and precise tool for vehicle using a standard procedure involving a thermal bath with salts at
manufacturers and researchers to optimize the cabin design and HVAC different temperatures ranging from 0 to 50 ◦ C. The temperature was
systems enhancing both the passengers’ comfort and environmental measured using the thermocouples to be calibrated or verified for ac­
sustainability. curacy, as well as with a calibrated thermoresistance. It was ensured that
the measured temperatures matched between the thermocouples and
2. Methodology the thermoresistance.
Data obtained by measuring the temperature distribution inside the
This section presents the methodology developed in this study. It car and the power consumption of the electric blankets are used to refine
outlines the experimental design, data collection and the thermal model and improve the model’s accuracy and validate its prediction
deployed to determine the optimal temperature of electric blankets. The capabilities.
methodology is structured into two subsections: (I) Experimental In Fig. 4, temperature measurements of different thermocouples over
Design, which describes the setup of the experiments, and (II) Thermal time are presented for a static test carried out on Vehicle 1 in a climatic
Model Development, which explains how the thermal model is devel­ chamber with the electric blanket set at 40 ◦ C. Several points in Fig. 4
oped and validated based on the experimental data. are worth discussing. To begin with, the temperature among the ther­
mocouples measuring the cabin air temperature can be different
2.1. Experimental design depending on their position. In fact, the thermocouple located at the
lowest part of the cabin records the lowest temperature, while the
The vehicles under investigation underwent two types of tests that thermocouples at the headrest height record higher temperatures. This
are subsequently discussed: Climatic Chamber tests performed in a phenomenon can be explained by convection, where hot and less dense
controlled closed environment and Outdoor tests performed in a air rises and accumulates at the top of the cabin, while colder and denser
delimited open-air area. All kinds of tests are hereinafter referred to as air accumulates at the bottom.
“static tests” since they do not involve vehicle motion on a chassis-dyno Additionally, Fig. 4 reveals that the entire system, including the
or on the road, but they indeed require the vehicle to be parked under cabin air and the blankets, reaches thermal equilibrium at a certain
certain conditions. point. A steady temperature is attained around 20 min after the start of
the test, when the blankets overcome thermal inertia to maintain the set
2.1.1. Climatic chamber tests temperature. The blankets’ temperature is slightly lower than the set
The climatic chamber tests were conducted to calculate the thermal value of 40 ◦ C (i.e., around 38 ◦ C), hence a few degrees of error may be
inertia, heat transfer coefficients, and emissivity of the cabin and electric present.
blankets, as well as to calibrate the proposed cabin model. These tests Finally, the temperature of the climatic chamber air exhibits an
were performed for two different C-segment passenger cars to ensure the oscillatory behavior, with peak-to-peak amplitudes of up to 5 ◦ C. This is
methodology’s validation across various body types. due to the fact that the climatic chamber parameters are governed by a
For each vehicle, three experiments were conducted in the climatic Proportional, Integral, Derivative controller that makes the temperature

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

Fig. 1. Electric blankets on the front passenger seat (left) and rear seats (right).

Table 1
List of thermocouples installed inside the vehicle tested.
N◦ Position

TC1 Front vent left

TC2 Front vent right
TC3 Driver headrest
TC4 Central rear headrest
TC5 Passenger front headrest
TC6 Rear car mat
TC7 Rear passenger headrest
TC8 Front blanket
TC9 Rear blanket
TC10 Ambient cell

Fig. 2. Temperature control device.

Fig. 4. Temperature profiles captured by the thermocouples during the test

with electric blankets set to 40 ◦ C.

The power consumption of the electric blanket during the same test
previously discussed is shown in Fig. 5. The power profile exhibits a
pulsed behaviour with a maximum amplitude of 1200 W. These pulses
Fig. 3. Location of the thermocouples inside the vehicle.
occur at a specific frequency, and once the blankets reach the set tem­
perature, the amplitude and frequency of the pulses are adjusted to
maintain a constant temperature.
oscillating around the set value. However, the average value of this
The entire indoor testing campaign comprises additional static tests
waveform is 26 ◦ C, corresponding to the set value. This oscillation (i.e.,
conducted in the climatic chamber that exhibit similar behaviour to the
5 ◦ C) should also be considered a possible source of error in measure­
above-mentioned test. A summary of the most significant data recorded
ments and model results.
in all experiments is presented in Table 2 to easily compare all tests

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Fig. 5. Electric power supplied to blankets (blue) and temperature profile of the blankets (orange) during a static test with blankets set to 40 ◦ C.

Table 2
Summary of the climate chamber experiment campaign.
ID Test Vehicle Blanket Set Temperature [◦ C] Steady State Cabin Temperature [◦ C] Blanket Energy Consumed [Wh]

Test 1 Vehicle 1 40 31.9 97.8

Test 2 Vehicle 1 50 36.3 220.2
Test 3 Vehicle 1 60 40.5 354.0
Test 4 Vehicle 2 40 30.0 215.5
Test 5 Vehicle 2 50 33.8 302.9
Test 6 Vehicle 2 60 38.8 672.0

carried out.

2.1.2. Outdoor tests

The outdoor tests aim to obtain data about temperature profile inside
the cabin and evaluate the impact of solar radiation on the cabin tem­
perature. In this case, electric blankets are not required for these ex­
periments. On various days, these tests were conducted in a parking lot
of the JRC located in Ispra, Italy, between February and May 2023, to
capture data under different solar irradiance conditions. In this case, due
to some technical limitations, three thermocouples were installed: two
inside and one outside the cabin, to measure both cabin and external
ambient temperature. The car remained parked and closed in the same
position during all tests, with its front facing west. The position of the
vehicle during the experiments is illustrated in Fig. 6. In addition to the
temperature data, solar irradiance data were collected from the Euro­
pean Solar Test Installation (ESTI) meteorological tower located in JRC Fig. 7. Temperature profiles recorded during the outdoor test on February
in Ispra (45◦ 48′ 43.4′ N − 8◦ 37′ 37.4′ E, altitude: 220 m). The data 13th, 2023.
includes Global horizontal irradiance on 0◦ (GHI), the diffuse horizontal
irradiance (DHI), the direct normal irradiance (DNI), and the global Fig. 7 displays temperature profiles recorded during the outdoor test
irradiance on inclined and vertical surface (45◦ , 60◦ and 90◦ planes). for Vehicle 1 on February 13th. The temperature inside the cabin varies
Data collection started in the morning (around 10 a.m. local time) until due to two primary factors: solar irradiance on the vehicle’s surfaces and
late afternoon (around 5p.m. local time) when the sun was low on the the external ambient temperature. The cabin temperature matched the
horizon, ensuring that the tests captured a wide range of solar radiation ambient temperature at the beginning of the test. However, direct sun­
conditions. In order to study and compare the different tests effectively, light striking the vehicle caused a sharp increase in the cabin tempera­
it was decided to analyse all of them during the time period from 11:00 ture, exceeding 40 ◦ C.
to 16:00. In this way, all tests would be standardized and evaluated Considering the same testing day, Fig. 8 shows irradiance curves of
within the same timeframe. several components registered by the ESTI meteorological tower during

Fig. 6. Spatial orientation of the vehicle during outdoor testing.

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Fig. 8. GHI, DHI, DNI, and VI profiles measured by the meteorological tower
on February 13th, 2023.
Fig. 9. Schematic of the thermal model for the vehicle cabin.
the tests. GHI is the amount of solar radiation received by a horizontal
surface from the entire hemisphere above it while DHI is the scattered Starting from the bottom, the blankets are electrically powered to
portion of GHI by the atmosphere and not direct sunlight. Instead, DNI is generate heat, which convection and radiation transfer to the cabin air.
the amount of solar radiation received per unit area by a perpendicular Later, the cabin air exchanges heat with the environment with convec­
surface to the sunrays. Additionally, Fig. 8 illustrates the vertical irra­ tion and radiation through the materials of the vehicle’s body. Two
diance (VI) curve on a south-facing vertical surface. energy balances are the basis of the model: one for the cabin air and
Table 3 summarizes the most significant data coming from the out­ another for the electric blankets. These energy balances are represented
door testing campaign on Vehicle 1, including maximum and minimum in Equation (1).
values of the cabin and ambient temperature, and insolation values on ⎧
dTair
vertical and horizontal surfaces. Insolation refers to the radiant energy ⎪
⎪
⎨ mair Cp air = Qin,air − Qout,air
dt
amount that reaches a specific surface within a given time interval. Upon (1)
⎪ dTb
analyzing the data from the outdoor tests presented in Table 3, a sig­ ⎪
⎩ m b Cp b = P − Qout,b
dt
nificant disparity in values becomes evident between the initial three
tests and the subsequent four tests. It is noteworthy that both the where, mair is the mass of the cabin air, Cp air is the air specific heat ca­
ambient temperature and the interior cabin temperature show a sub­ pacity, Tair is the temperature of the cabin air, Qin,air and Qout,air are the
stantial increase in the latter four tests. Additionally, the insolation heat received and released from the cabin air volume respectively. In the
values exhibit a distinct change, shifting towards more horizontal second equation regarding the power balance of the blankets, mb is the
insolation and reduced vertical insolation starting from the fourth test. mass of the electric blankets, Cp b is the specific heat capacity of the
This divergence can be attributed to the difference in the months during
blankets, Tb is the temperature of the electric blanket, P is the electrical
which these two sets of tests were conducted. Specifically, the first three
power supplied to the electric blanket, and Qout,b is the heat released
tests were performed in February (winter), while the remaining four
from the electric blankets.
tests took place in May (spring), resulting in varying temperatures and
Qout,b is considered equal to Qin,air since the air of the cabin is the only
solar incidence angles. This presents a valuable opportunity for the
heat received in the process. The heat released from both lumped masses
study, allowing for the examination and comparison of distinct opera­
is made of two components: convection and radiation. Equations (2) and
tional conditions.
(3) describe the heat released from the air and the blankets respectively:
( ) ( )
4
Qout,air = UAair Tsurf − Tamb + εsurf σAair Tsurf 4
− Tamb (2)
2.2. Thermal model development
( )
2.2.1. Proposed thermal model Qout,b = hAb (Tb − Tair ) + εb σ Ab Tb4 − Tair
4
(3)
A schematic of the proposed thermal model is shown in Fig. 9.

Table 3
Summary of the outdoor experiment campaign.
ID Date Vehicle Min/max Ambient Temperature Min/max Cabin Temperature Horizontal Insolation [kWh/ Vertical Insolation [kWh/
Test [◦ C] [◦ C] m2 ] m2]

Test 1 13/02/ Vehicle 1 9.1/22.3 8.7/43.3 1.83 3.35

2023
Test 2 14/02/ Vehicle 1 9.6/26.8 5.6/48.5 1.94 3.61
2023
Test 3 17/02/ Vehicle 1 10.5/23.8 5.6/31.8 1.79 2.87
2023
Test 4 02/05/ Vehicle 1 15.2/26.6 15.9/56.8 3.27 2.22
2023
Test 5 03/05/ Vehicle 1 16.6/26.7 17.8/56.0 3.58 2.35
2023
Test 6 04/05/ Vehicle 1 19.4/30.3 23.2/58.2 3.52 2.35
2023
Test 7 05/05/ Vehicle 1 20.6/29.6 24.3/54.5 3.12 1.97
2023

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

where, U is a heat transfer coefficient, Aair is the area of the car surface in 2.2.2. Model characterization and validation
contact with the cabin air, Tsurf is the temperature at the surface in In order to accurately estimate the temperature inside the cabin at
any given time, it is necessary to perform a thermal characterization of
contact with the outside air, Tamb is the ambient temperature or the
both the cabin and the electric blanket. This means that it is necessary to
temperature of the climatic chamber, εsurf is the emissivity of the vehicle
solve Equation (1) and calculate the thermal inertia, surface area, heat
surface, and σ is the Boltzmann constant. In Equation (3), h is the con­
transfer coefficients, and emissivity. For this model, six characterization
vection coefficient between the surface of the electric blankets and the
parameters were considered: mair Cp air , mb Cp b , UAair , εsurf σAair , hAb , and
cabin air, Ab is the surface area of the electric blankets, and εb is the
εb σAb . Although each of these parameters includes multiple factors, it
emissivity of the surface of the electric blankets.
was assumed that they remain constant over time and across different
The cabin and electric blanket temperature can be predicted using
tests, simplifying the characterization process. To estimate the values of
the proposed model: this requires input variables and boundary condi­
these characteristic parameters, a methodology was followed, involving
tions. The input variables are the electrical power supplied to the
the estimation and calibration of these parameters to achieve the best fit
blankets at each time step and the temperature profile of the climatic
between experimental and calculated values.
chamber. The boundary conditions include the initial temperatures and
First, the steady state conditions of various tests conducted in the
parameters of the system explained in Equation (1).
climate chamber were analyzed so that the transient part (left side) of
Several assumptions and simplifications were made to the model in
Equation (1) related to thermal inertia is not considered. The energy
order to make it simple and reduce the calculation effort. The simplifi­
balance under steady state conditions is described in Equation (4). The
cations are described as follows:
four characterization parameters were calibrated using Equation (4) and
the experimental values of electrical power and temperature, with the
• A single zone temperature is considered representative for the cabin
aim of achieving the best possible fit between calculated and experi­
temperature distribution.
mental values. A scatter plot comparing the measured electrical power
• Only the air and the blanket temperatures have been considered,
and the calculated electrical power obtained from Equation (4) using the
while the mass and temperature of the vehicle’s material were not
calibrated parameters is shown in Fig. 10. The coefficients of determi­
considered.
nation (R2) values for both interpolate equations are 0.99836 and
• Assuming ideal conditions, the electric blankets are designed to
0.98732, indicating that the calculated values are quite accurate.
supply the same amount of electrical power as the heat supplied to
⎧
the system. Therefore, no losses have been considered. (
⎨ P = UAair ( Tsurf − Tamb ) + εsurf σ Aair T 4 − T 4
)
• U is a heat transfer coefficient that involves three heat transfer (
surf
)
amb
(4)
⎩
phenomena: convection between the cabin air and the interior sur­ P = hAb (Tb − Tair ) + εb σAb Tb4 − Tair 4

face of the cabin; conduction between the interior and exterior sur­
face of the cabin; and convection between the exterior surface of the After analyzing the steady-state conditions, the thermal inertia of the
cabin and the air in the climatic chamber. cabin air and electric blankets was calibrated by adjusting the values of
• For all tests, h and U values are assumed to be constant since the mair Cp air and mb Cp b . This calibration process aimed to achieve a close
configuration of the climatic chamber does not change. match between the calculated temperature profiles and the corre­
• The temperature of the external surface of the cabin is considered an sponding experimental data. Fig. 11 shows the estimated and experi­
average value between the temperature of the cabin air and the mental temperature profiles of the cabin air and the electric blankets,
temperature of the climatic chamber air. demonstrating strong alignment between the model predictions and the
• Specific heat capacity values are assumed to be constant over time. actual measurements. The model consistently and accurately predicts
the temperature behaviour of both the cabin air and the electric blankets
All these assumptions imply a limitation of the model. However, for under different operating conditions.
the intended use of the model, the assumptions made do not represent a To further evaluate the accuracy of the model, a comprehensive
major concern. In fact, the objective of the model proposed is to deter­ statistical analysis was performed, and the results are summarized in
mine the thermal behaviour that the extra heat source should have to Table 4. This table provides key metrics, including maximum error,
simulate the effect of solar radiation. Mean Average Error (MAE), and Mean Squared Error (MSE), which
serve as crucial indicators of the model’s performance. Upon analyzing
the values in the table, it is evident that for almost all the tests, the

Fig. 10. Comparison of measured (x-axis) and calculated (y-axis) values of electrical power of the blankets for air side (left) and blanket side (right) modeling.

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

Fig. 11. Experimental and simulated temperature profiles for cabin air (top) and blankets (bottom).

values [24]. The performance of the model presented in this study falls
Table 4
within these ranges, further confirming its accuracy and reliability.
Statistical evaluation of the simulated temperature profiles.
However, higher errors are observed in the specific case of the test
Max. Error MAE MSE conducted with Vehicle 1 and a set temperature of 60 ◦ C. This anomaly
[◦ C] [◦ C] [◦ C2]
can be attributed to an irregularity observed in the experimental tem­
Vehicle 1 40 ◦ C Cabin air 0.53 0.29 0.10 perature curve of the corresponding blankets, as depicted in Fig. 11.
Blankets 1.53 0.95 1.05 Notably, a small temperature drop is evident shortly after 500 s into the
50 C
◦
Cabin air 1.55 0.46 0.45
Blankets 2.21 0.81 0.89
test. Such discrepancies could arise from potential measurement errors,
60 ◦ C Cabin air 1.74 0.79 0.77 such as a slight shift in the thermocouple or minor detachment of the
Blankets 3.50 1.86 3.95 adhesive, resulting in measurement inaccuracies. Nevertheless, despite
Vehicle 2 40 ◦ C Cabin air 1.06 0.39 0.25 this isolated error, it can be confidently concluded that the overall re­
Blankets 1.55 0.54 0.37 sults of the model align satisfactorily with the experimental values.
50 C
◦
Cabin air 1.27 0.62 0.74 Finally, Table 5 presents the values of the calibrated characterization
Blankets 1.31 0.41 0.27
parameters obtained to achieve these results. Observing these values, it
60 ◦ C Cabin air 1.57 0.73 0.67
Blankets 1.78 0.99 1.14
Table 5
Characterization parameters for Equation (4).
maximum error remains below 2 C, while the MAE and MSE values are
◦

both less than 1 [◦ C] and 2 [◦ C2] respectively. Observing the statistical Vehicle Parameter Value
values, the MAE, and comparing them with the thermocouple error Vehicle 1 UAair (W/K) 30.02
(±1.5 ◦ C), it can be affirmed that in almost all tests, the MAE is below the εsurf σAair (W/K4) 6.74⋅10-8
instrument’s error, reaffirming the validity of the model’s results. To mair Cp air (J/K) 12697.87
hAb (W/K) 11.4
further demonstrate the accuracy of the proposed model, a comparison
εb σAb (W/K4) 9.23⋅10-8
with similar studies from the literature is conducted. Torregrosa’s study mb Cp b (J/K) 10006.69
developed a two-zone thermal model for a minivan cabin, achieving a
Vehicle 2 UAair (W/K) 37.07
maximum error of 0.7 ◦ C between experimental and simulated tem­
εsurf σAair (W/K4) 7.88⋅10-8
peratures [21]. Meanwhile, Marcos presented a multi-zone nodal ther­ mair Cp air (J/K) 26095.83
mal model, with maximum temperature errors of up to 4.61 ◦ C [23]. hAb (W/K) 18.24
Similarly, Bandi developed a 3D computational numerical model, εb σAb (W/K4) 9.30⋅10-8
yielding results with a maximum error of 2 ◦ C compared to experimental mb Cp b (J/K) 10006.69

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

is evident that the parameters related to the cabin air are higher in vehicle using electric resistors that directly exchange heat with the cabin
Vehicle 2, which is consistent as Vehicle 2 is slightly larger, with a air. Despite these differences, the objective is to establish a mathemat­
greater cabin volume and surface area. Regarding the parameters cor­ ical expression that relates the temperature profile of the blankets and
responding to the electric blankets, it can be observed that the values are the irradiance, thereby facilitating the calculation of temperature pro­
quite similar in both vehicles, which is reasonable since they use the files that accurately replicates the effect of any solar irradiance profile.
same electric blankets.

3. Results 3.2. Temperature of the electric blankets vs solar irradiance

3.1. Calculation of the electric blanket temperature In Fig. 13, the temperature curves of the electric blankets, calculated
using the model for each outdoor test, are displayed. The temperature
The developed, calibrated and validated model was used to estimate curves of the different tests vary from each other, as each test has
the temperature profile that the electric blankets should follow to different boundary conditions such as ambient temperature and initial
replicate the effect of solar irradiance on the vehicle cabin temperature. temperature, as well as distinct irradiance profiles. Consequently, the
The experimental data from the outdoor tests were employed, and the model calculates a specific temperature curve for each test. However,
model configuration was adjusted accordingly: the cabin air tempera­ upon analysing these temperature curves, a consistent behaviour can be
ture curve was treated as an input, while the electric blanket tempera­ observed: the system is gradually heating up until it eventually reaches a
ture profile became an output. thermal equilibrium. As widely described in scientific literature, this
Regarding the calculation process, it was necessary to solve the characteristic behaviour can be effectively described by a mathematical
thermal balance equation (Equation (1)) for the cabin air to determine expression defined in Equation (5) [30].
the Qin,air value at each moment. As previously mentioned in the meth­ ( )
Tb = Tamb + B 1 − e− kt (5)
odology, Qin,air was assumed to be equivalent to Qout,b . Using this
assumption, Equation (3) was applied, and a fourth-degree polynomial In this equation, Tb represents the temperature of the electric blankets,
was solved to estimate the temperature of the electric blankets at each Tamb represents the ambient temperature, B represents the amplitude
time step. This methodology was applied using the data obtained from which corresponds to the temperature difference between the steady-
the seven outdoor tests, and this gave as an output the temperature state temperature of the blankets and the ambient temperature, k is a
profile that the electric blankets should emulate to replicate the effect of parameter associated with the heating rate, and t represents time.
solar irradiance in each test scenario. The amplitude B was found to be related to the accumulated irra­
Fig. 12 illustrates the calculated temperature profile of the electric diance during the tests. To calculate this, both the horizontal and ver­
blanket, alongside the experimental temperature curves from the out­ tical components of irradiance were considered. Additionally,
door test conducted on May 3, 2023. The figure also includes the GHI knowledge of the cabin’s surface distribution was necessary. The dis­
and VI curves corresponding to that specific day. Fig. 12 aims to present tribution of surface area in vehicles was explored in a prior study [31],
the relationship between the temperature curve of the electric blanket indicating that the roof, rear, and front windshields make up approxi­
and the irradiance curves affecting the cabin air temperature. It can be mately 50 % of the total area, while both sides doors and windows
observed that there is a correlation between the irradiance curves and contribute to the other 50 %. However, to better fit the model to the
the temperature curves of the cabin and electric blankets: whenever actual tested vehicle, a share of 40 % and 60 % of the total surface area
there is a sudden decrease in irradiance, there is a slight drop in the have been considered in this analysis. Based on the vehicle’s orientation
cabin temperature, and consequently, in the temperature of the electric during the tests, as shown in Fig. 6, the accumulated irradiance was
blankets. However, at first glance, establishing a clear relationship be­ calculated using Equation (6).
tween the temperature and irradiance curves is challenging due to the
∫ tf ∫ tf
differences in heat transfer processes. In the case of solar irradiance, heat
AccTotalIrradiance = 0.4 GHI • dt + 0.3 VI • dt (6)
transfer comes from the exterior of the vehicle, where it initially heats t0 t0
the vehicle surfaces. The heat then is conducted through the surface
walls, eventually warming the inside air through natural convection. where t0 is the start time of the test and tf is the end time. The vertical
With the introduction of electric blankets, heating occurs inside the component hitting only one side of the car’s body (normal to the south),
was multiplied by 30 % instead of 60 %. By summing these adjusted

Fig. 12. Outdoor Test 5 on May 3, 2023: Calculated temperature curve of the electric blankets.

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

Fig. 13. Temperature profiles of the electric blankets calculated by the model for each outdoor test.

components, the total energy per square meter received by the vehicle
throughout the test could be estimated.
A scatter plot in Fig. 14 illustrates the relationship between the
amplitude B and the accumulated irradiance. An exponential function fit
was applied to the data, resulting in an R2 value of 0.9558. The high R2
value indicates a strong relationship between the accumulated irradi­
ance values and the corresponding temperature values. This exponential
equation allows for the estimation of the amplitude B for different levels
of accumulated irradiance, providing valuable insights into the thermal
behaviour of the electric blankets.
The only remaining parameter to determine is the heating rate
parameter, k. This parameter is closely linked to the thermal properties
of the cabin, such as heat transfer coefficients through conduction and
convection, which can be assumed constant during the tests [30].
Consequently, it was defined that k is a constant value shared across all
tests. Using the least squares method, the value of k was determined by
minimizing the error between the calculated temperature curves for all
tests.
Having defined all the unknown parameters, Fig. 15 presents the
temperature curves of the electric blankets calculated from the model,
along with the function taken from Equation (5), for a specific day. It can
Fig. 14. Correlation between amplitude B and accumulated total irradiance. be observed that the temperature curve estimated by the function
closely approximates the model. The function produces a smoother
curve without abrupt changes, as it relies on constants and the only time-

Fig. 15. Comparison of blankets temperature curves for the Outdoor Test 5 on May 3, 2023: Model calculation versus Equation (5) estimation.

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

The choice of electric blankets as a heat source, due to their practicality

and ease of use, distinguished the approach from traditional methods
like lamps.
The study encompassed a series of experiments, including indoor
tests that involved the development, calibration, and validation of a
thermal model for the cabin. The model demonstrated commendable
accuracy in predicting cabin thermal behavior under varying conditions,
despite inherent limitations and some discrepancies attributable to
measurement errors in specific tests. The critical role of the climatic
chamber experiments in refining and enhancing the reliability of the
model should be emphasized.
Outdoor tests played a crucial role in recording cabin and ambient
temperatures, providing indispensable data for the thermal model. This
enabled the calculation of the required temperature of electric blankets
to mimic observed temperature profiles accurately. Through analysis, it
was established that the temperature profiles of the blankets exhibited
behavior reminiscent of a system approaching thermal equilibrium,
effectively represented by an exponential function. The amplitude B of
this function was found to be correlated with the total accumulated
irradiance received by the vehicle during tests, establishing a mean­
Fig. 16. Comparative scatter plot displaying the alignment between function-
calculated and model-estimated values for all outdoor tests.
ingful relationship between solar irradiance and electric blanket thermal
behavior.
varying variable is the ambient temperature, which does not exhibit The culmination of this methodology is a functional model capable of
sudden variations over time. Although the function may not precisely determining electric blanket temperatures, effectively replicating the
replicate the temperature calculated by the model at each time step, it impact of irradiance profiles on cabin temperature. While this marks a
can generate a reasonably similar temperature curve using input data notable achievement, there is still room for refinement, both in terms of
derived from solar irradiance. further experimentation and the enhancement of thermal modeling.
Finally, Fig. 16 provides the validation for the accuracy and Conducting additional characterization tests within the climatic cham­
robustness of the function in temperature profile determination of the ber and the inclusion of supplementary thermocouples, especially for
electric blankets, comparing its estimated values with those calculated measuring surface temperatures of the vehicle, would be highly ad­
by the model for all tests. The results demonstrate the function’s po­ vantageous. Furthermore, in the domain of modeling, it is essential to
tential as a practical tool for replicating the thermal behavior of electric address the simplifications made and refine thermal parameters, given
blankets under different solar irradiance levels. However, it is crucial to the absence of direct measurements.
acknowledge that significant differences between the estimated values This work represents a vital initial step toward the development of a
of the function and the model are observed in certain points. These methodology with practical applications for vehicle manufacturers and
discrepancies are valuable insights into the limitations and challenges of regulatory bodies. The potential applications of this methodology are
the methodology. substantial. In the short term, it can aid vehicle manufacturers in opti­
For instance, the function only considers the accumulated irradiance mizing air conditioning systems for improved cabin comfort and
value and does not account for the temporal variation of the solar ra­ reduced energy consumption.
diation. Another significant factor contributing to the large differences, In the long term, through collaborative efforts with industry partners
especially for temperatures below 40 ◦ C, is that the function uses the and regulatory bodies, it can be integrated into standard testing pro­
ambient temperature as a reference temperature, assuming that the cedures and certification protocols. This integration can facilitate its
initial temperature of the blanket is the same as the ambient tempera­ adoption across the automotive industry, potentially playing a pivotal
ture. However, in the case of the model, this is not the case. In the model, role in regulating and reducing emissions from vehicles, aligning with
the temperature of the blankets is estimated based on the calculated broader environmental and regulatory objectives.
Qout,b , which strongly depends on the temperature differentials between Further research to refine the methodology, including additional
the environment and the vehicle cabin. Therefore, to achieve more characterization tests and enhanced thermal modeling, remains a pri­
satisfactory and accurate results in the methodology, it is crucial to ority for future work.
ensure that the ambient temperature and the cabin temperature are
equal at the beginning of the tests. 5. Conclusions
Despite these discrepancies, this study makes substantial contribu­
tions to understand how solar radiation affects vehicle cabin thermal In summary, this study presents a methodology for simulating the
behavior. Through the calibration and validation of the thermal model effect of solar irradiance on the thermal behavior of a vehicle cabin. The
using controlled experimental tests, a robust and precise prediction tool most significant findings and conclusions are as follows:
for estimating cabin temperatures under different solar conditions is
established. Furthermore, the introduction of an approach to relate solar • A thermal cabin model was developed, calibrated, and validated
irradiance with the system’s thermal behavior enables quick and accu­ with experimental data, achieving maximum errors of 0.53 ◦ C and
rate estimation of cabin temperature variations. Notably, the most sig­ mean absolute error and mean squared error values of 0.29 ◦ C and
nificant accomplishment is obtaining the temperature profile necessary 0.1 ◦ C2, respectively.
to simulate diverse solar irradiance profiles in indoor tests, facilitating a • The highest error of 3.5 ◦ C can be attributed to specific measurement
comprehensive assessment of the system’s performance. errors during a particular test.
• The hypothetical temperature of an electric blanket, replicating the
4. Discussion solar irradiance profile’s impact on cabin temperature, was effec­
tively estimated using outdoor test data and the validated model.
In this study, a methodology was developed to simulate the impact of
solar irradiance on the thermal behavior of a passenger vehicle cabin.

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S. Aceros et al. Energy Conversion and Management: X 20 (2023) 100474

• An exponential curve was successfully fitted to relate electric blanket 510/201’, Official Journal of the European Union, vol. 62, no. L111, pp. 13–53,
2019.
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vehicle air conditioning system. Appl Therm Eng Apr. 2011;31(5):750–64. https://
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[14] Khayyam H, et al. Intelligent energy management control of vehicle air
Writing – original draft, Visualization. Davide Currό
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conditioning via look-ahead system. Appl Therm Eng Nov. 2011;31(16):3147–60.
Writing – review & editing. Giuseppe Di Pierro: Methodology, Writing https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.05.023.
– review & editing. G. Georgios Fontaras: Conceptualization, Meth­ [15] Yang R, Zhang H, You S, Zheng W, Zheng X, Ye T. Study on the thermal comfort
odology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Pablo Olmeda: index of solar radiation conditions in winter, Building and Environment, vol. 167,
no. July 2019, p. 106456, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106456.
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, [16] Moon JH, Lee JW, Jeong CH, Lee SH. Thermal comfort analysis in a passenger
Supervision. compartment considering the solar radiation effect. Int J Therm Sci 2016;107:
77–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2016.03.013.
[17] Rugh JP, Malaney VS. Comparison of indoor vehicle thermal soak tests to outdoor
Declaration of Competing Interest tests. SAE Technical Papers 2004;no. 724. https://doi.org/10.4271/2004-01-1376.
[18] Rugh JP. Proposal for a vehicle level test procedure to measure air conditioning
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial fuel use. SAE Technical Papers 2010;no. February. https://doi.org/10.4271/2010-
01-0799.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [19] Ramsey D, Boulon L, Bouscayrol A. Modeling of an EV air conditioning system for
the work reported in this paper. energetic studies in summer, 2021 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference,
VPPC 2021 - ProceedingS, pp. 0–4, 2021, doi: 10.1109/
VPPC53923.2021.9699119.
Data availability [20] Penning AK, Weibel JA. Assessing the influence of glass properties on cabin solar
heating and range of an electric vehicle using a comprehensive system model. Appl
Data will be made available on request. Energy 2023;vol. 339, no. March:120973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2023.120973.
[21] Torregrosa-Jaime B, Bjurling F, Corberán JM, Di Sciullo F, Payá J. Transient
Acknowledgments thermal model of a vehicle’s cabin validated under variable ambient conditions.
Appl Therm Eng 2015;75:45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
This work was supported by Generalitat Valenciana within the applthermaleng.2014.05.074.
[22] Kambly K, Bradley TH. Geographical and temporal differences in electric vehicle
framework of the PROMETEO 2020 project “Contribution to the range due to cabin conditioning energy consumption. J Power Sources 2015;275:
decarbonization of transport by optimizing the thermal management of 468–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.10.142.
vehicle batteries electrified” with reference number PROMETEO/2020/ [23] Marcos D, Pino FJ, Bordons C, Guerra JJ. The development and validation of a
thermal model for the cabin of a vehicle. Appl Therm Eng 2014;66(1–2):646–56.
042. The work was also supported by the European Commission’s Joint https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.02.054.
Research Centre. [24] Bandi P, Manelil NP, Maiya MP, Tiwari S, Thangamani A, Tamalapakula JL.
Influence of flow and thermal characteristics on thermal comfort inside an
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