EDU 221: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

COURSE OUTLINE
GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
The course in Curriculum development is designed to assist prospective educators to:
i) Develop and promote an awareness of the aims and goals of education in a
developing society.
ii) Enhance their understanding and ability for analysis and development of
educational programmes geared towards meeting the needs of learners and the
society.
iii) Develop skills and abilities for constant assessment, revision and development of
appropriate curriculum and syllabus material to meet changing times and
demands.
iv) Inculcate professionalism, motivation and insights necessary for leadership in
curricular development and innovation.

COURSE EVALUATION
a) CATS will account for 30% of the final grade in the course.
b) The final examination will account for 70% of the final grade in the course.

Weekly Topic Description

1. Introduction
a) Definition of terms
 Curriculum,
 Curriculum development,
 Curriculum planning, curriculum implementation and
 Curriculum maintenance.
b) Functions and aims of education
c) Education and Schooling

2. Understanding Curriculum
a) Concepts of Curriculum
b) The K.I.C.D Concept of Curriculum
 The three (3) elements

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  The three (3) dimensions
c) Factors influencing curriculum
3. Components of curriculum as a Programme of Instruction
 Aims, goals and objectives
 Content and learning experiences
 Evaluation

4. Foundations of Curriculum
Implications of each of the following for Curriculum Planning:
a) Philosophical foundations
b) Historical foundations
c) Psychological foundations
d) Sociological foundation

5. Curriculum Planning and Design

a) Distinction between Curriculum Planning and Design
b) Principles of curriculum design
c) Patterns of curriculum design

6. Models of Curriculum Development

a) The Tyler model
b) The Taba model
c) The Hunkins model

7. Principles and Procedures in Curriculum Development

Stages in Curriculum Development
a) Situational analysis
b) Formulation of objectives
c) Setting up the curriculum project
d) Programme building
e) Piloting the programme
f) Improving the programme
g) Implementation in schools
h) Evaluation

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 i) Curriculum maintenance

8. Curriculum Development in Kenya

a) Brief description of functions of K.I.C.D
b) Related agencies in Curriculum Development
c) The curriculum development process at KIE

9. Teacher Education
a) Meaning and scope of teacher education
b) Variants of teacher education programmes (concurrent, consecutive, pre-service, and
in-service)
c) Issues in teacher education and the teaching profession

REFERENCES
Glatthorn, A. (1987) Curriculum Leadership. Glenview, II: Scott, Freeman.
Goodson, I.F. (1994) Studying Curriculum. NY: Teachers College Press.
Henson, K.T. (2003) Curriculum Planning. Long Grove, II: Waveland Press.
Hunkins, F.P. (1980) Curriculum Development: Program Improvement. Colombus:
Charles E. Mermil Publishing Co.
Kenya Institute of Education. (2008) Curriculum Development Cycle. Nairobi: KIE Marsh,
C.J. & Willis, G. (2007) Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, On-going Issues.
NJ: Pearson Merril Prentice Hall. Oluoch, G.P. (1982) Essentials of Curriculum
Development. Nairobi: Elimu Bookshop Ltd. Ondiek, P.E. (1986) Curriculum Development:
Alternatives in Educational Theory. Kisumu: Lake Printers and Publishers. Omstein, A.C. &
Hunkins, F.P. (2004) Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Republic of Kenya (1981) Report of the Presidential Working Party on a Second
University in Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printer.
…………. (1984) The 8-4-4 System of Education. Nairobi: Government Printer.
…………. (1988) Report of the Presidential Working Party on Education and
Manpower Training for the Next decade and Beyond. Nairobi: Government
Printer.
Shiundu, J.S. & Omulando, SJ. (1992) Curriculum Theory and Practice in Kenya.
Nairobi: Oxford University Press.

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Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. NY: Harcourt Brace.
Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (2007) Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice. NJ:
Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Tyler, R.W. (1949), Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Urevbu, A. (1985). Curriculum Studies. Hong Kong: London Group Limited.
Wiles, J. & Bondi, J. (1998), Curriculum Development: A Guide to Practice. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

N.B Students are advised as much as possible to read and investigate further sources outside
the references given in this course outline as this list is not exhaustive.

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 TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION
a) The Concept of Education
Education has different meanings for different people. In common language, it means
civilization, development, enlightenment, instruction, knowledge, schooling, teaching
training etc. These however have little relation to what education really means. Scholars in
education have tried to define the term education adopting either a narrow or a broad
conception such as the following:-Education is the acquisation of knowledge,skills,values and
morals
i) Education is the act of attending an institution of formal learning on a regular basis and
going through various classes and levels that make up the cycle of schooling i.e primary
secondary and tertiary. This refers to any physical presence at an educational institution
regardless of the benefits a person gets. This is a very loose definition of education.

ii) Education is a conscious effort by a social institution (system of education) to promote

certain approved ideals and values of the community. Defined this way, education is
conceived as the process of acquiring and developing desired knowledge, skills and attitudes
(Oluoch 1982). Education thus aims at promoting a culture, a way of life.

iii) Education is a process of developing a person's sensitivity to his/her total environment.

Defined this way, education is the process by which people are prepared to live effectively in
their environment. Therefore, the purpose of education from this definition is to prepare a
person.

Education is the acquisition of knowledge or information as well as the understanding of the

principles behind such knowledge. It is the acquisition of skills, attitudes, knowledge and
societal ideals and values in preparation for the roles awaiting the individual in society.
Education is thus the total process of human learning, which imparts knowledge and skills,
the emotionally stable, and also be versatile. This is a broader definition/conception of
education. This view is shared by Shiundu and Omulando (1992) who say that "education
involves comprehensive exposure to opportunities and challenges in life aimed at achieving
an all round preparation of the individual for challenges and roles awaiting him/her as a
member of the immediate society".

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In this conception, education seeks to promote what is desirable and acceptable. It therefore
concerns itself with the big question of human existence i.e what is real, what is good? What
is bad? Education is thus an essential process of human development and is a universal
practice engaged in by all societies at all stages of development.

Acquisition of Education
Education is acquired in a variety of forms, but basically 3 forms are identifiable i.e
i) Formal education
ii) Informal education
iii) Non-formal education

Formal Education
This refers to the learning that takes place in learning institutions such as schools and
colleges. This is formal class work. It involves those experiences provided within the subject
areas such as maths, Eng, History etc. It is carefully structured, systematically presented and

evaluated. Non-formal education. These are organized learning activities that go on

outside the structure of the formal education system e.g scouting, football, clubs and societies
etc. Informal education. This is learning which takes place when a person by exposure
learns from family, friends, experiences and the environment. This kind of education is more
haphazard, unorganized but more permanent and goes on through out a person's life e.g
mannerisms, dressing, way of talking, gesturing, organizational skills, work ethics etc.

Education acquired in whatever form should help the learner develop the abilities, which are
essential for becoming an efficient learner and useful member of the community/society.
Such a Earner should be able to acquire knowledge, use the knowledge acquired, and
generate/produce new knowledge.

b) Functions and Aims of Education

Education is a process which involves the realization of certain individual and social ideals
such as honesty, respect for truth and other individuals, self discipline, capacity to identify
right from wrong, good or bad etc. In serving these ideals, education fulfils both the

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individual and social functions. These ideals can be referred to as the aims of education.
Aims indicate the specific direction that education must follow in all or parts of the education
system.

The main purpose of education is to socialize the individual. Education prepares individuals
to live and participate in society. According to Kocchar (1985) a society is a group of
organized individuals who think of themselves as a unique group with things in common and
have a culture, a way of life. Education thus helps individuals to acquire ways, beliefs and
standards of society. Taba (1962) in her book "Curriculum Development, Theory and
Practice" summarizes the functions of education under three main headings as:
 Education is a process of preservation and transmission of cultural heritage.
 Education is an instrument for transforming culture,
 Education is a means of individual development.

Education aims therefore can be perceived at different levels and considered in terms of:
 Personal development including intellectual and spiritual growth.
 Vocational preparation in terms of the acquisition of necessary practical skills and
character qualities.
 Social training in which young people are initiated into society at local and national
levels.

These general aims of education are translated by various systems of education to suit the
Circumstances in which the individuals and social systems operate. Individual nations define
their own aims of education as influenced by the social, economic and political contexts that
are specific to them.

In a nutshell, aims of education are broad purposes of intent to be achieved after going
through spectrum of education. They are governed by the whole system of the particular
groups of people (e.g Kenyans) to which education is to be provided.

Current Goals/Aims of Education in Kenya

1. To foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
2. To promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development.

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 3. To promote individual development and self-fulfillment.
4. To promote sound moral and religious values
5. To promote social equality and responsibility.
6. To promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
7. To promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards other
nations.
8. To promote positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection.

From the broad aims of education system, education planners in the MOE and curriculum
planners at K.I.E derive the school wide goals of education for various cycles of education
(primary, secondary and tertiary) levels; and types of education in the country e.g special
education, early childhood education, etc.

Importance of outlining aims of education.

This helps to:
1. Specify the qualities that are more desirable to develop among the citizens of the
country.
2. Assist those concerned with the country's education to organize relevant and
appropriate programmes of study.

Education and Schooling

Education goes on in schools and beyond; and has no rigid plans e.g from parents, siblings,
peers, community leaders, politicians etc. As educators however, we are more concerned with
learning tat takes place in learning institutions (planned education). Schooling refers to the
act of attending an institution of formal learning (primary, secondary, tertiary etc) with the
hope of gaining something worthwhile. Schooling therefore facilitates education i.e formal,
non-formal and informal education. The systematically planned programme in learning
institutions (formal education) is what is generally referred to as curriculum. School is an
institution that facilitates education and curriculum is an important instrument of education.

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 TOPIC 2: UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM
a) Conceptions of Curriculum
The term curriculum is borrowed from a Latin word, 'currere' which originally meant
'racecourse' or to run in a race and complete the course. In most cases it is associated with
school and education. Its meaning is not definite both to the general public and scholars. To
most lay people it is known from only one perspective and that is an instructional programme
or a course of study. To curriculum specialists, this term also refers to a field of study.
As a result, curriculum may be conceived as:
a) As a discipline, or a field of study i.e. the curriculum field of study.
b) As an instructional programme, a course of study, subjects or a plan for the education
of learners’ e.g the curriculum in the school includes maths, English Kiswahili etc i.e.
all the subjects that are taught in an institution of learning.

(i) is a broad conception while (if) is a narrow conception. When conceived in the broad
perspective, it is called 'curriculum', while in the narrow perspective, it is called 'a curriculum'
or 'the curriculum' (plural - 'curricula').

The broad conception encompasses such concepts as:

 Curriculum theory
 Curriculum design
 Curriculum development
 Curriculum evaluation
On the other hand, the narrow conception may be characterized in a number of ways. One is
by differentiating the various types of curricula such as:
 The early childhood development curriculum
 The primary school curriculum
 The secondary school curriculum.
 The teacher education curriculum
Curriculum can also be distinguished by individual subject names such as:
 The History curriculum
 The Geography curriculum
 The Mathematics curriculum
 The Social Studies curriculum etc

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Curriculum can also be identified and discussed at the grade level where one may refer to
 The standard one curriculum
 The standard eight curriculum
 The form one curriculum
 The form four curriculum etc

Here are some examples of both broad and narrow conceptions of curriculum:
 Curriculum is what examiners require teachers to emphasize in their teaching.
 Curriculum is that which is taught in school (Oliva, 1997).
 Curriculum is what should be taught in a particular subject
 Curriculum is a plan for learning (Taba, 1962)
 Curriculum is the sum total of the syllabuses of the school
 Curriculum encompasses all learning opportunities provided by the school (Saylor
and Alexander, 1966).
 Curriculum consists of activities necessary for translating educational goals into
concrete activities materials and observable behavioural change. SB Curriculum is all
the experiences a pupil undergoes under the guidance of the school (Bishop, 1985)
 Curriculum is all the experiences, both planned and unplanned, that enhance the (and
sometimes impede) the education and growth of students (Packay & Stanford, 1998).
 Curriculum is that which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling
(Oliva, 1997).
 Curriculum is all the planned learning outcomes for which a school is responsible
(Popham and Baker, 1970).
 Curriculum is a course of study (Oliva, 1997)
 Curriculum is a plan for learning whereby objectives determine what learning is
important.
 Curriculum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives,
which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice (Packay & Hass, 2000).
 Curriculum is a combination of classroom and out-of-classroom activities carried out
under the guidance of the school.

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Tasks: a) From these conceptions, identify those that are broad and those that are narrow. b)
Develop your own conception of curriculum.
Whatever conception of curriculum one adopts, it is important to note that every school has a
planned, formal acknowledged curriculum, but it also has an unplanned, informal and hidden
one. The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives, subject matter, and
organization of instruction. On the other hand, the unplanned, informal curriculum deals with
social-psychological interaction among students and teachers, especially their feelings,
attitudes, and behaviors.

b) The KIE Concept of Curriculum

The Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) conceives curriculum as an integrated plan for
educating learners that contains three elements and three dimensions.
The three elements are:
a) Objectives of the curriculum
b) Learning experiences
c) Evaluation
*These elements will be discussed in detail in Topic three.

The three dimensions relate to element (ii) 'learning experiences'. They are:
a) Formal dimension
b) Non-formal dimension
c) Informal dimension

i) The Formal Dimension:

This comprises the formal courses of study e.g. Maths, Eng, Kisw etc. In each of these
subjects are objectives, content, methods, learning activities, learning resources, evaluation
procedures, and qualified teachers to teach them.

ii) Non- Formal Dimension:

This is traditionally referred to as "extra curricula" or "Co-curricula" activities e.g. games,
sports, athletics, clubs, societies etc. These bring students together in terms of interests across
the classes. They facilitate the formal dimensions.

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ii) The Informal Dimension:
This is sometimes referred to as the "hidden curricula". Its composed of those unplanned and
spontaneous experiences at school that influence the learner's behaviour e.g. students
imitating the desirable behaviuor of their teachers, fellow students, parents etc.

SUMMARY OF THE KICD CONCEPTION OF THE CURRICULUM

I) OBJECTIVES

II) LEARNING EXPERIENCES

(i) FORMAL (ii) NON FORMAL (iii) INFORMAL

DIMENSION DIMENSION DIMENSION
The regular schools Organized learning School environment
prescribed in the syllabus activities not restricted to including all the unplanned
and presented to various, any class level e.g games, activities and happenings
class levels e.g Maths etc, athletics, clubs societies. which influence the learning
Chemistry behaviour of students e.g
school rules, interaction of
school community guests
etc.

III. EVALUATION.
Source: Shiundu and Omulando (1992:102).

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CURRICULUM

Curriculum planning and development is influenced by various factors as follows:-
1. Political Forces
Among the pressure groups in society which influences educational policy, politicians and
their political groups are perhaps the most influential. The curriculum planners should take
into consideration the political function of education. The curriculum planned should develop
in children the ability to cope with competitive systems of values, ideas and beliefs.

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2. Economic Factors
Economic factors greatly determine the shape and direction of the curriculum e.g. a school in
a region with a strong economic support system is likely to have better facilities than one in a
poorer region or environment e.g schools in urban centers vis a vis those in rural areas.

3. Social or Cultural Forces

Curriculum is inevitably influenced by the developments taking place in society. These
changes include demographic, economic and psychological shifts e.g introduction of socials
and ethics curriculum in 8.4.4 system of education was a response to the degeneration of
morals in the society. Demographic changes like increased enrollment with free primary
education for example also affect effective curriculum implementation.

4. Special Interest Groups

There are various organizations in society which disseminate policies that have a bearing on
education and curriculum issues e.g religious organizations, employers, manufacturing,
professional organizations, teachers' unions, parent-teacher associations etc.

5. Changes in Nature of Knowledge

Shifts in educational thinking lead to new theories regarding educational practice and these
eventually influence what goes into the curriculum. Currently, new approaches to educational
practice include:
 Individualization assisted instruction
 Computer assisted instruction
 Team teaching
 Programmed learning
 Performance based teacher education.

6) Technological Advancement
Effects of technology on the curriculum manifest themselves at two levels:
a) At the level of the school in terms of the strategies employed by teachers in
curriculum implementation e.g. use of mass media, teaching machines etc. like
overhead projectors, computer assisted instruction.

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 b) At the planning stage in curriculum development when decisions are made concerning
various courses of study e.g introduction of computer studies in primary, secondary
and college institutions.

Sources of Curriculum Authority

Legal Authority: Through this authority, those acting for and on behalf of the government
influence the education system. In Kenya this is done by the MOE.
Moral Authority: This authority draws its strength from fundamentals of right and wrong in
the society.

COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM AS A PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION.

Components refer to elements or parts found in a curriculum. The components of curriculum
as a programme of instruction are:
a) Aims, goals and objectives
b) Content and learning experiences
c) Evaluation

i) Aims, Goals and Objectives

These are used to refer to some terminal (end) point towards which we are traveling or
working. They determine the shape of the curriculum; provide the direction and focus of the
entire education programme. They control the process of planning and all other curricular
activities including implementation and evaluation.

Curriculum Aims: These are broad statements that describe expected life outcomes based on
a value system. They do not directly relate to school or classroom outcomes. Their
achievements are determined after completion of school. Curriculum workers are concerned
about translating these remote aims into more immediate specific school outcomes. Aims of
education comprise philosophical dispositions of educational functioning. They are starting
points, or statements of ideas of aspirations that express views of educators, politicians and
policy makers, interest groups in society, the lay public, and students.

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Aims of education serve a visionary function. They enable individuals in society to rally or
act with uniformity of purpose. Aims of education have a global quality. They help in guiding
individual schools or educational systems in the process of planning educational content.
Because of their global nature, educational aims are few in number and clearly stated.
Educational aims should address the following dimensions of schooling:
1) Intellectual Dimension: This deals with issues of acquisition of knowledge,
comprehension of knowledge, love and desire for knowledge.
2) Social Dimension: Aims in this area deal with the physical, emotional and psychological
aspects of the individual and aspects of persons with regard to home, family and job.
3) Personal Dimension: Schooling is charged with the responsibility to furnish opportunities
for individuals to become self actualized and humane.
4). Productive Dimension: Schooling should help individuals to become productive
members of the society.
Task: Relate the National Aims of Education in Kenya to the dimensions of schooling.

Educational aims provide a broad framework of what should be put into the educational
programme. They also express the kind of values society generally expects from those who
benefit from education. They constitute the first stage at which the objectives of an
educational programme or curriculum are planned.

Curriculum Goals: At a lower level than aims are curriculum goals to guide curriculum
planning. Curriculum goals are also known as educational purposes. Goals are deduced from
various aims statements. They provide the teachers with broad and general statements of what
they expect to accomplish in learning as a result of a particular course or total school year.
Goals can be grouped according to whether they relate to social or individual purposes as
followed:

Types of educational goals.

 Programme goals
 Course specific goals
 Specific subject goals
 Specific instructional objective.

Importance of Curriculum Goals

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Goals help both the curriculum planner and the teacher in decision-making in various ways:
a) To select the general programme content.
b) To decide on relevant subject areas for the courses identified.
c) To decide on specific subject content and experiences in various subject areas.
d) To decide on specific instructional experiences for a single lesson, in the school
timetable.

Curriculum Objectives: These refer to the most immediate specific outcomes of classroom
interaction. They are also called instructional objectives or lesson objectives. They refer to
the everyday business of the curriculum in operation. They describe specific behavioural
changes in students as a result of participating in a unit of learning activities. This is seen in
lesson preparation. Curriculum objectives facilitate the achievement of curriculum goals and
aims. Curriculum objectives will be discussed in further detail in Topic Seven (7).

ii) Content and Learning Experiences

Content refers to the facts, ideas, concepts, generalizations, principles, skills, theories and
values that constitute an area of knowledge. Such an area of knowledge may be disciplined,
e.g mathematics, or non-disciplined, e.g environmental education. Content also includes
methods of processing information or subject matter. Traditionally, curriculum content is
concerned with transmitting established knowledge rather than creating new knowledge. This
is a weakness that needs to be addressed.

Criteria for selecting content

I. Self-sufficiency: The content selected should enable students to learn and advance their
knowledge on their own. Thus it should encourage self-driven learning and individual
initiative in the learners as a means of actualizing their potential and crystallizing their
identities.
II. Significance: Content should contribute to the overall aims of the curriculum. It should
also contribute to the meaningful learning experiences of the learners. Content should also
relate to the cultural context so as to be deemed significant.

Validity: This is the authenticity of the content selected. In this time of information
explosion, knowledge selected for school content can quickly become obsolete and even

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incorrect. This necessitates regular verification of the validity of the content in the school
curriculum.
Interest: The content of the curriculum must be selected with learners' interests in mind. This
is a learner-centered criterion which argues that a person will learn best that which interests
him/her most. This criterion of learners' interests must be weighted and adjusted to allow for
the learners' maturity, entry behavior, the educational and social value of their interests, and
the way they are supposed to interact within society.
Utility: The content selected should be useful to the learner him/herself, and, ultimately,
his/her community. The content should contribute to making the person a better human being
and therefore position him/her to become a proactive and productive member of die society.
yi. Learn ability: The content selected should be within the intellectual range on the
intended learners.
vii. Feasibility: Selection of content should consider the resources and other factors that
will support or impede the curriculum. The most significant of such factors include: the time
available, the teaching-learning resources available, the educational infrastructure in place,
the competence of the current staff, the funding available, the nature of the political climate,
and the existing legislation. Content selection must be done within the context of the existing
reality, which usually boils down to economics and politics.

Learning Experiences are also referred to as curriculum experiences. Learning experiences

is a generic term which encompasses all the activities, strategies and procedures for content
delivery. Learning experiences refer to the interaction between the teacher, the learner, the
content, and the educational environment. These experiences consist of teaching methods and
learner activities that take place under the direction of the school for the purpose of attaining
the schools' goals. Some of the teaching methods include: (a) Activity methods e.g. role-
playing, project etc. (b) Discovery methods e.g. experimentation (c) Expository methods e.g.
lecture, demonstration etc. On the other hand, some of the learner activities include: listening,
reading, writing, discussing, experimenting etc.

Content and learning experiences complement each other. They may be separated on paper,
but in the actual delivery of the curriculum, they coexist inextricably. For example, in a
typical lecture situation, the lecturer uses a teaching method (expository - lecture) to deliver
knowledge (content) to students who are listening and probably writing (learner activities).

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iii) Evaluation
It is the process of determining the extent to which curriculum objectives are being or have
been achieved. This should be a continuous activity throughout the curriculum development
process.
This involves:
 Assessment of the curriculum package/plan.
 Assessment of the appropriateness and effectiveness of content and other materials.
 Assessment of the appropriateness and efficiency of the teaching/ learning methods.
 Analysis of the performance of students using the curriculum (exams). - Assessment
of the equipment and personnel used in implementing the curriculum.

There are two major types of evaluation:

Formative evaluation: - The type of evaluation that goes on throughout the curriculum
development process.
Summative evaluation: - After the curriculum package has been used/ implemented,
summative evaluation is carried out throughout the school system. This is meant to determine
the effectiveness of the curriculum after implementation.
Formative evaluation provides useful data for summative evaluation.

Assignment: How does the work of the teacher relate to the three components of the
curriculum?

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 TOPIC 4: FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Foundations of curriculum are also referred to as the bases of curriculum, which determine
the quality of curriculum decisions. They are defined as the values, traditions, factors, and
forces which influence the kind, quantity and quality of the experiences students are offered
in schools. There are four major foundations of curriculum namely:
 Historical Foundation.
 Philosophical Foundations.
 Psychological Foundations.
 Sociological Foundations.

Historical Foundations.
These are past events that have had influences on the curriculum, historical landmarks. They
include:

a) Early Christian Education.

Was influenced by Greek, Roman and Hebrew ideals. Early Christian schools had a
curriculum, which inducted believers in the church. The subjects taught included: discipline,
church doctrine, moral standards, Christian theology, science, maths and astronomy. These
are still important subjects in current curriculum planning, which upholds moral standards.

b) The Renaissance
Took place in the 14th century in Italy. It was a period of revival or rebirth especially in
culture and learning. During that time there was increased guest for knowledge and the thirst
for adventure. There was the desire to open up education to the masses. Curriculum in
schools included: good manners, morals, rhetoric, composition, sports, games and dance,
vocational studies. Vocational studies were emphasized because of interaction and
communication between various countries hence need for skills such as book keeping,
correspondents studies, e.t.c. There was the development of the university, which established
faculties of studies in liberal arts, law, medicine, theology, e.t.c. These have influenced
current curriculum planning in schools and universities around the world.

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c) The Reformation
This was a religious and political movement of the 16m century Europe. It began as an
attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of the
protestant churches. Through the campaigns of Martin Luther, there was publication of
biblical and other materials in vernaculars so that every person could read for themselves and
interpret the Bible. This contributed to education in primary, secondary and higher education.
The results of this movement are apparent in our education systems- Christian ideals are in
education systems today and the multiplication of churches is still ongoing.

d) The Scientific Movement in Education

The educators and philosophers of the 16 th century were concerned more with observations
regarding the working of the universe. This led to the philosophy of realism. They believed
that objects exist as seen in the real world divorced from the human mind and perception.
This has had a lot of influence on education, i.e. the application of the principles of scientific
management of education.

e) The Progressive Movement in Education.

Studies and researchers by famous European scholars regarding the appropriate curriculum
for pupils had great influence on the nature and type of curriculum in the U.S.A. One of the
famous scholars in this movement was John Dewey (1920). This resulted in learner-centered
education, which was more of a reaction to the traditional school system, which was teacher-
centered. This has effects today as we consider the learner to be the most important in any
learning situation, i.e. instructional objectives are formulated in terms of what the learner is
expected to achieve.

Importance of History in Curriculum Planning

a) Provides insights into past evens that have influenced current curriculum plans.
b) Enables curriculum planners to anticipate the future.
c) Enables the curriculum planners to avoid mistakes made in the past.
d) Enables the curriculum planners to be aware of events that continue to shape the
curriculum. Philosophical Foundations.
These are value foundations because they deal with values and beliefs that make up
philosophies of life and education. The curriculum planner seeks to establish ideals and

20
notions that indicate Priority values in selecting experiences for the curriculum. The major
contribution from these foundations relate to the issue of selection of subject matter in the
curriculum. There are two broad philosophical schools, which relate to the issue of subject
matter (content) in the curriculum:
a) The traditionalist school e.g. perennialists and essentialists.
b) The progressivist school e.g. pragmatists and reconstructionists. Theories of Subject
Matter.
The two schools of thought have advanced the following three theories of subject matter
namely:
a) Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.
b) Subject matter should be taught for use.
c) Subject matter should be taught as a medium for teaching life processes and skills.
Subject Matter should be taught for its Own Sake.
This was proposed by perennialists. They believe in the permanence of curriculum content
and experiences. They assert that regardless of the changes in society, curriculum content
should remain me same throughout since the value of something does not change with time.
The education system should be stable and its purpose study. Perennialists have two main
approaches to subject matter in the curriculum:
 They emphasize classical subjects because they believe they are valuable in their
own right and any educated person should be exposed to them, i.e. art, literature,
history, music, discipline, e.t.c. For perennialists, vocational education is not
important because it does not involve rite use of the mind.
 Emphasize the desire to make children literate and moral to enable them earn a
living as well as find a useful place in the society.

Therefore, all should have a common curriculum. The schools also emphasize authority of
the teacher i.e. me teacher is master of the subject and therefore learner's interests are
irrelevant. Perennialists emphasize the testing of learners on the content received.
Guiding principles emanating from the perennialists' view include the following:
 That human nature remains the same everywhere; therefore, that education should be
same for everyone as knowledge is permanent and truth does not change with the
environment (every student has access to computer and internet services is true in
U.S.; is it so in Kenya?).

21
  Man is rational and should be guided by this towards their goals, therefore students
have to learn to cultivate reason and control their emotions, and teachers should assist
them towards these.
 Students should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaint them with the
world's basic and which will make them refrain from regarding modern changes as
being the most important.

Implications for Curriculum Planners in Kenya.

 There is emphasis on some subjects in curriculum, which are considered important,
e.g. Maths, Sciences, and Languages.
 There is a common curriculum for all students in different parts of the country.
 There are uniform and vigorous examinations in the various levels of education.
 The teacher is central in the implementation of the curriculum and he is seen as the
authority in the subject matter.
 There is emphasis on preservation of our cultural heritage done through drama, music
and oral literature.

Subject Matter should be Taught for Use.

This was advanced by essentials, who emphasize on training the intellect or mental abilities
of the learners. They believe that the value of a subject in the curriculum depends upon the
use that is made of that subject and therefore that value is operational. They agree with the
perennialists on certain basic principles. They maintain that there are certain essential
subjects that each student in school must be taught. They concentrate on:
a) Re-examining curricular matters.
b) Differentiating the essentials from non-essentials in school programmes.
c) Re-establishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom.

Therefore subjects that are not useful in the society should not be included in the curriculum
and if they are, they should be given less time. They emphasize examinations and
maintenance of high academic standards.

Implications for Curriculum Planners.

22
 a) Curriculum planners should make clear objectives and clarify the use of any subject
that is planned for. This is seen in the syllabi for the various levels where the
objectives are clearly set out.
b) In Kenya curriculum, various subjects are taught because of their usefulness in die
achievement of national goals of education.
c) Only subjects that are relevant are included in the curriculum.
d) The essential or the core subjects are allocated more time in the school timetable
unlike other subjects.

Subject Matter as a Medium for Teaching Life Processes and Skills.

This theory was advocated by the progressivists who believe that change is the essence of
reality, nothing remains permanent. They believe that we live in a dynamic world and
therefore education as well as curriculum is subject to change. Educators therefore must be
ready to modify methods and policies in the light of new knowledge and changes in the
environment. The curriculum, and specifically the subject matter, should be seen as a means
of managing and handling situations of life.

For progressivists, the curriculum must be interdisciplinary (various subjects put together).
Subject matter is part of the learning process rather than the source of knowledge. They
consider the learner as the major source of objectives i.e. interest, problems and needs of the
learners.

Progressivists Advocate for the Following Principles Regarding the Nature of Education:
a) Education should be life itself and not a preparation for life.
b) Learning should be directly related to the needs and interests of the learners, the
teacher is better placed/ prepared to guide the learners.
c) Learning through problem solving should be given priority.
d) Teachers have to advise and not direct the learners because teachers have superior and
richer experiences but it is the students' own needs and interests who determine what
they learn. The teacher is only important as a guide and co-coordinator.
e) The school should encourage cooperation and not competition. This is so because
man is by nature social and derives more satisfaction from relating to other,
cooperating. However, that competition is necessary for selection in specialized
opportunities.

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24
Implications for Curriculum Planners
a) Has led to learner-centred curriculum where the learners play an active role in the
learning process.
b) Has led to the change in the role of the teacher in the classroom, where the teacher
guides the pupils through various learning experiences.

Psychological Foundations
Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human behaviour so as to be able to
understand and predict behaviour. They look for determinants of behaviour in hereditary
characteristics and environmental influences. Psychological foundations of the curriculum
make it possible for teachers to make appropriate decisions in relation to classroom behaviour
of learners when it is effective and most useful to that learner. In presenting learning
experiences to learners, we must consider:
a) Capabilities of the learners
b) Maturational levels of the learners
c) Learners' rate of learning as well as how they learn.

Psychology offers principles that govern the process of learning which are useful to the
teacher and the curriculum planner/design to make decisions on the following:
a) Sequence - this considers the stages of development and therefore learning experiences
that are appropriate at each stage.
b) Organization -Organizing or grouping of learning experiences for effectiveness.
c) Methodology-Selection of appropriate methods and approaches in promoting and guide
learning.
d) Formulation of appropriate educational goals and instructional objectives.
e) Decisions regarding the scope of the curriculum.

An understanding of basic psychological principles is important in curriculum development

in the following in the following ways:
a) In meaningful selection and guidance of experiences in order to contribute to
maximum development of the learner.
b) Organizing and implementing the curriculum in relation to varying rates of mental
growth.

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 c) Providing flexible curriculum to allow for diversity of character and learning
readiness among the learners.
Psychology contributes to curriculum design and development of general principles of
learning thus:
a) Learning is most effective when the student is actively involved in the learning
situation.
b) An effective learning situation should recognize and provide for the purposes of the
learner (clear objectives).
c) Learning is influenced by the individual's past experiences, attitudes and values
(entering behaviour).
d) Learning is most effective when the student is permitted to work in a tension-free
atmosphere (threats deter learning).

Sociological Foundations
These are mainly concerned with influences of the curriculum from the society. Life in
society influences the school system. Schools guide and prepare the youth for life in society.
Society ' influences the expectations of youth in life and partly determines the ideals that the
youth go to school with.

Sociological foundations therefore are concerned with systematic types of groups and
institutions with reference to their contribution to process and growth of the educational
system and curriculum.

In curriculum planning and development, study of society indicates:

 The kind of knowledge, skills and competencies the youth require to be able to cope
with tasks and roles in that society.
 The problems prevalent in society for which education should provide answers e.g
tribal boundaries and ethnic clashing, HIV/AIDS, population explosion, terrorism,
wars, poverty, unemployment, environmental degradation, e.t.c

In examining sociological foundations, the curriculum designer will be dealing with the
cultural values, societal needs and learner backgrounds.

26
The relationship between sociological foundations and the curriculum can best be established
at three levels namely:
a) The purposes of the curriculum. School is an agent of social growth and development In
this respect, curriculum should perform the following:
Assist to preserve and transmit cultural heritage-those aspects that are important and
distinguish that society from others.
 Transform culture/reconstruct it
 Be an instrument for individual development-help the learners to realize their
potential, determine and attain their individual goals.
β Pressures in society influencing the curriculum. Society uses both formal and informal
means to exert pressure on the school system, i.e formal complaints directed at the school
programmes and personnel influence curriculum development at the school level. Informally,
gossip and rumour regarding current practice in the education system influence teachers'
approaches to curriculum implementation.
λ Characteristics of students experiencing the curriculum. There are individual
differences among schools therefore there should be differentiated approaches in designing
and implementing the curriculum e.g
 There should be differentiation between students from urban and rural areas.
 Students also have differentiated aspiration and curriculum should facilitate individual
students to realize their aspiration. This will depend on the social setting and
resources available.
 Creation of suitable learning environment to improve academic performance of
students.
Other Social Institutions that Influence the Curriculum are:
The family- Family data help in curriculum planning and implementation by providing them
with background information of individual learners.
Religious institutions - Religious education is part of the school curriculum. This contributes
to the moral development of learners and quality of life. Religious institution helps learners to
develop a sense of self-respect and respect for life.

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 TOPIC 5: CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DESIGN
a) Distinction between Curriculum Planning and Design
CURRICULUM PLANNING
Curriculum planning is the process that outlines policies, objectives and programmes for
instruction. Curriculum planning is just one aspect of educational planning that needs to be
closely coordinated with other types of planning like physical planning, financial planning,
manpower planning etc without which education cannot effectively achieve its objectives.
Curriculum planning precedes design and it sets a stage for all other curriculum activities,
design, development, implementation and evaluation. Curriculum planning involves two
processes i.e:
1. Setting the objectives to be achieved.
2. Establishing an efficient procedure for attaining the objectives e.g. by: Selecting
appropriate content/subject matter and learning experiences.
 Establishing a proper environment to achieve the objectives.
 Establishing sound methodology.
 Allocation of resources required attaining the objectives -financial, technical,
intellectual etc.
 Appropriate time allocation.
 Identifying the characteristics of the student population.

Like any other type of planning, curriculum planning is done at two main levels:
 Long term planning.
 Short term planning.
The long-term plan takes into consideration what should happen in education at all levels. It
takes into account the economic and social implications over a long period of time. The short
term-plan is concerned with specific aspects of the curriculum requiring immediate attention
of actions. Within the long-term plan are short-term plans. These are monthly or weekly unit
plans and daily lesson plans.
All curriculum planning is based on the following:
 The existing nature of knowledge, subject matter or content.
 The needs and interests of learners.
 The social and physical environment.

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  The nature of learning process.

v) The facilities/ resources available e.g. man power, classrooms, equipments etc.
N/B: Curriculum planners are usually concerned with three categories of people: students,
teachers and the lay public.
Curriculum Plan: This is a document or a package indicating the curriculum aims, goals and
objectives, content and learning activities, teaching methods and suggested evaluation
procedures.

Who plans the curriculum? Students, parents, the general public, curriculum
developers/planners, church leaders, teachers etc. Ideally everybody in the society is involved
in one way or another. Curriculum planning is a united effort by all those responsible in the
organization of an education system and has, at every stage, financial and material
implications.

CURRICULUM DESIGN
Curriculum design generally refers to the way in which the component parts or elements of
the curriculum are arranged in order to facilitate instruction. It is the structure, pattern or
organization of the curriculum.

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

The selection and organization of content poses several key problems, which should be
addressed with the view of minimizing the problems of curriculum design. There are 5 key
characteristics, which curriculum planners must take into account when developing a
curriculum. These are also known as problems of curriculum design and include:
i) Scope
ii) Sequence
iii) Continuity
iv) Integration and Articulation
v) Flexibility
vi) Balance
i) Scope:
This raises questions related to the breadth and depth of contents e.g. what content should be
included in the curriculum? What content should be considered as either core or electives?

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How much content can be learnt in one subject area in one year, in a topic/ theme, in a single
lesson etc. How much detail and how much emphasis should be given to particular
curriculum content? All these issues related to scope of curriculum have to be addressed in
the light of various social, economic, psychological, philosophical, historical and professional
factors.
ii) Sequence:
Sequence deals with the order in which the content and experiences in the curriculum are
organized. Curriculum planners order the content based on such principles as simple to
complex, whole to part, and chronological learning, prerequisite learning etc.
iii) Continuity:
Continuity is related to sequence. It refers to the many occasions on which individuals will
experience content at various levels within an education system. It refers to the occasions on
which certain experiences will be scheduled during consecutive periods of time. Curriculum
specialists often extend themes vertically throughout an entire curriculum to ensure that there
is a recurring and continuing opportunity for a skill to be practiced and developed. This
concept is also known as spiral curriculum.
iv) Integration and Articulation
This refers to the horizontal relationships between various curricula areas in an attempt to
interrelate content or learning experiences in order to enable the students to perceive
knowledge in unity. Content from one field can be linked meaningfully to content in another
field e.g. what is learned in English linked to what is learned in Geography etc. In
instructional situations, a teacher may integrate a real life scenario with the content being
covered.
v) Flexibility
In order to make the curriculum suitable and profitable to the widest variety learners possible,
rigidity must be avoided. The content and learning experiences should be selected and
designed to accommodate several approaches, strategies, and paths of learning. The
curriculum should promote a self-motivated learning system which will be responsive to the
learners' needs and the contextual requirements. This implies offering increased
subject/specialization choice to learners, flexibility of teaching methods and teaching-
learning materials, and flexibility of demonstrating acquisition of learning outcomes through
employing a variety of assessment methods/strategies.

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vi) Balance:
Line a well balanced diet, a well-balanced curriculum contributes to educational health. A
balanced curriculum implies structure and order in its scope and leads to the achievement of
educational objectives. If a learner enjoyed a balanced curriculum at any time, this
curriculum would completely suit him/her in terms of his/her particular educational needs at
that time. A balanced curriculum should develop all major areas of human competence e.g.
communication, problem solving, understanding concepts and the environment, healthcare,
etc. To cultivate this competence effectively education should ensure the physical, mental,
and affective development of the child. Besides individual development, a balanced
curriculum should address all the national goals of education.

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

The process of curriculum organization is very complex. The simplest way of understanding
it is by understanding the organizing structures. These are the main structural elements in
which learning experiences are to be organized. There are two main patterns/categories of
curriculum design as follows:-
a) The Subject centred designs
b) The Learner centred designs
These vary according to the objectives the philosophical orientation and values that surround
particular educational system. Whatever pattern educational planners decide to adopt they
need to decide on the scope of what is to be learnt or the centers of organization around
which to build learning experiences.

A) SUBJECT CENTRED CURRICULUM DESIGNS

This is where the curriculum is organized in terms of subject matter or content. They utilize
the subject structure hence the Mathematics curriculum, English curriculum, Geography
curriculum etc. The emphasis is on the content or subject matter unlike the other components
or elements. Examples of subject-centred curriculum designs include:
i) The traditional subject designs
ii) The broad fields/fused design
iii) The core curriculum

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i) The Traditional Subject Design
This is the oldest and most widely used form of curriculum organization. It has its origins in
Western education that emphasizes the seven (7) liberal arts of early Greece and Rome i.e the
early subjects considered essential knowledge for any educated person.

The curriculum is organized in different specific subjects without combining knowledge

across the subjects. Emphasis is placed on separate academic areas such as English,
Mathematics, History,and Geography etc.

The scope of this design is determined by the range of subjects considered to be important to
be included in the curriculum, and by the content in each subject.

The academic subjects are considered superior to practical subjects. Exams are also
considered important hence competition in both teaching and learning.

Strengths
Taba (1962) points out various arguments in favour of this design thus:
a) It is the most systematic and effective organization for acquainting the youth with the
essentials of cultural heritage.
b) Teachers feel more comfortable with this kind of arrangement because they are
trained in subject curriculum especially secondary school teachers.
c) Textbooks and other forms of learning materials are organized in terms of subjects.
d) This design has the support of parents because they are familiar with it. They feel that
it is an academically sound system.
e) It allows for specialization hence full development of one's intellectual powers
through the study of logically organized subject matter.
f) The planning, implementation and evaluation of the curriculum is easier in subject
design.
g) Students can learn most economically and efficiently by studying the organized
bodies of subject matter.

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Weakness
a) It fragments knowledge and therefore fragment the understanding of the learners.
b) Relationships between subjects is not provided for, yet naturally knowledge exists as
an integrated whole.
c) Subjects tend to be detached from the reality of students i.e concerns and events of the
real world.
d) It puts excessive stress on the content and ignore the needs, interests and experiences
of the students i.e focuses on intellectual performance at the expense of other aspects
of human development e.g emotions social etc.
e) Tends to advocate the importance of knowledge and recall of subject matter. This
leads to recitation, rote and passive learning process with the teacher as the center of
activity.
f) Tends to lean towards certain valued subjects hence the rewarding system is
differentiated.
g) Leans heavily on verbal activities and is exam oriented which tests memorization
rather than understanding.
h) The many subjects to be taught leads to a strain on the available resources.
i) The time available is not enough for learning all the subjects.

These limitations led to modifications of the traditional subject design leading to other
designs,

ii) The Broad Fields/Fused Design

In this design, several subjects are put together i.e. margin different but related subjects into a
single course of study as an attempt to overcome the problem of fragmentation e.g Social
Studies resulting from Civics, History, Geography, Sociology, Social Ethics, Anthropology
etc or Science resulting from Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Agriculture, etc or Creative Arts
resulting from Art, Craft, Music etc. This design is most evident in the primary schools.
Strengths
a) Provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the essentials of the culture.
b) Allows for a meaningful integration of related content hence the learners can see the
relationship between the various elements of the curriculum.

33
 c) Easy to administer in terms of planning and evaluation because the subjects are not
too many.
d) Provides for general education which is appropriate for general life in that it widens
one's perspective for the world.
e) Furnishes the students with diverse experiences hence meeting their needs and
interests.
Weaknesses
a) The content is superficial of lacks depth of coverage.
b) Without competent planning, the content can still be fragmented and fail to relate to
the actual world of the learner.
c) Also places a lot of emphasis on content coverage at the expense of other aspects of
human development.
iii) The Core-Curriculum
This is commonly used to mean the areas of knowledge that are considered essential hence
common learning for everybody i.e. the compulsory subjects unlike the electives or optional
subjects. This is the approach used in Kenya in the secondary schools.
The core subjects are selected based on the national philosophy and the goals of education.
The core curriculum thus helps to:
 Develop integration of knowledge to serve the needs of the students.
 Promote active learning and a relationship between life and learning.
 Serve the needs of the society.
 Give the students an opportunity to make choices through electives.
Strengths
 Emphasizes a core of social values
 It combines subject matter with the realities and challenges of life.
 Aims at integrating learning by unifying subject matter for purposes of studying social
issues, which are related to individuals as well as society.
 Takes care of social needs and interests of the learner
 Provides for equity in education. Differentiation only comes in selecting the other
subjects (Electives) to be learnt.
 Gives the student an opportunity to make choices through the electives thus student's
interest is catered for.
Weaknesses
 Fails to offer significant and systematic knowledge to the learners.

34
  Poses organization problems in schools e.g time table.
 Teachers have not been trained to arrange content on focuses or issues thus posing
problems on teachers.
 It requires many teachers with varied specialties, and many materials.
 It is quite expensive since learners can choose any subject.
 It does not cater for differentiated abilities
B) THE LEARNER CENTRED CURRICULUM DESIGNS
These are not content free but emphasize on individual development of the learners, their
needs and interests. The learner is taken to be the center of the curriculum process. The
learner's active participation in the learning process is the main focus.
The design was promoted by the progressivists, the greatest promoter being John Dewey.
According to Dewey, the child should be allowed to develop the capacity for individual self
expressions hence should be allowed to have freedom, active involvement in the learning
process and creativity instead of the domination of the teacher. The curriculum should be
adapted to the child.
General Characteristics of Learner Centred Designs Include:
i) Consider learner's needs and interests in selecting and organizing the learning
experiences.
ii) The child is an active participant in the learning process.
iii) Makes knowledge relevant to the learner.
iv) The learner is encouraged to work out solutions to problems and to overcome
challenges.
v) Learners are instructed individually at some points.
Examples of Learner Centred Designs Include:
 Activity, experience or child centred designs.
 Social and life designs - this link content to real life i.e. to prevailing social problems,
a) The Activity Designs:
These have their origin in the 18mC Europe and in the work of Rousseau and Pestalozzi. The
argument behind this design is that people only learn what they want to learn. The learners'
experience and not the content is thus important.
Characteristics
i) The structure of the curriculum depends on the learners' needs and interests which
the teacher must find out and select t he most significant.
ii) Curriculum cannot be pre-planned.

35
 iii) Curriculum should focus on problem solving procedures.
iv) Stresses on active participation by students; socialization of the student in the
world around him and greater school -community linkages.
Strengths
i) Learning is real and meaningful coz it is relevant to the learner's interests and
needs.
ii) Provides for individual differences of the various learners.
iii) Provides learners with the experiences they need in order to cope with life outside
the school e.g individual problem solving.
Weaknesses
i) It cannot provide for an adequate preparation for life since it is based on the needs
and interests of the learners.
ii) Lacks continuity and sequence since its based on students' needs and interests.
iii) Places a lot of demand on the teacher thus need for extra-ordinary teachers to
fulfil the needs and interests of learners.
iv) Costly in terms of support materials and personnel,
b) The Social and Life Designs
They link content to real life. They attempted to overcome situations in which some of the
academic disciplines were divorced from reality and were thus of little use in solving
everyday life problems. Curriculum content should thus be organized around persistent life
situations like:-
 Health
 Moral choices
 Natural Phenomena
 Technological phenomena
 Economic, social and political structures etc.
Strengths
i) Prepares learners adequately for everyday life.
ii) Learning is real because it is linked to real life.
Weaknesses
Teachers have not been trained adequately to handle content in terms of persistent life
situations.
Doesn't cater for different abilities of learners

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 TOPIC 6: MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Curriculum development is the process of choosing and refining the content of the
instructional programme. It is an aspect of curriculum planning which involves the whole
process of choosing what children should learn and translating that choice into action. The
process starts from the first attempt to make a selection and justify it, to the final adoption of
the new materials. In a nutshell therefore, curriculum development can be defined as planning
for and provision of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain changes in the
learners. It also involves the assessment of the extent to which these changes have taken
place. Specifically, it involves the writing, trial and testing of instructional plans and
educational materials.
*The process of curriculum development will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

Curriculum scholars have advanced various theoretical models in an attempt to explain a the
process of curriculum development. Some of these models are:
i) The Tyler model (1949)
ii) The Taba model (19S2)
iii) The Hunkins' Decision-Making model (1980)

i) The Tyler Model (1949)

Tyler starts by asking four fundamental questions which have to be answered if the process of
curriculum planning is to proceed these are:
i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

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The four questions raised by Tyler may be formulated into a simple four-step process by
which a curriculum is planned and developed as follows:

Step I: Objectives

Step II: Selection of Learning experiences

Step III: Organization of learning experiences

Step IV: Evaluation

The 1st step is the most crucial one in this model since all the others proceed from and are
regulated by the statement of objectives. Because of its emphasis on objectives, this model is
sometimes referred to as the "objectives" model and is a prototype of all other subsequent
models.
There are 3 sources of these objectives:
i) Study of the learners- This is done to establish the needs of the learners so as to determine
the changes in behaviour that the school should bring about in the learners.
ii) Study of Contemporary Life in Society- the school is supposed to prepare the youth for life
in the society. The curriculum offered in schools should address the persistent problems in
the society outside the school.
iii) Suggestions from Subject Specialists: subject specialists represent their conception of
objectives; write books on their subjects etc.

The objectives arrived at from these three sources is then filtered through philosophical and
psychological 'screens' in order to arrive at the final, refined objectives. Once the first crucial
step of stating the objectives are accomplished, the mode proceeds through the steps of
selection and organization of learning experiences as a means of achieving the already stated
objectives or no: objectives have been achieved.

38
Evaluation according to Tyler is essentially the process of determining to what extent the
educational objectives are actually realized by the programme of curriculum and instruction.
Tylers model has had significant impact on subsequent curriculum activities worldwide.

Criticisms of Tyler's Model

Places a lot of emphasis on objectives at the expense of other elements of curriculum
It is too simple and linear and does not show the interrelatedness of the separate elements.
Puts evaluation at the end but evaluation occurs throughout the curriculum development
process.
ii) The Taba Model (1962)
Hilda Taba (1962) perceives curriculum as containing certain basic elements as follows:
 Aims and objectives
 Content
 Learning experiences
 Evaluation
In any curriculum design, these must be selected on the basis of certain considerations such
as the principles of learning and ideas about the nature of the learners and knowledge. Taba's
model can be presented in a diagram as follows;

This model is basically the same as Tyler's because Taba also emphasized on objectives.
Taba however makes content conspicuous. Taba also emphasizes on interrelatedness or
interrelationships among the elements, which Tyler assumes in her model. A simple
relationship between the elements in this model is that type of content and learning
experiences to select and will influence the nature and process of evaluation.
Taba suggests a participatory approach to curriculum design in which teachers should
participate in making the curriculum. She suggests seven major steps in which teachers
should have an input in curriculum development.
i) Diagnosis of Seeds - The teacher identifies the needs of the learners for whom the
curriculum is to be planned.
ii) Formulation of Objectives - The teacher specifies the objectives to be achieved
based on the identified needs of the learners.
iii) Selection of Content - The objectives selected suggest the content of the
curriculum unit thus its validity and significance.

39
 iv) Organization of the Content - The teacher organizes the content in some kind of
sequence taking into consideration the maturity of the learners their academic
achievement and their interests.
v) Selection of Learning Experiences - The students must engage in an interaction
with the content hence the teacher must identify and use the instructional
methodology that will involve the students with the content.
vi) Organization of Learning Experiences - Must be sequenced keeping in mind the
particular students who will be taught.
vii) Evaluation and means of evaluation to determine what objectives have
been accomplished achieved. Taba suggests that evaluation procedures be
considered by both students and teachers.

Criticisms of Taba's Model.

i) Though she emphasizes the participatory approach to curriculum design, the
procedures suggested are technical and complex and not every teacher can do.
ii) Taba advocates that teachers should participate in making the curriculum and by
so doing assumes that they have the necessary expertise.
iii) She assumes the availability of resources in the curriculum development process.

iii) The Hunkins' Decision-making Model

Francis Hunkins' model of curriculum development has seven major steps: curriculum
conceptualization and legitimization, diagnosis, content selection, experience selection,
implementation, evaluation, and maintenance. Each of these steps is discussed below:

Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization: This is the most unique aspect of this
model. It requires that participants in curriculum development engage in deliberation in order
to agree on what curriculum is to mean in their school system. There should be a deliberate
search for an understanding of curriculum as well as its value to individuals and society. Only
when such a negotiated understanding has been reached can the ensuing curriculum be a
legitimate reflection of the educational wishes of the people.

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Curriculum Diagnosis: This involves the identification of need with the concept of
curriculum agreed adopted in step one above. Once the needs are identified, then curriculum
goals and objectives are generated to satisfy the needs. Such goals and objectives serve as
frameworks for selecting content.

Content Selection: This deals with 'what' is to be taught, and what the students will learn.
Content refers to facts, concepts, principles, theories, and generalizations. Content also refers
to cognitive processes that learners employ when thinking about or studying the content. It
may also refer to the procedures students learn to use to apply their knowledge and skills and
to communicate what they know to others.

Experience Selection: This step deals with how the content is to be delivered to students or
experienced by them. Some of the questions to be asked here are: What teaching methods
will be used? What educational activities will e designed to make learning effective and
enjoyable? How will the content of the curriculum be experienced so that the stated goals and
objectives are attained? Etc.

Implementation: This is putting the curriculum into use in the school system. More about
implementation will be discussed in the subsequent topics.

Evaluation: This is conducted throughout the life of the curriculum to provide data so that
decisions can be made to continue, modify, or discontinue the program.

Maintenance: This refers to the methods and means by which the implemented curriculum is
managed to assure its continued effective functioning.

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 TOPIC 7: STEPS IN THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS.
A. Situational Analysis/ Need Assessment.
Through the two terms are used synonymously there is some difference between them.
Situational analysis is situation where a completely new curriculum is being planned. Needs
assessment on the other hand is done where the curriculum/ current curriculum/ aspects of its
regime undergo improvement or change. Situational analysis involves finding out the context
in which the curriculum process is to take place. It's an attempt to reconcile the existing
position with the ideal requirements of the curriculum planners. It is therefore involves the
collection of basic data in two main areas.
 The need of the learners.
 The social economic circumstances in to the needs.
There are various factors, which must be considered in order to get a true picture of what
exists in a society and how it will effect decisions on the farmland structure of the
curriculum. These are categorized into two main as follows.
1. Factors Within the School System They include:
a) Pupils
Their aptitudes, interests, values, attitudes, life experiences and their educational needs.
b) Teachers
Can effectively implement only what they know, understand and are capable of doing. There
is therefore a need to be aware of the teacher's skills, attitudes, values, knowledge,
experiences, strengths and weaknesses.
These will help in finding out what should be provided in the pre-service teacher education,
as well as in-service programs. Determining the number of teachers is important requirement
in curriculum.
c) The School
Implementation of the curriculum occurs in schools the schools must therefore be ready in
terms of the infrastructure and resources of e.g. classrooms, labs, workshops, equipment
textbooks etc.
d) Status of the Existing Curriculum.
This concerns the problems and shortcomings as well as the success of the existing
curriculum. This will form the basis for any useful changes.
e) Support Systems.

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They include T.T.C's Resource centres, universities, Exam and Research Institutes. This can
be the primary source of information and guidance, which can become barrier to the
development and implementation of the intended curriculum or not utilized.

2. Factors from Outside the School System.

This refers to the environment outside the school is situated and from which it draws its pupil
and resources. The following social factors, which are likely to affect the changes in the
curriculum, must be considered.
a) Changes and trends in the society
This will either indicate the tasks for the school ?or> they may affect- the functioning of the
school. They include industrial and economic development of the community political
situations.
b) Culture and Ideologies
A curriculum that is contrary to the cultural norms and practices would be rejected.
c) Community Values
These are expectations of the society, which must be known in order to avoid future conflicts
and even resistance to the curriculum. The products of the school must be able to fit on the
society.
d) The Changing Nature of Knowledge
New theories, ideas and concepts are constantly emerging through research and technology.
This leads to new knowledge, which has to be considered when introducing a new curriculum
or changing some aspects of the curriculum.
e) The Flow of Resources into the School.
The economic conditions in the society hence the society's ability to support and finance a
planned curriculum. Situational analysis therefore is more than just collecting information. It
involves identifying tasks and problems, seeking possible solutions anticipating the
difficulties and possible areas of resistance, planning the resources and organizational
changes that will be needed.

Situational analysis is done differently in different systems of education. In Kenya the

educational system is centralized and situational analysis is therefore carried out by education
commissions e.g Ominde (1964), Gachathi (1976), Mackay (1981), and Koech (1999) etc.

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Ideally situational analysis should involve not only the experts but also the general interested
public. However this is not always the case, and only select groups and individuals usually
present their prevalent views. The teacher is particularly crucial in situation analysis
especially on issues relating to curriculum balance since she/he is the implementer.

Example of situational Analysis i.e. 1998 Commission of Inquiry into the Education
System in Kenya.
Background information:
The aim of the commission was to look into the 8.4.4 system of education, which was aimed
at fee giving a broad based education particularly-making it practical. However these
objectives were not fully achieved due to various constraints as revealed by various
evaluation reports e.g in 1990 formative evaluation of the primary and secondary school
curriculum indicated the following:
i) Curriculum was too broad and too demanding to the teachers and students.
ii) There were unnecessary overlaps across subjects and levels (content repeated).
iii) Families were finding it difficult to provide facilities equipments and material
required for effective implementation.
iv) Teachers were not adequately prepared to handle the practiced subjects.

Based on these reports the following intervention measures were put into place: the primary
and secondary curriculum was reversed and new syllabuses were introduced in schools in
(1992). These revisions entailed the reduction and reorganization of the content. The number
of subjects examined at K.C.S.E was reduced from minimum of ten to a minimum of 8. There
was another evaluation in 1995 and its finding indicated the following:
i) The curriculum was still overloaded in terms of the subjects taken and the content
in each of the subjects.
ii) Some of the objectives were unrealistic and not easily attainable within the given
time and resources.
iii) There were unnecessary overlaps across levels and subjects.
iv) Some content was beyond the scope of the learners in some subjects. The
curriculum continued to be too expensive to implement.
v) Many were finding it difficult to afford education leading to high dropouts and
low completion rates.

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However the recommendations were not focused enough to guide curriculum revision. In
1998 a commission of inquiry into the education system in Kenya was appointed.

In January (1999) a needs assessment survey was done nationally. The findings were as
follows:
a) The primary and secondary education curriculum was overloaded in:
 The number of taught and examined subjects.
 The content in each subject at every level.
b) There were unnecessary overlaps within subjects and across levels.
c) The cost of education was very high due to the number of book required per pupil for the
various subjects.
d) Most of the schools were not adequately equipped for the implementation of the
curriculum especially in the practical subjects.
e) The majority of the teachers were not adequately prepared to implement the curriculum
especially on the practical subjects.
f) The curriculum was not satisfactory preparing its graduates for further education, training
and the world of work.
g) The curriculum failed to adequately address the emerging issues such as individual
transformation of the country by the year 2020, information communication technology,
environmental education, wealth creation education, human rights, children's rights, moral
values and social responsibilities.

R. Formulation of Objectives.
These follow after the intensive situational analysis / needs assessment. This is an important
stage in that there can't be curriculum without educational objectives. The objectives define
the educational destination i.e. the end especially since there are several problems and needs
of all of which the school cannot deal with.
Objectives are important because of the following reasons.
i) They assist curriculum planners in developing purposeful instructional programs
(give direction).
ii) They justify the need for providing educational programmes and therefore solicit
support for it (Reasons why education is given).
iii) They guide the educational process i.e. the selection of content learning
experiences and teaching methods.

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 iv. They provide a basis for evaluation of the educational process.

The appropriate objectives are derived from the broad aims of education and the national
goals of education. These will form a guidance, which will be used by the curriculum project
team in the drawing up the activities of the curriculum development process. According to
Benjamin Bloom (1964) in his taxonomy of educational objectives, the objectives should be
in the three basic domains.
 The cognitive.
 Psychomotor.
 Effective domain.

The Cognitive Domain.

This contains the knowledge, comprehension, application analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
The Affective Domain.
Includes receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization.
The Psychomotor Domain.
Encompasses observing, imitating, practicing, and adapting.
The objectives for the curriculum should be SMART i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic and Time bound

C. Setting Up the Curriculum Project.

These refers to daily curriculum development activities such as making reviews for effecting
minor changes that are done by the full time curriculum developers. These may include
members drawn from among the teachers and others educators representing relevant
institutions who will make-up the select panels. However when major changes have to be
effected specific curriculum development project has to be set for that purpose. This will
involve the full time curriculum developers and other educators as well as those who may be
directly involved in education for example sociologists, economists, religious, personnel,
anthropologists and other interested group.
The project team is usually presented with the following: -
v. The aims goals and objectives of education.
vi. The terms of reference i.e. what they are required to look into.
vii. The objectives of the project.

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 viii. The necessary faculties to enable them execute their duties effectively.

NB: However they are never trained because it's assumed that they are experienced.

The main task of the team is to draw-up the curriculum plan i.e. to design an appropriate
curriculum in Kenya there have been various curriculum projects that have had significant
impact on education. An example is the Primary Education Project (P.E.P) of 1979. This was
a major project launched by KIE to examine and improve the school curriculum in Kenya.
This was after the Gachathi Report of 1976. Other projects are the secondary school and the
pre-school educational project both of 1985.
The membership of the project teams include:
 Classroom teachers.
 University lecturers
 Publishers.
 Educational administrators.
 The then inspectors of schools
 Curriculum developers at KIE.
 Personnel from Kenya National examination council.
 Teacher trainers.

d). Program Building

This is also referred to as the curriculum construction. This is the main work of project teams
i.e. writing up a curriculum plan in consultation with a broad cross section of stakeholders.
The main activities that should be given special attention at these stages are:
i) Selection of content for particular/ specific group of learners.
ii) Selection of learner's and teacher's activities
iii) Selection of relevant facilities and resources.

All these activities are referred to as learning opportunities and experiences and they must be
selected and organized. There are certain criteria for selecting these learning experiences: -
Validity
This is the consistency with developments in the subject or knowledge area.
Conformity with the Objectives.

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It should give the learners the opportunity to practice the kind of behaviour implied by the
objectives.
Significance
It must be meaningful in contributing to the process of learning.
Learners Ability
It should be adjusted to the ability of the learner and individual differences. This includes the
background the present attainment, the mental age etc.
Interest
It affects the rate at which learning will take place depending on how motivating the
experiences are.
Satisfaction
The pupils must derive satisfaction through the learning experiences if the desired learning is
to occur.
Relevance
Relevance to the life of the learner outside the school i.e. it should enable the learner to deal
with life situations.
Consistency with Social Reality.
They should not contradict the actual situation in the society.
Economy in the Use of Time.
Those experiences that can achieve multiple objectives at ago should be preferred.
Reinforcement
Is that experience should reinforce previous and others experiences in order to achieve the
objectives.
N/B: The learning experiences may not measure up to all these criteria but they should satisfy
as many as possible with the emergency of progressivism. There's emphasis that learning
experiences should be activity based (Learners should be active but not passive).

After the selection of learning experiences and opportunity they have to be organized so that
the desired learning can take place. In Kenya the organization is usually according to
subjects, which form the medium through which the objectives are achieved. The subject
must be organized into school programs and this involves the sequence of presentation the
time and approaches for instruction.

Within a subject the learning experience can be organized at three levels.

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 i) The lesson.
ii) The topic (various lessons are derived).
iii) The unit (covers several topics).
The units must have the knowledge, skills and attitudes clearly defined i.e. the learning
outcomes. The content, the methods and the learning activities as well as the means for
evaluating the unit must also be defined. The teaching and learning materials must be
development these include the syllabuses, the teacher's guides and handbooks and the
textbooks learning Aids used in pilot school etc.

Example of Curriculum Development Activities.

Following the approval of the curriculum size based on the needs assessment of 1999, the
following activities were undertaken.
 Development of curriculum design by different working committees for both primary
and secondary education. These were approved by the subject (committee) panels at
KIE in 2002.
The development of syllabus. Using the approved curriculum design subject panel's
development syllabus for each subject between March and April 2002. These were approved
by the course panels and the Academy board in April 2002.
Development of the handbooks and teachers preparation guides. These were done by subject
panels in June 2002.

Piloting the New Programme in Selected Schools.

This is trial of the programme in a few schools to see or test how it works. The selected
schools should be a representative of those that will be affected by the final implementation.
This helps in establishing validity of the curriculum (effectiveness). Information from the
piloting may be used to make decisions and improve the curriculum. Teachers and all other
personnel involved must be trained to ensure that they are thoroughly familiar with the new
programme. Piloting provides feedback about the programme in terms of: -
 How teachers and students react and deal with programme.
 Teacher performance.
 Availability of physical learning space facilities e.g. materials, availability of furniture
etc.
 Availability of time.
 The general attitude towards the programme.

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The feedback obtained helps to determine whether the goals can be realized and to make a
decision whether to adopt, modify or dismiss the programme. Most of the times modification
is done and the programme is adopted.

Improving the New Programme.

Here, suggestions from the pilot exercise are used to modify the programme to make it
appropriate to the real school and instructional situation i.e. the number of students with
diverse backgrounds teachers and the general education environment. The modifications must
address the deficiencies discovered during piloting. Usually every new programme even the
most carefully planned needs some revisions and modifications. If necessary, several piloting
sessions may be carried out to ensure that the programme is satisfactory.

Implementation of the New Programme in Schools.

This is the process of using the developed curriculum in the schools on a widespread basis.
The teachers and the learners use the curriculum. Other people like parents, administrators
and the lay public also come into contact with the new curriculum. Implementation is thus the
process of affecting the new curriculum. Implementation involves two important processes;
namely:-
 Changing the altitudes of the people- Policy makers, administrators, teachers, teacher
trainers school supervisors, parents the lay public and the learners themselves.
 Providing the materials and administrative means to make the process possible.
To carry out these two processes a number of activities have to be undertaken:
1. Persuading people to accept the new curriculum, i.e. policy makers, teachers, parents
and the learners.
2. Informing the public about the new curriculum; through mass media, seminars, public
lecturers etc.
3. Obtaining the necessary personnel to perform various roles in the process.
4. Placing professionally qualified personnel at appropriate points.
5. Training of teachers to use the new curriculum.
6. Educating other personnel who are likely to take part in their implementation, e.g.
teacher trainers, educational administrators, school inspectors, etc.
7. Providing the necessary faculties, equipment and materials in schools.
8. Preventing the new curriculum and support materials
9. Devising relevant evaluation methods

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10. Providing continuous support for the new curriculum.
H. Evaluation.
This is the process of generating data, which is used to assign value in order to make a
decision whether to accept, improve or reject the new curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is
the process used to weigh the relative merits of educational alternatives of curriculum
practice. The decision may be to accept, improve or reject any of the educational alternatives.
Curriculum evaluation goes on throughout the process of curriculum development. There are
two types of curriculum evaluation:
a) Formative Evaluation:
This begins at the inception of a curriculum development project and continues through all
the development stages. This provides information that is required for re-examination,
revision and improvement of the educational programme. It is basically concerned with the
merits of the plan and how to make the plan effective.
b) Summative Evaluation.
This occurs at the end of curriculum implementation in schools to find out the overall success
of the completed programme. It is mainly concerned with the achievements at the end of the
curriculum project and what happens to learners as a result of instruction. It gives an overall
view and makes judgments about the programmes effectiveness and worthiness. Curriculum
evaluation as a process in curriculum development refers to summative evaluation. It is the
process of finding out how far the instructional plans are actually producing the desired
results, in what areas it is effective and in what respect it needs improvement. It involves
finding out the strengths and weaknesses of the plans.

NB: The simplest and clearest distinction between formative and summative evaluation is
that in formative evaluation; one is dealing with an incomplete educational programme while
in summative evaluation, one is attempting to judge a completed educational programme.
I) Curriculum Maintenance.
Curriculum development is a continuous process because there are emerging issues that
require continuous alternation e.g. conditions or circumstances change, student's
characteristics change, new material and educational media appear etc. Due to these changes,
there's a need to monitor the curriculum plan through the years in order to maintain its
effectiveness and worth before a drastic change becomes necessary.

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Curriculum maintenance refers to the activities and procedures that allow the operations of
the programmes to continue. It focuses on: actions of the administrator's actions of teachers,
students, parents and others in response to the on going programme.
 To maintain a programme, curriculum leaders try to stabilize it and to keep
operational the content, experiences and environments. Small problems are sorted out
before they become big issues.
 Maintaining a programme requires a steady flow of accurate information in order to
assess continuous programme performance. Curriculum maintenance means
managing the curriculum and support systems.
 The major curriculum elements to be monitored include objectives, content
environments, educational personnel, school organization, students, school
community, parents arid the programmes budget.
 Maintenance is a vital stage in curriculum development. It ensures that the
programme is effectively operational.

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 TOPIC 8: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA
Curriculum Development in Kenya at all levels except the university is mainly conducted by
the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). The KIE is a curriculum development and research
centre, which develops materials for use in education at all levels below the university in
Kenya, a) Functions of the KIE.
The functions of KIE today as a curriculum development centre are as follows:
1. To conduct research and prepare curricula and syllabus for:
 Pre-school education
 Primary education
 Secondary education
 Teacher education
 Special education
 Business education
 Technical education
 Post school education
 Adult Education.
2. To conduct research and prepare teaching and evaluation materials, books, mass media
programme etc to support appropriate syllabi.
3. To conduct research and prepare correspondence courses for students and teachers.
To organize:
a) In-service courses and workshops for teachers involved in the experimentation of any
syllabuses and teaching materials.
b) Seminars and orientation courses for guiding teachers, educational administrators, and
teacher educators on syllabi and other teaching materials.
c) Orientation courses for educational officers on up to date developments in schools and
teacher college's curricula i.e. updating courses.
5. To organize and conduct curriculum evaluation.

N/B: KIE also acts as the eye of the government or watchdog on all curriculum matters in the
country. It advices the government on matters related to both public and private educational
programmes: i.e. whether they are legitimate and meet the requirements of Kenya as a nation
or

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Examination panels whose duties include: -
 To discuss, derive and recommend policy with regard to test development.
 To discuss and recommend criteria and methods of award.
 To examine draft syllabuses from KIE and make recommendations.
 To advice on appointment of senior examiners.
 The council secretariat executes the day-to-day functions of the council.

Religious Organizations.
Mainly involved in the development of religious education curriculum. These include:
a) Kenya Catholic Secretariat (KCS) for Catholics.
b) Chris Tiaxi Churches Education Association (CCEA) or the National Council of
Churches of Kenya (NCCK).
c) The Seventh Day Adventists.
d) Moslems
e) Others
These develop the religious education syllabuses and textbooks?
They are represented in the governing council the academic board; the course panels and
religious education panels in both primary and secondary education at the KIE. Below are
stages of approval of religious education syllabuses and textbooks.

Church Panels (Approvals).

Joint Church Panels (Approvals).

KIE Subjects Panels (Approvals).

KIE Course Panels (Approvals).

KIE Academic Board (Approvals).

The religious organizations advice the schools on implementation of the syllabuses.

 They offer in-service courses for the CRE teachers.
 They train teachers to teach in the primary school etc.

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The Teacher Centres
NB: The inspectorate has the authority to inspect any school at any time without notice.
They can request the head teacher to provide records to facilitate inspection.
ii) The Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT)
This is a trade union whose main concern is the improvement of terms of service for teachers
in the country.
Functions
 It protects members from victimization and harassment by the employer (T.S.C).
 Encourage and improve morale and efficiency of teachers.
 Provides a code of behaviour for guidance of teachers.
 Provides guidance on what ought to be done in education.
 Participate in curriculum development process through representation at KIE.
 Approves and encourages subject panels at KIE.
 Organizes seminars related to the professional life of a teacher.
iii) The Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC).
KNEC is concerned with the implementation of appropriate measurement tools in the
learning process (summative evaluation). The data gotten on students' performance is used by
curriculum developers in curriculum appraisal. The KNEC is concerned with conduct and
administration of public examinations in the country. The specific functions of KNEC are:
 To conduct academic, technical and professional examinations e.g. KCPE, KCSE,
business exams, technical exams teacher exams etc.
 To award diplomas and certificates to successful candidates in these exams.
 To make rules regulating the conduct of exams structure and organization.
 To advice bodies from outside Kenya on how to adapt their exams to fit the
requirements of Kenya and to assist such bodies in conducting exams.
The Structure and Organization of KNEC
 The governing council.
 The finance and general purposes committee.
 The examinations security committee.
 Professional committees for each broad area of exam e.g. primary examinations
committee.

A teacher centre is a form of resource centre set to benefit a number of local schools and the
teachers. It organizes resources for learning so that the students and teachers have access to
such resources more easily. KIE often disseminates new curriculum information and
approaches through such teacher centres.

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56
 TOPIC 9: TEACHER EDUCATION
a) Meaning and Scope of Teacher Education.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) define teacher education as "such institutionalized educational
procedures that are aimed at the purposeful organized preparation or further education of
teachers who are engaged directly or indirectly in educational activity as their life work.
Teacher education is carried out in colleges of education who have vocational as well as
educative objectives. The colleges are charged with the professional preparation of a specific
type of personnel e.g. B. ED (arts) hence teacher education includes the study of academic
disciplines i.e. subject areas necessary for equipping the trained teacher with subject matter
content for imparting to the pupils in their area of specialization. Students to colleges of
education are chosen/selected on their suitability for teaching and are supposed to have
chosen the teaching profession as their future career.

Some of the specific national goals of teacher education as outlined by the Ministry of
Education (1987) include:-
 To develop the ability to communicate effectively
 To develop professional attitudes and values.
 To develop in teachers the ability to identify and develop the education needs of the
learner.
 To create initiative a sense of professional commitment and excellence in education.
 To enable the teacher to adapt to the environment and society.

Variants of Teacher Education Programmes.

Teacher training occurs both in pre service and in-service education.
i) Pre-service Teacher Education.
This is a scheme of training in which teacher trainees attend their training on teacher
education before they start practicing as trained teachers. It can be on full time mode or part
time mode. There are two approaches to pre service teacher training:
a) Concurrent Programmes.
b) Consecutive Programmes.

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Concurrent Programmes:
This is where both professional courses and subject area content are studied over the training
period. For example, at the undergraduate level, one or two subject areas, professional
courses and practice teaching are studied. This programme was started in 1964 at Makerere
University and later at the University of Nairobi for a Bachelor of Education degree (B. ED).

Consecutive Programmes.
This is used to convert an essentially general based graduate into a professional teacher
through a one year or more professional course e.g. post graduate Diploma in Education.

ii) In-service Teacher Education

This may take place at any time either as full time or part time study, during the continuous
professional life of the teacher.

In-service education may consist of a carefully planned sustained work over a lengthy period
leading to further qualification in the form of an advanced certificate, diploma, degree etc e.g.
diploma course in special education. It may equally involve short courses for acquainting the
practicing teacher with the latest innovations in the curriculum in particular subject areas e.g.
new approaches methodology etc. It keeps teachers abreast with new developments in
knowledge.

d) Issues in Teacher Education and the Teaching Profession

The main issues in teacher education include the following:
a) Wastage or attrition - leaving the teaching profession for other better paying
employment.
b) Feminization in teaching especially at the pre-school level and primary level.
c) Teacher mobility i.e. transfers from station to station.
d) Issues of policy in recruitment into the teaching profession; most of those recruited
may not be committed and may find it hard to cope with challenges of the job.
e) Schemes of service of teachers are such that upward mobility and professional
development of teachers is not always achievable as desired.

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f) Posting and transfer of teachers - teachers especially newly employed may be posted
to unfamiliar places and may be required to stay in those places for a long period
without am allowance to opt for transfer.
g) Balance and integration i.e. between the professional and academic courses.
h) The issue of many unemployed trained teachers. Sometimes these teachers get
employed in our neighbouring countries.
i) The issue of high teacher student ratios especially in primary level of education. This
affects quality teaching.
j) The issue of unresolved teachers' salary increments. The debate on whether to
increase teachers' salaries is still ongoing between the teachers and the government.

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