Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
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Characteristics of Various Types of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
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Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
For example, suppose that an integer A that is to be incremented by 1
is located in file B, and file B resides on hard disk.
The increment operation proceeds by first issuing an I/O operation to
copy the disk block on which A resides to main memory.
This operation is followed by copying A to the cache and to an internal
register.
Thus, the copy of A appears in several places: on the hard disk, in
main memory, in the cache, and in an internal register
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Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent
value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in
hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 19
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I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices
from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping
of output of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
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1.6. Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights
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1.7. Virtualization
Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes
Vast and growing industry
Emulation used when source CPU type different from target
type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
Generally slowest method
When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services
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Virtualization (cont.)
Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple OSes
for exploration or compatibility
Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a guest
Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
QA testing applications without having multiple systems
Executing and managing compute environments within data
centers
VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the host
There is no general purpose host then (VMware ESX and
Citrix XenServer)
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Computing Environments - Virtualization
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1.8. Distributed Systems
Distributed computing
Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked together
Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
Network Operating System provides features between
systems across network
Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
Illusion of a single system
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1.9. Kernel Data Structures
Many similar to standard programming data structures
Singly linked list
Doubly linked list
Circular linked list
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Kernel Data Structures
Binary search tree
left <= right
Search performance is O(n)
Balanced binary search tree is O(lg n)
Linux : CPU scheduling algorithm uses
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Kernel Data Structures
Hash function can create a hash map
Bitmap – string of n binary digits representing the status of n items
Linux data structures defined in include files <linux/list.h>,
<linux/kfifo.h>, <linux/rbtree.h>
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1.10. Computing Environments - Traditional
Stand-alone general purpose machines
But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e.,
the Internet)
Portals provide web access to internal systems
Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks
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Computing Environments - Mobile
Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc
What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android
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Computing Environments – Client-Server
Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated
by clients
Compute-server system provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e., database)
File-server system provides interface for clients to store
and retrieve files
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Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer
Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
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Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
Logical extension of virtualization because it uses virtualization as the base
for it functionality.
Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of virtual machines,
petabytes of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
Many types
Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications available via
the Internet (i.e., word processor)
Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application use
via the Internet (i.e., a database server)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available over
Internet (i.e., storage available for backup use)
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Computing Environments – Cloud Computing
Cloud computing environments composed of traditional OSes,
plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications
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Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems
Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers
Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS,
real-time OS
Use expanding
Many other special computing environments as well
Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
Processing must be done within constraint
Correct operation only if constraints met
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1.11. Free and Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather
than just binary closed-source and proprietary
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights
Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has
“copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
Free software and open-source software are two different ideas
championed by different groups of people
http://gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html/
Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of
Mac OS X), and many more
Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox
(open source and free on many platforms -
http://www.virtualbox.com)
Use to run guest operating systems for exploration
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The Study of Operating Systems
There has never been a more interesting time to study operating systems, and it has never been
easier. The open-source movement has overtaken operating systems, causing many of them to be
made available in both source and binary (executable) format. The list of operating
systems available in both formats includes Linux, BUSD UNIX, Solaris, and part of macOS.
The availability of source code allows us to study operating systems from the inside out.
Questions that we could once answer only by looking at documentation or the behavior of an
operating system we can now answer by examining the code itself.
Operating systems that are no longer commercially viable have been open-sourced as well, enabling
us to study how systems operated in a time of fewer CPU, memory, and storage resources.
An extensive but incomplete list of open-source operating-system projects is available
from https://curlie.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Open_Source/
In addition, the rise of virtualization as a mainstream (and frequently free) computer function
makes it possible to run many operating systems on top of one core system. For example, VMware
(http://www.vmware.com) providesa free “player” for Windows on which hundreds of free
“virtual appliances” can run. Virtualbox (http://www.virtualbox.com) provides a free, open-source
virtual machine manager on many operating systems. Using such tools, students can try out
hundreds of operating systems without dedicated hardware.
The advent of open-source operating systems has also made it easier to make the move from
student to operating-system developer. With some knowledge, some effort, and an Internet
connection, a student can even create a new operating-system distribution. Just a few years ago,
it was difficult or impossible to get access to source code. Now, such access is limited only by
how much interest, time, and disk space a student has.
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End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
