1

Notes of Discourse Studies

Compiled & Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
22/1/24

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 I’m highly thankful to Sir Sulaiman Ahamd, and I dedicate these notes to my great
teacher from whom I’ve learnt not only this subject but also many other things
related to practical life.
 All credit goes to my respected teacher Dr. Sulaiman Ahmad

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 2

[Points to be kept in mind before studying these Notes]

 Please follow the course content as I’ve followed the course content but!
 In these notes I've included many extra materials for myself for broader
understanding and sometimes I just use copy paste from the original sources which I
think would be better to study and read deeply…(If you aren’t interested in extra
materials, just skip them)
 Practical examples and the assignments assigned to us are also included.
 In CDA section , I've tried to include all the materials from the original sources as I
think it'd be better to study them from the original sources
 I got help from Brian Paltridge’s book, research papers shared by Sir Sulaiman and
especially I got help from Sir Khurram Shahzad's guide of Discourse Studies which
was recommended to us by Sir Sulaiman himself.
 I also got help from the Video lectures of Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad
and Sir Khurram Shehzad which are available on Youtube,
Note: These notes of Discourse Studies are compiled, prepared and written by me and I have
used so many sources as mentioned above and I, as a student of BS English 8th (B), Morning,
can’t claim that these notes are perfect and don’t have any mistake or these are the only
notes to rely on; so, suggestions for further improvement will be cordially accepted and
welcomed.
 I have prepared notes of linguistic subjects from 1st to 8th semester according to
NUML syllabus….
“You have to keep breaking your heart until it opens.” (RUMI)

Email: [email protected]
M. Junaid (Mjunaidswabian)
BS 8th (B), Morning
NUML, Peshawar
22/1/24

Course Contents:
SECTION 1 (Mid-term): BEGINNING WITH DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
A. Introduction to Discourse
1. What is Discourse?
2. Features of Discourse
3. Text and Discourse
4. Types of Discourse: Written, Spoken, Media, Political etc.

B. Discourse Analysis
1. What is Discourse Analysis?
2. A Short History of Discourse Analysis
3. Major Contributors
C. Grammatical
Analysis of
Discourse

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 3

1. Cohesion &
Coherence
2. Cohesive Devices
3. Theme & Rheme
4. Thematic Progression

D. Pragmatic Analysis of
Discourse
1. Language in context
2. Speech Act Theory
3. Co-operative Principles
4. Conversational Implicature
5. Politeness Theory
E. Analysis of Conversation as
Discourse
1. Conversation as Discourse
2. Structure of conversation
3. Analyzing a conversation

SECTION 2 (Final-term): PROCEEDING WITH CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

F. Discourse and Ideology: Beginning Critical Discourse

Analysis
1. What is ideology
2. Ideology in Discourse
3. What is critical Discourse Analysis
4. A brief history of CDA
G. Foucault & CDA
H. Systemic Functional Linguistics: A Brief overview
I. Fairclough and CDA
1. Language and Society
2. Relational-Dialectal Approach-Basics

J. Van Dijk and CDA

1. Socio-Cognitive Model- Basics

K. Doing Analysis
1. How to conduct research
2. Choosing a Discourse
3. Choosing a perspective
4. Choosing a suitable method
5. A Tool for Analysis: choosing DA, CA or
CDA

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 4

=================================================================
Q. What is Discourse & discourse analysis?
Ans: Discourse means any stretch, utterance or piece of (written/spoken) language beyond
the sentence level.
Discourse refers to:
 Language above the sentence.
 Language in use.
 Type of social practice where language takes on a vital role.
Discourse Analysis
The term discourse analysis was first introduced by Zellig Harris (1952) as a way of
analysing connected speech and writing.
 Harris had two main interests:
1) The examination of language beyond the level of sentence.
2) The relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic behaviour.
Definition (1): DA is the analysis of language in use. (It’s the study of language at use in the
world, not just to say things, but to do things.
Definition (2): According to Abrams & Harpham (2005), discourse analysis is a general term
used for some approaches to analyze 'the use of language in a running discourse, continued
over a number of sentences, and involving the interaction of speaker (or writer) and auditor
(or reader) in a specific situational context, and within a framework of social and cultural
conventions' (p. 81).
In this definition beyond the sentence level refers to four things as 1)It consists of sentences,
2) It refers to interaction (direct or indirect) b/w discourse producers (Speaker/writer) and
discourse consumers(Listener/reader), 3) In a specific situational context, 4) Within a
framework of social & Cultural norms/conventions

Discourse Analysis is mainly concerned with the following questions:

1. How do writers/speakers engage participants in written/spoken text?
2. How readers/listeners make sense of what they read/listen?
3. How do they interpret a concise or a very wordy text?
4. How do they distinguish a well-constructed text from an incoherent one?
5. How do speech participants successfully communicate their ideas in face-to-
face conversation?
In discourse analysis, we, as discourse analysts, try to analyze and interpret the presence or
absence of coherence and cohesion, co- referential forms (anaphora & cataphora),
conversational maxims (proposed by Grice, 1975), hedges, implicature(s), presuppositions,
speech-turns, conversational exchanges, speech acts (proposed by Austin, 1962), metaphors
and many other discursive strategies used by speakers/writers in different conversations and
speech events. To do so, we need to apply the principle of local interpretation and context
(linguistic & situational) to a given text in the light of our background knowledge. This is
worth noting that while analyzing a discourse, the role of context (linguistics and particularly
the context of situation) and background knowledge must not be neglected.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 5

Q. What is the difference b/w TEXT & DISCOURSE?

TEXT

 A written form of communication information, which is a non-interactive nature

 Agent is not crucial

 Non-interactive in nature

 Grammatical cohesion and structure of sentences are analyzed

 Usually in written form

 Ex: press reports, street signs, documents, etc.

DISCOURSE:

 A spoken, written, visual or audial form, communicating information that is

interactive in nature

 Agent is crucial

 Interactive in nature

 Agents involved in the communication, the social purpose and the medium utilized
are analyzed

 Can be either in written, verbal, visual or audio form

 Ex: dialogues, conversations, interactions in audio-visual programmes, etc.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q. What are the Differences among written, spoken and e-discourse?

Points of Written discourse E-discourse Spoken Discourse

distinctions
1 Means Pen, paper & print Blend of both as voice Speech sounds as mouth,
media messages and emails etc. tongue, lips etc.
2 Syntax  Complete Depends upon formality  Bits & Pieces of
sentences language
 Passive voice  Active voice
 Topic-comment
structure.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 6

 Subject-
predicative
structure
3 Conjunctions Simple & Basic Depends upon formality Complex conjunctions
conjunctions
4 Paralinguistic We use words to Emoji etc. Body language & Gestures
Features(Body express our emotions
language/ non-
verbal)
5 Public repair & Proofreading: In our Blend of both Public repair: correcting
Proof reading own privacy we correct errors in front of publics
our errors
6 Response Delayed Blend of both Immediate
7 Existence Permanent Blend of both as email is Temporary
permanent and snapchat is
temporary
8 Direction For Self-reflection Blend of both Almost always Others
directed
9 Extra words We hardly have extra Blend of both We have always extra
words words
10 Functions Used for transactional Blend of both Used for interactional
purposes purposes

==================================================================

Q. What are the seven criteria/standards/features of textuality/discourse by Robert De

Beaugrende (1981)?
Ans: Simple formula for all these seven criteria is (2C3ISA)
1. Cohesion
2. Coherence
3. Intentionality
4. Informality
5. Intertextuality
6. Acceptibality
7. Situationality

1. Cohesion
 Unity/harmony in a text created through textual or linguistic features or
linguistic glues or cohesive devices.
 Related to text(inside the text)
 The ways that a text makes sense syntactically
 Common cohesive devices include types of references, ellipsis, substituition,
lexical cohesion and replacement
 There are three cohesive devices as
1) Lexical cohesive devices (words etc…)
 It means words are used to create cohesion in a text to become
a discourse.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 7

 Lexical cohesion occurs through repetition as well as lexical

relations
Example of repetition:
 I met an old lady. The lady seemed very poor. (Here the
repetition of the word lady creates unity in these clause, so it’s
called lexical cohesion through repetition of words)
Example of lexical relations:
 Lexical relations refer to synonyms, antonyms, hyponymy etc…as I
like active students and dislike lazy ones.
2) Grammatical cohesive devices
 It includes “Conjunctions” and “Transition
signals/linkers/connectors.
 Conjunction connects/combines words, phrases and clauses.
 Conjunctions are divided into four types as Additive,
adversative, causal and temporal.
1. Examples of additive conjunctions are: and, likewise,
moreover, furthermore, in addition etc…
2. Adversative conjunctions are used to express contrasting
results or opinions such as but, however, in contrast, whereas
etc…
3. Causal conjunctions introduce results, reasons or purposes
such as so, thus, therefore, because etc…
4. Temporal conjunctions express the time order of events such as
firstly, next, then, after that, finally, at the same time etc…

3) Lexico-grammatical cohesive devices

There are three Lexico-grammatical cohesive devices as 1)Ellipses 2)
Substitution and 3) References
1) Ellipses refers to the process of omitting an unnecessary
item, which has been mentioned earlier in a text, and
replacing it with nothing.
Example of ellipses as Speaker “A” asks a question from speaker “B”
as
Speaker A: Have you been studying.
Speaker B: Yes, I have. (Here “been studying” is omitted)
2) Substitution refers to replacement of one item by another to
avoid repetition.
 Substitution can be of NP as well as verb
 Single noun can be replaced by one (Example: A: Which one ice-
cream would you like to have?, B: I’d like to have a pink one(ice-
cream) whereas plural nouns can be replaced by ones(example: I like
active students and dislike lazy ones(students).
 Substitution of verb phrase (VP)
 If the subject is plural, we use “do so” such as Don’t come late to the
class. If you come late to the class, you’ll be punished ( if you do so,
you’ll be punished)
 If the subject is singular, we use “does so” such as Junaid never
comes late, if he does so(if he come late).

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 8

3) Reference refers to a pronoun which refers to its referent

(NP).
 Two types of reference as Endophoric (Edophoric reference has further two
types as Cataphoric and Anaphoric) and Exophoric reference
 Reference within the text – called endophoric reference and a reference may
also be outside the text – called exophoric reference. An example of
exophoric reference would be when someone refers to something which is
part of the context of situation, but does not appear in the text, as in That
picture is beautiful, referring to a picture which is hanging on the wall, or
Look at them, referring to a group of people standing nearby. Because it does
not bind two elements together in a text, exophoric reference is not included
as part of cohesion (Halliday & Hasan, 1976: 18). Nevertheless, exophoric
reference interacts with the cohesion system and, like cohesion, is an
important property of texts, contributing to their overall coherence.

 Anaphoric reference (Backward reference)

It refers to the reference which comes after its
referent (NP) and it refers back to its referent (NP)
such as I can see a bird (NP). It is singing. (“a bird”
is a referent (NP) and “It” is a reference refers back
to its referent) or another example is “Marry put the
money in her purse”.
 Cataphoric reference (Forward reference)
It refers to the reference which comes before its
referent (NP) and refers forward to its referent (NP)
such as As soon as he arrived, Junaid(NP) visited
his parents.
 In his exam, my nephew got 1st position.
Note: With regard to the cataphoric type, it must be said that this pattern is much less
frequent than either the anaphoric or exophoric types. An example of cataphoric reference
would be the following: Remember this. Never trust a stranger. In this example, we can see
how a reference item can refer to a whole sentence (or, in many cases, more), not just a single
noun or noun phrase. This, in this example, refers forward to the whole following sentence,
Never trust a stranger. In written text, cataphoric reference often occurs after a colon,
semicolon or dash following the reference item, as in this next example: The following are
the winners: Susan, Christopher and Ali. Strictly speaking, cases such as these are not
interclausal at all, but they are often treated as such. In fact, a case can be made for such
examples to be considered as interclausal, if what comes after the colon is taken as ellipitical.
Thus in our example, Susan, Christopher and Ali could be expanded to [they are] Susan,
Christopher and Ali.

2. Coherence
 The unity/harmony/createdness created through the flow of concepts/ideas.
 Refers to the ways that a text is made semantically meaningful
 It is the conceptual unity in a text.
 Coherence refers to logical connectivity of ideas.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 9

 It can be achieved through techniques like Implicature and background

actors.
 Coherence is more important than cohesion. Even sentences that don’t have any
cohesion can make sense because they are coherent. Sentences that have cohesion but
no coherence don’t make any sense.
 Widdowson (1978: 29) gives the often-quoted example of an exchange between two
people: A: That’s the telephone.
B: I’m in the bath.
A: OK.
This piece of discourse has no formal links between the three clauses that make it up,
but at the same time it can be understood as a coherent piece of discourse; one person
is summoning someone to answer the telephone and the other is saying that s/he is not
able to answer it because s/he is having a bath. Short, made-up examples which
display no cohesion such as these are interesting, but most coherent texts will at the
same time display a range of cohesive devices. We can say that cohesion contributes
to coherence, although it is not a sufficient condition.
3. Intentionality
It is important to have conscious intention in the mind of discourse producers to
achieve some goal
4. Informativeness
A discourse must have some new information for the target audience.
5. Intertextuality
A text has to be related to other texts in terms of concepts and other linguistic
structures (words & sentences).
6. Acceptability
A piece of language has to be accepted by the target audience as a teacher talks about
something and the students accept it. If the teacher talks about something nonsense, so
the students will not accept it. A discourse can only be called a discourse if it is
accepted by the target audience.
7. Situationality
It refers to the context in which language is produced. Context has three types as
linguistic, situational and physical contexts. (context will be discussed in Pragmatic
analysis )
Some of these features are primarily important while others are secondarily important
as cohesion, coherence, intentionality and situationality are the most important for a
discourse.
=============================================================
===
Q. What is Theme, Rheme & Thematic Progression?
The idea of theme and rheme comes from the functional linguistics and these
elements contribute to the texture in a text. Most clauses have two parts; a theme and
a rheme. Theme is the starting point of a clause and gives us an idea about what the
clause is about. It is the shared information between writer and reader. Rheme is the
remaining part of a clause. The rheme of a clause is what is actually said about the
theme of the clause.
Let’s consider the following example: “I live in Pakistan.”
In the above clause, “I” is the theme of the clause and the remaining part of the clause
is its rheme.
A. Types of Theme

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 10

There are three types of theme.

1. Topical Theme: Topical theme identifies the participants and circumstance of a
clause.
2. Textual Theme: Textual theme is realized by conjunctions such as and, but,
however, there, etc.
3. Interpersonal Theme: It refers to an item that comes before the rheme which
indicates the relationship between participants in a text or the position or point of
view that is being taken in the clause. It can express probability, usuality,
desirability, prediction and so on.
B. Thematic Progression
Thematic progression refers to the way the information goes on through the
combination and exchanges of themes and rhemes in a text. There are a number
of ways in which it can be done. Some of them are discussed briefly below.
1. Constant Thematic Progression:
In this pattern of thematic progression, the first theme of a text is taken up and
repeated in the coming clauses. This pattern is displayed in the following
example.

I am Sulaiman Ahmad.
Theme 1 Rheme 1

I live in Islamabad.
Theme 1 Rheme 2

I am the student of English linguistics.

Theme 1 Rheme 3

2. Simple Linear Theme Progression:

This pattern is also called the zig-zag pattern. In it, the rheme of each clause
becomes the theme of the following clause. It is displayed in the following
example.

I live in Islamabad.
Theme 1 Rheme 1

It is the capital of Pakistan.

Theme 2 Rheme 2
3. Multiple/Split Theme:
In this pattern, a rheme may include a number of different pieces of
information, each of which may become the theme in a number of subsequent
clauses.
Let’s consider the following example for the illustration of this pattern.
I am doing M.Phil in English Linguistics from NUML.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 11

Theme Rheme.
In. the above clause, the rheme contains three pieces of information, i.e. M.phil, English
Linguistics, and NUML and each of these pieces can be taken as rhemes in a number of
following clauses. Above is a brief discussion about the different types of themes and
different patterns of thematic progressions. In order to exemplify all these types and patterns,
I will take the very first paragraph of this essay as an example text.

P.T.O

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 12

C. Analysis of Theme, Rheme and Thematic Progression

a. Analysis of Themes and Rhemes in the text
Table no.1: Theme, Types of Theme, and Rheme

Clause Textual Interpersonal Topical Theme Rheme

No. Theme Theme
1 and The idea of Comes fromm the
theme and functional
rheme linguistics
2 these elements Contribute to the
texture of a text
3 Most clauses have two parts; a
theme and a rheme
4 theme is the starting point
of a clause
5 and gives us an idea
about what the
clause is about
6 it is the shared
information
between writer and
reader
7 Rheme is the remaining
part of a clause
8 The rheme of a Refers to what is
clause what actually said
about the theme of
the clause.
Clause Textual Interpersonal Topical Theme Rheme
No. Theme Theme
1 and The idea of Comes fromm the
theme and functional
rheme linguistics
2 these elements Contribute to the
texture of a text
3 Most clauses have two parts; a
theme and a rheme
4 theme is the starting point
of a clause
5 and gives us an idea
about what the
clause is about
6 it is the shared
information

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 13

between writer and

reader
7 Rheme is the remaining
part of a clause
8 The rheme of a Refers to what is Table
clause what actually said no.01
about the theme of shows
the clause. the
themes and rhemes used in the given text. In addition, it shows the different types of theme
used in the text. It shows that there is a total of 8 clauses in the text. Those clauses consists of
only 2 textual themes, 7 topical themes, while 8 rhemes. In sentence no.4, there is a clause
complex (clauses 4th and 5th) with only one topical theme and two rhemes.

b. Analysis of Thematic progression in the text

Theme 1 Rheme 1
The idea of theme and rheme comes from the functional linguistics

Theme 2 Rheme 2
and these elements contribute to the texture in a text.

Theme 3 Rheme 3
Most clauses have two parts; a theme and a rheme.

Theme 4 Rheme 4
Theme is the starting point of a clause

Theme 5 Rheme 5
and gives us an idea about what the clause is about.

Theme 6 Rheme 6
It is the shared information between writer and reader.

Theme 7 Rheme 7
Rheme is the remaining part of a clause.

Theme 8 Rheme 8
The rheme of a clause refers to what is actually said about the theme of the
clause.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 14

In the above diagram, it is shown that in the given text, three different patterns of thematic
progression are used. To put it simply, the themes of different clauses in the example text
come from the different parts of the preceding clauses of the text. The above diagram shows
that the theme of clause no.2 comes from the theme of clause no.1. Clause no.3 originates its
own theme that is not taken from the preceding clause, but its rheme consists of two parts
which become the themes of so all the following clauses in the text. The first part, i.e. theme,
becomes the theme of clause 4th, 5th and 6th while the second part, i.e. rheme, is taken as
theme in the last two clauses of the text.
Conclusion
From the above analysis of the text and detailed discussion, we can conclude that a writer,
while writing, makes the uses of different types of themes and patterns of thematic
progression. The use of these types of themes, rhymes and patterns of thematic progression
adds so much to the inner connectedness of a text and makes a text cohesive.

==================================================================

PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF DISCOURSE

1. Language in context
2. Co-operative Principles &
Conversational Implicature
3. Speech Act Theory
4. Politeness Theory

What is Pragmatics?
(From George Yule)
The term "Pragmatics" was first coined in 1930s by the Philosopher C.W Morris,
developed as a subfield of linguistic in 1970s.

Definitions of Pragmatics:
 The study of contextual meaning.
 The study of what speakers mean, or "speaker meaning" is called Pragmatics.
 The study of the use of language in a language context or the study of meaning
of sentences in terms of the speaker's intentions.
 The study of the meaning of utterances as UTTERANCES have literal
meaning as well as intended meaning; so, there are three situations as 1)Literal
and intended meaning would be similar, 2) literal and intended meaning would
be different or 3) literal and intended meaning would be opposite as ironical
statement.
Explanation:
Pragmatics is the study of invisible meaning or how we recognize what is meant even
when it's not actually said or written. In order for that to happen, speakers or writers
must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations when they try
to communicate. Communication clearly depends on not only recognizing the
meaning of words in an utterance, but also recognizing what speakers mean by their
utterances. The investigation of those assumptions and expectations provides us with

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 15

some insight into how we understand more than the linguistic content of utterances.
From the perspective of Pragmatics, more is always being communicated than is said.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------

What is Context and its types:

Context
 Context is the background, information, knowledge or setting that helps in the
interpretation of a text.
 Context is the environment which gives meaning to the utterances
 Background knowledge refers to SCHEMA & SCRIPT
 SCHEMA refers to a conventional knowledge structure in memory for specific
things as when we say “CAT”, we quickly think about animal has four legs,
meow sound, soft hair etc.
 SCRIPT refers to the same thing as schema but the difference is that it is used
for the series of actions involved in events or a script is a pre-existing
knowledge structure involving event sequences such as Script about “going to
dentist”

Types of context
According to George Yule , there are two types of context: physical context and
linguistic context.
According to Jean Stilwell Peccei in his book of pragmatics, there are three types of
context: 1) Physical context,2) the already said information,and 3) Background
information (social/cultural/scientific/common sense/encyclopedic information)

1) Physical context/External context or non-linguistic context or situational context

 The setting (Time & Place), topic , relationship of participants)
 Role & relation of participants
 Topic
 channel as medium
 Tone, mood and Attitude
 The physical context is the location of a given word or the ideas and experience in the
outside world of the text. This is basically required the knowledge of real world
around us to make sense of something that we see or hear in language.
Example 1: Shows relationship b/w Boss & Worker or it is Official, office, salary
related conversation
Boss: Here is your salary.
Worker: I have worked for ten hours…..(request for extra money)
Example 2:
Brother: Could you please help me in my homework?
Sister: I have worked for ten hours…..(refusal to help)

2) Co-text/internal co-text or linguistic context:

 Context within the text
Example:
 I am going to the bank for enjoyment.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 16

 I am going to the bank for submitting my fee.

If the word "bank" is used with other words like enjoyment, fee…, we have no
problem deciding which type of bank is meant. Or, when someone says that she has to
get to the bank to withdraw some cash, the co-text tells us which type of bank is
intended.

3) Social/Cultural context
The social/cultural norms for conversation
Example 1: Oh, there is black cat going on (In Pakistani cultural it means
something wrong happens as it is related to social/cultural context whereas when
the same sentence is uttered in American or British society they may be take it as
simply “black cat” is going somewhere).
Example 2:
 Dak shwy_ Apka peit bhar gya?(Bannu/LakiMarwat etc…)
 Mor Shwy _ Apny pora kaya? (Peshawar, Swabi, Mardan…)

Theories for Pragmatic Analysis

1) Cooperative principle and implicature by Herbert Paul Grice
This principle is proposed by Herbert Paul Grice in order to communicate effectively.
 According to Grice, cooperative principle is described as "make your
conversational contribution such as is required(Maxim of quantity) , at the
stage at which it occurs(Be relevant), by the accepted purpose(Maxim of
quality) or direction of talk exchange in which you are engaged(Maxim of
manner or clarity).
 In simple words, in any conversation, the participants (Speakers/Writers &
listeners/audience/readers) are assumed to be co-operative to communicate
effectively.
 Grice has divided this principle into four basic MAXIMS which are useful for
effective communication as follow:
1) Maxim of Relevance or relation:
Be relevant to the conversation.
2) Maxim of Quality:
Be truthful (don't tell lie and don't make unsupported claims)and don't say
what you believe to be true or for which you lack adequate evidence.
3) Maxim of Quantity:
Be informative (Provide information) as much as required neither more nor
less than the discourse requires.
4) Maxim of Clarity or manner:
Be brief and orderly; avoid ambiguity (having more than one meaning) or
obscurity(which is not clear).
Below is the example of all maxims in one conversation.

Speaker A: Where is Ali?

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 17

Speaker B: He is in his room, I'm sure.

 It can be seen that speaker B, according to Grice's framework, observes all of

the maxims as he answers speaker A's question clearly (Manner) and
truthfully (Quality). Moreover, speaker B's contribution is sufficiently provided
(Quantity), and his answer is directly relevant to speaker A's question
(Relation or relevant).
 Grice pointed out that these maxims aren't always observed (non-observance
of maxims), so, he makes distinction b/w "Quietly Violating a maxim" and
"Openly Flouting a maxim".
Non-observance of maxims are of two types:
1) Quietly Violating a maxim or violation of maxim:
 It occurs when the speaker deliberately (intentionally) hides the truth to
mislead the listener (Listener doesn't know )
Example:
Speaker A: Where are you from?
Speaker B: I'm from Peshawar (in reality Speaker B is from Karachi)
 According to this case, Speaker B violates the maxim of quality because he
apparently tells lie about his location and the listener doesn't know the truth.
So, it's called violation of maxim that speaker violates (tells lie) when the
listener doesn't know the truth.

2) Openly Flouting a maxim or Flouting a maxim:

 It occurs when the speaker deliberately tells lie and wants the listener to get
the indirect/hidden meaning/message.
Example.
Speaker A: How are you?
Speaker B: I'm dead.
 According to this case, Speaker “B” deliberately (intentionally)tells lie and
this lie is acceptable because here the hearer(Speaker A) knows that what
does he(Speaker B) mean, so, here Speaker A knows that Speaker B conveys
an indirect meaning that he is dead (tired).
Implicature:
 This "Flouting of Maxim" or "Flouting" generates implicature (indirect or
hidden meaning) and for implicature, specific shared-knowledge is
required/must.
 Implicature is the implied , hidden and indirect meaning and it's used for
creating humors.
 In literature, Quality maxims are flouted in these places :
By using Irony, metaphor, hyperbole or exaggeration, understatement and inference
(guessing something or a conclusion based on some facts /knowledge).
According to Brown and Levinson (1978), the whole process can be stated as follows:
1. Flouting the maxim of quantity results in:
 Understatement, Overstatement & Tautology
2. Flouting the maxim of quality produces
 Irony, Metaphor & Rhetorical questions
3. Flouting relevance (maxim of relation) would result, in fact, in no figure of speech
but sometimes, the irrelevant situations which may lead to comic scenes. Such

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 18

flouting may take the type of changing the subject suddenly, especially in cases of
asking a question by speaker which is usually far from the topic in question, in case of
failing of addressing the topic directly. All these matters have also been mentioned by
Thomas (1995).
4. While fiouting the maxim of manner produces:
 Ambiguity, Vagueness & Ellipsis
Types of implicature
There are two types of implicature as:
1) Conventional Implicature:
 It refers to the meaning that is conventionally associated with certain linguistic
expressions or constructions.
 These implicatures are derived from the conventional meanings of specific words or
phrases, rather than from the context of the utterance.
 Conventional implicatures are often associated with specific lexical items or
grammatical structures and are generally more predictable.
 Examples of conventional implicatures include:
 The use of the word "but" in the sentence "John is poor but honest." This implies a
contrast between John's financial situation and his honesty.
 The use of the phrase "even though" in the sentence "She went to the party, even
though she was tired." This implies a contrast between the person's tiredness and their
decision to attend the party.
2) Conversational Implicature:
 It refers to the meaning that arises from the context of an utterance and the speaker's
intention.
 These implicatures are derived from the cooperative principles of conversation, which
include maxims such as the maxim of quantity (providing enough information), the
maxim of quality (being truthful), the maxim of relevance (being on topic), and the
maxim of manner (being clear and unambiguous).
 Conversational implicatures are more context-dependent and can involve inference
and interpretation by the listener.
 Examples of conversational implicatures include:
 The statement "Some students passed the test." This implicates that not all students
passed the test.
 The question "Do you have any plans tonight?" This can imply an invitation or a
request for the listener to make plans together.
Practical example of Analyzing Cooperative Principles (One of the assignments assigned by
Sir Suleiman)
Text
A video on YouTube by the name ‘Small Talk’ has been analyzed, where an old person is
sitting on a bench in a park with an old lady. After the lady, when she goes there comes a
small kid playing, while the man reads a newspaper.
Dialogues
1. The old man : Excuse me! I’m trying to relax.
2. The boy : hi!
3. The old man: would you mind?

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 19

The kid stops playing for a while.

4 . Oh sorry, Mr.!
The kid starts playing yet again.
5. Hey kid…. Just, just….. come here and sit down. Would you?
The kid comes and sits very close to the old man in the bench.
6. The kid : what’s your name Mr.? My name is Adam? You look like my grandpa
but he is as old……
7. Its very rude!
The kid asks yet again.
8. The kid: Who are you?
9. Joseph.
10. The old man: Where’s your mother?
11. The kid: she is with her boyfriend. I’m supposed to wait over here.
12. The man: Hmmm!
13. The kid : I’m eight and three quarters. How old are you?
Since the man doesn’t respond to his question, he says.
14. You are boring Mr! (and starts disturbing him while playing.)
15. The man : Hey listen kid! I would like to have some peace and quiet please?
16. The kid: You are grumpy Mr. Is that what that woman left you on the bench.
Was she your girlfriend?
17. The man: No! she wasn’t. amm…
18. The boy: I have a girlfriend. And I’m only in the second grade. Where is your
girlfriend?
19. The man : My wife, Elizabeth,….. is gone.
20. The boy: Well, where has she gone to?
21. The man: she is…gone….gone, dead!
22. The kid :Oh! That’s sad. My girlfriend, Katie, she is still real young. Was she
good girlfriend? Katie is the best I have had!
23.The man replies: Yes! Elizabeth was one of a kind.
24. The boy: why? Have you ever had any girlfriends? (The man doesn’t respond
to this question, though the boy doesn’t care this time, and keeps talking).

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 20

Yesterday, I brought a flower and she gave me a kiss on the cheek. Have you ever
had any girlfriends?
25. The man: You have got a lot to learn about relationship. Have ever looked into
someone’s eyes and had a whole conversation in an instant? Laughed with
someone? And kept laughing until you forgot why are you laughing? Have you
ever cried…….
26. The kid interrupts: I cried last night when I said goodbye to Katie, but, that
was why because I had scraped my knee badly. Both laugh.
Discussion and Analysis
Dialogues Maxim of quality Maxim of Maxim of relevance Maxim of manner
quantity
Excuse me! I’m The utterance is It follow this It is relevant to the The speaker is
trying to relax. based on truth. maxim as well. hearer which relates orderly and the
Would you The speaker for it doesn’t to the issue of hearer understands
mind? really wants to provide the disturbance. the manner in which
relax. information that it is uttered.
is not needed.
Oh sorry Mr.! The speaker is This maxim is It is related to the The speaker is
truthful in this also followed, for previous utterance, orderly.
utterance, because it is uttered as though it is indirect.
he stops for a required.
while.
Hey kid! Just The speaker is The provided It is related to the The speaker is
come here and truthful in the information situation. orderly.
sit down. Would utterance. He matches the
you? wants the other required one.
speaker to come.
What’s your The speaker is Maxim of Maxim of relevant is Though it is orderly.
name Mr.? My truthful, he really quantity is not not followed as well,
name is Adam. wants to know followed for it is for, much of the
You look like about the hearer. uttered more than required information
my grandpa but the required. is not relevant.
he is not as old
as you…
That’s very The speaker is Maxim of It is relevant. It is orderly and
rude! truthful because it quantity is precise.
is indeed a rude followed.
statement while
talking about

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 21

someone’s age
negatively.
Who are you? The speaker is The provided The utterance is The maxim of
truthful in asking information is relevant to the manner is followed.
the name of the matching the situation. It follows
hearer. It follows required this maxim as well.
the maxim of information.
quality.
Joseph. The speaker is It follows this It is relevant. It follows the maxim
truthful. maxim. of manner.
Where’s your The speaker is The required It is relevant to the The utterance is
mother? truthful for he information is hearer and to the orderly.
really wants to matched with the situation.
know where the provided
hearer’s mother information.
is.
She is with her The speaker is The provided It is relevant It is orderly.
boyfriend. I’m truthful, hence the information is a somewhat, however,
supposed to wait maxim of quality bit more than the the second utterance
over here. is followed. required one. The is not required.
second utterance
should have not
been uttered.
I’m eight and The speaker is It observes the It is relevant. It is orderly.
three quarters. truthful. required
How old are information.
you?
You are boring The speaker is It observes the It is relevant. It is orderly.
Mr.! truthful, because maxim of
he is not being quantity.
responded so he
gets annoyed.
Hey listen kid! I He is truthful, The maxim of The maxim of The maxim of
would like to because he really quantity is relevance is manner is followed.
have some wants a peaceful followed. followed.
peace and quiet surrounding.
please!
You are grumpy The speaker of The provided It follows the maxim It follows the maxim
Mr. is that what the utterance is information is of relevance. of manner.
that woman left matching the

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 22

you on the truthful. He is required

bench? Was she really annoyed. information.
your girlfriend?
No she wasn’t. It seems that the Maxim of It is relevant. It is orderly.
speaker is not quantity is
truthful. Because observed.
the lady that was
with him on the
bench seems to be
his girlfriend.
I have a He seems to be It observes the It is relevant in It is orderly.
girlfriend. And truthful. maxim of regard to the
I’m only in the quantity. situation.
second grade.
Where is your
girlfriend?
My wife, He seems to be The maxim of It is relevant. It is orderly.
Elizabeth, is truthful, however, quantity is
gone. he tells about his followed.
wife indirectly
that she is dead.
Well, where has The maxim of This maxim is It is relevant. Maxim of manner is
she gone to? quality is followed. followed.
observed.
She is He seems to be The provided It is according to the This maxim is also
…gone…dead! truthful. information is situation. followed.
matching the
required one.
Oh! That’s sad. The speaker Maxim of It seems that some It seems orderly.
My girlfriend, seems to be quantity is not parts of the utterance
Katie, she is still truthful. followed, for, it is not relevant.
young. Was she has been uttered
a good that is not
girlfriend? Katie required.
is the best I have
had.
Yes! Elizabeth The speaker of The maxim of It seems relevant. It is orderly.
Was one of a the utterance quantity is
kind. seems to be followed.
truthful.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 23

2nd theory
2)Speech Act theory by J.L. Austin and John Searle
 Speech Act theory developed by J.L. Austin and further expanded by John Searle
 Background:
 It was the time of positivism when they were working on this theory and positivists
believe that language is used for description, declaration and to know the falseness
and truth value of something but Austin and Searle didn't agree with such types of
ideas.
 Austin wrote a book "How to do things with words". In which he talks about that
language isn't just used for falseness and truth value of something but
language(speech Act) is used to perform different kinds of acts, means to say that
language is used to 'do things' other than just refer to the truth or falseness of a
particular statements. They argued that in the same way that we perform physical
acts, we also perform acts by using language. That is, we use language to give orders,
to make requests, to give warnings or to give advice; in other words, to do things that
go beyond the literal meaning of what we say.
 Speech Act is defined by George Yule as an action performed with an
utterance.
 An action performed with the help of speech/word/utterance.(verbal actions)
 Speech acts: Advising, requesting, suggesting, apologizing, announcing,
order,etc…
Two types of sentences as Performative vs Constative sentences (Austin)
1) Performative sentences
 That denotes some action.
 Two types of performative sentences
a) Explicit performative
It contains explicit performative verb.
Examples, I promise I will come tomorrow, I apologize, I swear, I order you to go
out, I pronounce…
b) Implicit performative
 Do not contain performative verb
 For example, I will come tomorrow, I am sorry, out etc…
2) Constative sentences
 Those sentences that do not denote actions
 Used to describe or report something.
 May be true or false
 For example, It’s raining outside. (This sentence is a sort of description of weather
only)
Problem: Overlapping: Constative may be performative!
 The difference is not clear cut
Example 1: The window is open
(It does not denote any action_ Constative sentence or it may be taken as an indirect request
to close the window_ Performative sentence.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 24

Example 2: It is raining outside.

(Simple report and does not denote action_ Constative sentence or it may be taken as an
apology to join a party or a request for Umbrella_ Performative sentence)
Solution:
 To Austin, all utterances of language should be taken as acts.
 Three kinds of action associated with every utterance
 According to Austin, there are three acts or forces of speech acts that we are
performed by each speech Act. It means each speech Act will have three forces or
three acts
1) Locutionary act (Level _1)
 The performance of an utterance
 The basic production of meaningful utterance.
 The literal meaning of an utterance
 For example, It’s raining, I am thirsty, etc…
 Open the door(The literal meaning of this imperative sentence means “Open
the door”)
2) Illocutionary Act(Speaker-centered) (level_2)
 Intended meaning of the speaker or speaker's communicative intention
 The pragmatic force or social force associated with an utterance
 By saying something we do something
 For example, “Open the door” (The speaker wants someone to Open the door
or here the speaker orders someone to open the door)
 I promise that…, I sentence you…Apology to go to party or Request for an
umbrella or food ….
Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID)
a. Developed by Searle.
b. Device no.01; performative verbs.
c. Device no.02: Prosody (Stress, intonation)
d. Device no.03: word orders.
e. Example: you are going (an order) f. You are going? (request for confirmation)
Are you going? (A question for near future)
3) Perlocutionary Act(Listener_centered) (Level_3)
 The effect of what is said on the hearer/listener
 Effects: Persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring etc…
 For example, “Open the door” ( Here the effect of this speech act upon listener
is that the listener goes and opens the door)
Example of Speech acts
Example (1) It’s raining outside.
(Explanation: This example can be explained as two friends are talking with each other and
one asks another to go for a cup of tea with him and he replies as “It’s raining outside”, this
utterance “It’s raining outside” by the speaker is the “Locutionary act” as we define the
Locutionary act as the literal meaning of an utterance as It is raining outside, and the Intended

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 25

meaning(Illocutionary act) of this utterance is that he indirectly refuses not to go or he needs

an Umbrella to go with him_that’s intended meaning or Illocutionary act, whereas the
Perlocutionary act or effect of this utterance upon hearer/listener is that he doesn’t insist
again for asking again to go with him to take a cup of tea or he provides him Umbrella, so,
they both go for taking tea.)
Direct speech act and Indirect Speech acts (John Searle)
Direct speech act
 Occurs when we mean exactly what we say.
 Direct relation b/w form(structure) and meaning/function.
 When the literal and intended meanings of an utterance are same.
 Both performative and constative comes under Direct speech act
 For example, Close the window, please.(Imperative sentence shows an order
and here both form and function are same)
Indirect speech act
 When the intended meaning of an utterance is different from the literal meaning.
 There is no direct relationship b/w form (structure) and meaning/function of an
utterance.
 Constative sentences come under Indirect speech act(most of the time)
 For example, It is very cold outside(an indirect request to close the door and here
form and meaning are not same)
Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts

 John Searle expanded on Austin's theory by introducing additional categories

of illocutionary acts, known as speech act classifications.
 He identified five main categories as:
 Here “S” refers to speaker and “X” refers to anything/general term.
1. Representatives: (the S believes X)
 It shows the speaker’s belief about something.
 It shows opinion, deducing, reporting, stating, informing, predicting,
concluding etc.
 I think, swearing, boasting, concluding, I claim that.. Example: ``No one
makes a better cake than me''. Asserting: “It's raining.”
2. Directives: ( The S wants X)
 To make the addressee perform an action.
 The speaker wants something or speaker uses it to get the hearer to do
something.
 Asking, ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, begging. Example: ``Could
you close the window?''.
3. Commissive: (The S intends X)
 The speaker commits to do something in the future. Promising, planning,
vowing, betting. Example: ``I'm going to Paris tomorrow''.
4. Expressive: (The S feels X)
 They express how the speaker feels about the situation. Feeling, thanking,
apologizing, welcoming. Example: ``I am sorry that I lied to you''.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 26

5. Declarations : (The S causes X)

 The speaker causes something or brings change in the world by mere uttering
of words.
 They change the state of the world in an immediate way. They typically
require an extra-linguistic situation, such as court, school, etc.
 Examples: I declare this class to be very obedient, I sentence you to lifetime
imprisonment, I pronounce you, I name it, I call it, I define it, etc.
Felicity condition of speech Act theory with examples
 It is also known as the "five conditions of speech act success," are a set of
criteria that need to be met for a speech act (an utterance that performs an
action) to be successful.
 They were developed by philosopher J.L. Austin and expanded upon by
philosopher John Searle.
 Felicity: when words or remarks are suitable and express what was intended
 Not everyone can perform any speech act.
 A speech act can’t be performed everywhere.
 Five felicity conditions are:
1. Conventionality of procedure:
 ONLY FOR DECLARATIVES: Announcing marriage, death sentence
(Urdu + English) & opening the session.
2. Complete execution:
 The speaker completes the speech act without errors or interruptions
3. Propositional Condition:
 Request: future act of the hearer. Apology: past act of the speaker.
Warning: Future act.
4. Preparatory Condition:
 Appropriateness of the person. Misfire.
 Appropriateness of the circumstances. Abused
 Varies from act to act:
5.Sincerity Condition:
 Promise: The speaker genuinely intends to keep it.
 Request: The speaker genuinely wants the hearer to do it.
 Warn: The speaker genuinely believes that the something is harmful for the
heare
Felicity conditions described in another way as following:
1. Preparatory Condition:
 The participants involved in the speech act must have the necessary
knowledge and understanding to engage in the particular speech act.
 For example, if someone asks you for directions, you need to know the route
they're asking about.

2. Sincerity Condition:

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 27

 The speaker must genuinely mean what they say and intend to perform the
speech act.
 For instance, if you apologize to someone, you should sincerely feel remorse
and intend to express that remorse through your apology.

3. Essential Condition:
 The speech act must follow the established conventions and rules of the given
language or communication system.
 This means that the words and grammar used should be appropriate and
understandable within the specific context.

4. Propriety Condition:
 The speech act should be appropriate and socially acceptable in the given
situation.
 It should align with cultural norms, conventions, and expectations.
 For example, making a joke at a funeral would violate the propriety condition.

5. Factual Condition:
 The state of affairs described or referred to in the speech act should
correspond to reality.
 The information presented should be true, accurate, and relevant.
 For instance, if you make a promise, you should have the ability and
intention to fulfill it.

By satisfying these felicity conditions, a speech act is considered successful and achieves its
intended purpose. It's important to note that these conditions can vary depending on the
speech act and the cultural context in which it occurs.

To illustrate these conditions, let's consider an example of a request speech act:

Context: A person is at a restaurant and wants to order a dish.
Example:
Speaker: "Could you please bring me the spaghetti carbonara?"
Felicity Conditions:
1) Preparatory Conditions:
a) Propositional Content: The request for spaghetti carbonara is a meaningful
proposition.
b) Preparatory State of Mind: The speaker intends to request the dish, and the waiter
is in a position to fulfill the request.
2) Sincerity Conditions:
a) Sincerity of Utterance: The speaker genuinely wants the spaghetti carbonara.
b) Sincerity of Preconditions: The speaker believes that the restaurant offers spaghetti
carbonara.
3) Essential Conditions:
a) Intelligibility: The speaker and the waiter understand the language being used (e.g.,
English).
b) Propriety: Making a food request in a restaurant context is socially appropriate.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 28

If all these conditions are met, the speech act of requesting the spaghetti carbonara
would be considered felicitous, and the waiter would understand the request and
respond accordingly.

Practical example using Speech Act Theory (One of the assignments assigned by Sir Suleiman
Ahmad)
Text
A video on YouTube by the name ‘Small Talk’ has been analyzed, where an old person is
sitting on a bench in a park with an old lady. After the lady, when she goes there comes a
small kid playing, while the man reads a newspaper.
Dialogues
1. The old man : Excuse me! I’m trying to relax.
2. The boy : hi!
3. The old man: would you mind?
The kid stops playing for a while.
4 . Oh sorry, Mr.!
The kid starts playing yet again.
5. Hey kid…. Just, just….. come here and sit down. Would you?
The kid comes and sits very close to the old man in the bench.
6. The kid : what’s your name Mr.? My name is Adam? You look like my grandpa
but he is as old……
7. Its very rude!
The kid asks yet again.
8. The kid: Who are you?
9. Joseph.
10. The old man: Where’s your mother?
11. The kid: she is with her boyfriend. I’m supposed to wait over here.
12. The man: Hmmm!
13. The kid : I’m eight and three quarters. How old are you?
Since the man doesn’t respond to his question, he says.
14. You are boring Mr! (and starts disturbing him while playing.)
15. The man : Hey listen kid! I would like to have some peace and quiet please?

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 29

16. The kid: You are grumpy Mr. Is that what that woman left you on the bench.
Was she your girlfriend?
17. The man: No! she wasn’t. amm…
18. The boy: I have a girlfriend. And I’m only in the second grade. Where is your
girlfriend?
19. The man : My wife, Elizabeth,….. is gone.
20. The boy: Well, where has she gone to?
21. The man: she is…gone….gone, dead!
22. The kid :Oh! That’s sad. My girlfriend, Katie, she is still real young. Was she
good girlfriend? Katie is the best I have had!
23.The man replies: Yes! Elizabeth was one of a kind.
24. The boy: why? Have you ever had any girlfriends? (The man doesn’t respond
to this question, though the boy doesn’t care this time, and keeps talking).
Yesterday, I brought a flower and she gave me a kiss on the cheek. Have you ever
had any girlfriends?
25. The man: You have got a lot to learn about relationship. Have ever looked into
someone’s eyes and had a whole conversation in an instant? Laughed with
someone? And kept laughing until you forgot why are you laughing? Have you
ever cried…….
26. The kid interrupts: I cried last night when I said goodbye to Katie, but, that
was why because I had scraped my knee badly. Both laugh.

Analysis from the perspective of direct and indirect speech acts.

After studying the dialogues carefully, it can be said that the dialogues are mostly in the form
of direct speech acts, where the speakers exactly mean what is being said. However, some
indirect speech acts can also be found in the aforementioned dialogues, as shown in the
dialogues below:
“1. The old man : Excuse me! I’m trying to relax.”
The old man means by saying the above dialogue to make the boy stopped from the playing
because he is reading a newspaper and he is being disturbed by the kid.
“21. The man: she is…gone….gone, dead!”
In the dialogue above, when the boy asks about the man’s wife, he says that she is gone, by
which he means that his wife is dead. Though he mentions late in the discussion directly as
well. Apart from the above two dialogues, most of the dialogues are in the form of direct speech
where each speaker means exactly what is being said.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 30

While in case of locutiuonary, illocution and perlocution, the dialogues are categorized in
tables, respectively, below.

dialogues Locutionary act Illocutionary act Perlocutionary act

Excuse me! I’m trying The utterance As a request he The effect of the utterance on
to relax. spoken by the doesn’t want to be the hearer is taken as an
speaker means that disturbed and wants acceptance thus he stops for a
he wants some rest. the other person to while.
stop.
Would you mind? It is said as a The intended The hearer takes as an
request as well. meaning is to stop. acceptance.
Oh sorry!, Mr. The hearer of the He is apologizing, It would be taken as an
above utterances is indirectly. acceptance.
asking forgiveness.
Hey kid….just…just.. He seeks attention Requesting him to sit The effect on the hearer is
come here and sit of the hearer and so that he could taken as an acceptance thus
down. Would you? wants him to sit make him he sits.
beside him. understand not to
make noise.
What’s your name Mr? The speaker The intended The effect on the hearer is
my name is Adam. You introduces himself meaning is that the that he is offended.
look like my grandpa, and tells about his hearer is so boring.
but he is not as old as grandfather age.
you….
It’s very rude! What hears is not The intended The effect on the hearer is
being polite. meaning of the taken as an acceptance.
utterance is not to
speak in such a harsh
way.
Who are you? Introduction He means exactly It is taken as an acceptance.
what he has said.
Joseph. Name The same. Acceptance.
Where’s your mother? introduction It is meant exactly Acceptance.
what he has said.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 31

She is with her Her mother is with He means exactly Information.

boyfriend. I’m her friend. And he what he says.
supposed to wait here. has to wait there.
Hmmm.
I’m eight and three Tells about his age He means what he Information.
quarters. How old are and want to know says.
you? about his as well.
You are boring Mr.! He shows no That he doesn’t Annoying or refusing.
excitement. show any interest in
talking to him.
Hey listen kid! I would That he wants to be He wants the hearer It is taking as annoying.
like to have some peace alone for a while. to leave the very
and quiet please! place.
You are grumpy Mr.! That the man is so He wants him to talk Taken as an acceptance.
irritable. to him.
Is that what woman left Wants to know He means exactly Acceptance.
you on the bench. Was about the woman what he has said.
she your girlfriend? and the reason why
she left him.
No she wasn’t. He refuses. He means what is acceptance
being said as same.
I have a girlfriend and Telling about her It is meant exactly Acceptance.
I’m only in the second girlfriend and what is being said.
grade. Where is your wants to know
girlfriend? about the man’s
girlfriend as well.
My wife….Elizabeth… Tells about his wife He means that his Confusing.
is gone. that she is not with wife has dead.
him anymore.

Well, where has she And wants to know He means exactly Acceptance.
gone to? where his wife has what he has said.
gone.

She is…gone….gone… Letting him know He means what he Acceptance.

dead! about his wife has said.
departure

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 32

Oh! That’s sad. My He is sorry for his He indirectly shows Acceptance.

girlfriend, Katie, she is wife departure, his condolence. And
still real young. Was tells about his then he means what
she a good girlfriend? girlfriend and he is saying.
Katie is the best I have wants to know
ever had. whether she was a
good friend or not.
Yes! Elizabeth was one He agrees that He means exactly Acceptance.
of a kind. Elizabeth was a what he says.
kind person.

According to Searl’s classification of Speech Acts

Representative Directive Commissive Expressive Declarative
My name is Who are you? I would like to Oh! Sorry Mr.
Adam. have some
peace and quiet
please. Would
you?
You look like my Where’s your Its very rude!
grandpa. mother?
She is with her Would you You are boring
boyfriend. mind? Mr.!
And I’m supposed Come here and Hey listen kid!
to wait over here. sit down.
Would you?
I’m eight and How old are Excuse me!
three quarters. you?
I’m trying to Oh sorry! Mr.
relax.
You are so No! she wasn’t
grumpy Mr. is that .
what that woman
left you on the
bench. Was she
your girlfriend?
I have a girlfriend. Oh! That’s sad.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 33

Conclusion
In the conclusion, while keeping in mind the above analysis it can be said that the text has
certain acts that are performed by the speakers, respectively. Primarily, the text has direct
speech acts, however, at certain places some of the indirect speech acts can also be found. In
case of the Austin’s three categories of speech acts, it can be said that most of the dialogues
do not have intended meanings, rather they all meant what has been said exactly. While in
case of Searl’s Classification of Speech Acts, the text has primarily representatives speech
acts, however, some of other acts can also be found, such as expressive, directives and
commisives, though the text does not have any declarative where the state of the world has
been changed in any regards.

3rd theory
Politeness theory by Pinelope Brown & Stephen Levinson
 According to them politeness refers to awareness of another person's face.
 Politeness depends upon formality as higher the formality, higher will be the
politeness.
 Face here means self-respect, status, etc.
So, what is a face?
 Face refers to the public self-image. (It’s dynamic)
So, what is public self-image?
 Public self-image refers to the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has
and expects everyone else to recognize.
 Self-image refers to what you think about yourself and what others think about you.
Two types of Face

1) Positive Face:
Refers to a person’s need to be connected to a group or considered as a member of
group.
 This refers to the need for individuals to feel valued and appreciated.
 People want to be seen as competent, intelligent, and well-liked.
 It’s all about Care & Not Care someone as Including (Us/Self/Us) or Excluding
(Others/them) someone.

2) Negative Face:
 Refers to a person’s need to be independent and free from imposition
 Autonomy and freedom from constraints.
 People want to maintain their independence and avoid being imposed upon.

Face-Threatening act
If you say something that represents a threat to another person's self-image, that is called a
face-threatening act.
 For example, if you use a direct speech act to get someone to do something
(Give me that paper!), you are behaving as if you have more social power

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 34

than the other person. If you don't actually have that social power (e.g,
you're not a military officer or prison warden), then you are performing a
face-threatening act.
Face-saving act
Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another's face, it can be
described as a face-saving act.
An indirect speech act, in the form associated with a question (Could you pass me that
paper?), removes the assumption of social power. You're only asking if it's possible. This
makes your request less threatening to the other person's face.
A face-saving act that emphasizes a person's positive face will show solidarity and draw
attention to a common goal
 Example, Let's do this together,You and I have the same problem, and so
on...)
Politeness Strategies:
To navigate the potential threat to positive and negative face, individuals use
different strategies when communicating:

a. Bald-on-Record:
 This strategy involves being direct and straightforward without much
concern for politeness.
 It may be appropriate in situations where the social distance between
individuals is small, or when the topic of conversation is not sensitive.

b. Positive Politeness:
 This strategy emphasizes friendliness, compliments, and showing interest in
others.
 It aims to enhance the positive face of the recipient and is often used when
the social distance is greater or when the topic is potentially face-
threatening.

c. Negative Politeness:
 This strategy involves being more indirect, using hedging or mitigating
language, and respecting the recipient's negative face.
 It acknowledges the potential imposition and attempts to minimize it.

d. Off-Record:
 This strategy involves hinting or implying rather than making direct
requests.
 It allows individuals to avoid imposing on others while still conveying their
intentions.
Note :-Politeness differs from one culture to another. If you have grown up in a
culture that has directness as a valued way of showing solidarity, and you use direct
speech acts (Give me that chair!) to People whose culture is more oriented to
indirectness and avoiding direct imposition, then you will be considered impolite.
You, in turn, may think of the others as vague and unsure of whether they really want
something or are just asking about it (Are you using this chair?).
==========================================================

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 35

Conversation Analysis
by Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff & Gail Jefferson
 It involves the systematic analysis of verbal and nonverbal behaviors in
conversation to understand how people interact with each other.
 It examines the structure & organization of spoken & written communication.
1. Turn-taking and turn-allocation
1. Definition:
 Turn-taking occurs in a conversation when one person listens while the
other person speaks. As a conversation progresses, the listener and speaker
roles are exchanged back and forth (a circle of discussion).
 Back Channels: A term used to describe feedback that’s given by hearer in
order to indicate that they are attending to someone else’s speech.
 They can be (1) non-verbal, for example, consisting of nods, gestures or
facial expressions, or (2) Verbal, for example, words like yeah, right, okay,
or vocalizations like mm and uh-huh. They can also include where a hearer
completes part of a speaker’s turn.

 Cultural differences : turn-taking varies according to culture differences

2. Two guiding principles
1) One person should talk at a time
2) No long pauses/Silences
3. Components of turn-taking structure within a conversation:
 Turn-taking is structured according to the three components - the turn-
taking component, the turn allocation component, and rules.
 These components are established in order to help speakers and listeners
appropriately contribute to a conversation.

1) Transition-relevant point (TRP):

a) The point(time) where the turn may end and the next speaker may
begin
b) The place in conversation where it becomes relevant or legitimate for
another party to begin speaking.
Example:
EVELYN: So that was all that happened to me today. How about you?
Evelyn reaches a transition-relevant point where she has said all she had to say. By asking
the question 'How about you? '' She suggests a change of speaker.

2) Turn-allocation: The turn allocation component contains techniques that are used
to appoint the next speaker. There are two techniques:

Two Techniques that select the next speaker.

a) CS selects the NS
b) NS self-selects

a) . The current speaker chooses the next speaker

EVELYN: So that was all that happened to me today. How about you, Amir?

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 36

AMIR: I had a good day, thanks!

In this case, Evelyn addresses the next speaker - Amir - directly, thus letting him know that it
is his turn to change from a listener to a speaker. The turn allocation component is different
from the turn-taking component because the current speaker uses the name of one of the
listeners and, in this way, appoints them as the next speaker. In the case of the turn-taking
component, the current speaker asks a general question and doesn't appoint a specific person
as the next speaker.

2. The next speaker selects themselves

EVELYN: So that was all that happened to me today.
AMIR: Well that sounds like a blast! Let me tell you what a day I've had...
In this scenario, Evelyn indicates that she has finished speaking by wrapping up. Amir sees
this as an opportunity to take the next turn as a speaker.
This type of technique is often used on occasions that involve more than two speakers. For
example, let's say that Evelyn and Amir are not the only two people holding the conversation
- they are joined by Maya:

EVELYN: So that was all that happened to me today. How about you two?
MAYA: Wow, that's an exciting day.
AMIR: Well that sounds like a blast! Let me tell you what a day I've had.
In the case of three participants in the conversation, Evelyn reaches a transition-relevant point
and turns to both Amir and Maya with the question 'How about you two?', thus allowing each
one of them to select themselves as the next speaker.

Maya gets involved in the conversation by commenting on what Evelyn was talking about but
she doesn't answer Evelyn's question so she doesn't select herself as the next speaker. Amir,
on the other hand, also shows that he has been listening to Evelyn but he actually starts to
answer Evelyn's question, therefore it is his turn.

3) Rules of turn-taking
Rules govern turn construction
1. CS (current speaker) selects NP (next speaker) and transfers turn to them.
2. If CS doesn’t select NS, then any other party may self-select.
3. No one self-selects, and CS continues until the next TRP (Transition relevant
point) or the conversation ends.
4. Purpose of turn-taking
 To minimize gaps and overlap.
5. Cues of turn-taking
 Eye contact(Gazes)
 Prosadic features (Tone, intonation…)
 Time(Gap)
 Sentence Structures (question, order…)
 Turn-taking: examples (From internet)
 Here are some further examples of turn-taking in discourse.
 Example 1:

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 37

Person A: "What did you do over the weekend?"

Person B: "I went to the beach with my family."
Person A: "Oh, that sounds nice. Did you have good weather?"
Person B: "Yes, it was really sunny and warm."
In this example, Person A initiates the conversation by asking a question, and Person
B responds with an answer. Person A then follows up with a related question, and
Person B responds again. The speakers take turns speaking and listening in a
coordinated way to maintain the flow of the conversation.

Example 2:

Teacher: "So, what do you think is the main message of this novel?"
Student 1: "I think it's about the importance of family."
Teacher: "Interesting. What about you, Student 2?"
Student 2: "I think it's more about the struggle for personal identity."
In this example, the teacher asks a question to initiate the discussion, and two
students take turns responding with their own interpretations. The teacher then
alternates between the two students to allow them to elaborate on their ideas and
respond to one another.

Example 3:

Colleague 1: "Hey, do you have a minute to talk about the project?"

Colleague 2: "Sure, what's up?"
Colleague 1: "I was thinking we should try a different approach for the next phase."
Colleague 2: "Okay, what do you have in mind?"
Colleague 1: "I was thinking we could focus more on user feedback."
In this example, the colleagues take turns initiating and responding to each other's
suggestions. They use conversational cues such as questions and acknowledgements
to signal that they are listening and engaged in the conversation.

Sequence Organization

2. Simultaneous Speech/Overlapping

Two types

1) Non-interruptive/cooperative simultaneous speech

2) Interruptive/Non-cooperative speech

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 38

Frequency of simultaneous speech is strongly associated with:

1) Degree of formality of speech domain

2) Degree of familiarity between interlocutors (participants).
3) The speaker’s status
4) Role and relationship
5) Gender
3) Adjacency pairs and Insertion sequences
Adjacency pairs is the sequence of two related utterances by two different
speakers-the second turn is a response to the first.

Adjacency pairs are usually in the form of question-answer:

EVELYN: Did you like your coffee?

MAYA: Yes, it was very nice, thank you.
Adjacency pairs can also come in other forms:

 Compliment thanks
 Accusation - admission / denial
 Request - acceptance / refusal
 Challenge/rejection
 Offer/accept

Adjacency pairs typically has three characteristics:

1) Consists of two utterances

2) Utterances are adjacent, first immediately follows the second.
3) Different speakers produce each utterance.
Insertion sequences
An Insertion sequence is one adjacency pair within another adjacency pair.
An adjacency pair consists of:
a. First pair part
b. second pair part
 Not every first part receives its 2nd part.
Example:
A: Could you mail this letter for me?
B: Does it have a stamp on it?
A: Yeah
B: Okay
 Purpose of Insertion sequences:
Sometimes, a next speaker produces not a second pair part but another first pair
part BECAUSE:
a) He doesn’t understand (a request for clarification)
b) He doesn’t want to answer until he knows more.
c) He is simply stalling. ( delaying or avoid giving answer in order to have more
time to make a decision or obtain an advantage)

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 39

Preference organization: Preferred vs Dispreferred Responses

A) Preferred Responses (accepted)

 acceptance
 usually short
 without hesitation or elaboration
B) Dispreferred responses (Rejection)
 Rejection
 pauses
 hesitation
 Hedging: well, you know, sort of etc. (Hedges: It can be defined as words or
phrases used to indicate that we are not really sure that what we are saying is
sufficiently correct or complete. We can use sort of or kind of as hedges on the
accuracy of our statements, as in descriptions such as His hair was kind of
long or The book cover is sort of yellow. These are examples of hedges on the
Quality maxim. Other examples would include the following expressions that
people sometimes use as they begin a conversational contribution.
As far as I know, Correct me if I’m wrong, but, I’m not absolutely sure, but )
 An account of why the preferred response wasn’t given.
4) ERROR and REPAIR
 Also called speech error, self-repair, conversational
error, linguistic repair, reparation, etc.
 Definition:
In conversation analysis, repair is the process by which a speaker
recognizes a speech error and repeats what has been said with some
sort of correction.
 Four components of repair:
1) Trouble source: Refers to any element in conversation which
cause communication breakdown.
Example: A: Sure, enough ten minutes later the bell r_ the doorbell rang…
2) Repair initiation (two types)
a) Trouble source can be identified by the speaker (Self-
initiated) as A: Sure, enough ten minutes later the bell r_ the
doorbell rang…
b) The trouble source can be identified by the hearer/listener (
Other-initiated)
Example:
Teacher: I forgot to bring that from the office
Student: Marker?
Teacher: Yes.
3) Repair completion
a) Trouble source can be corrected by the speaker.
b) Trouble source can be corrected by the listener/hearer.
4) Self/Other
 Self: who produces trouble source
 Other: is any other participants/interlocutors.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 40

 Four types of repair sequences:

1) Self-initiated Self-repaired
2) Self-Initiated Other-repaired
3) Other-initiated self-repaired
4) Other-initiated other-repaired

1. Self-Initiated Self-Repaired:

• Repair is both initiated and carried out by the speaker of the trouble source.
• Correcting yourself

Situation: You can't find the right word, and you find it yourself after a small pause.

Example:

A: Sure enough ten minutes later the bell r- the doorbell rang...

2. Self-Initiated Other-Repaired:

• The speaker of a T.S may try and get the recipient to repair the trouble.

Situation: You can't find the right word, and someone else fills it in for you.

Example: Teacher-Student Marker.

3. Other-Initiated Self-Repaired:

• Initiated by others but carried out by the speaker.

Situations:

a. When the hearer doesn't hear the speaker properly.

b. When the hearer doesn't understand.

Example:

A: I'm heading off to vacation next week.

B: What?

A: I said I am going on vacation next week.

4. Other-Initiated Other-Repaired:

• Repair is both initiated and carried out by the speaker of the trouble source.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 41

Situation: You have your facts incorrect and someone else corrects you.

Example:

Saad: Ohh, we have the class of CDA tomorrow.

CR: Actually, It's today.

 Symbols Used in Conversation Analysis (Search on internet Jefferson

Transcription system- A guide to symbols)

 Main points and summary of conversation analysis:

 Turn-taking is organized and structured according to the three components that

speakers use to allocate turns - the turn-taking component, the turn allocation
component, and rules.

 The turn-taking component includes the main content of the turn. The end of a turn-
taking component is called a transition-relevant point. It signifies when the turn of the
current speaker ends and the opportunity for the next speaker to talk begins.

 The types of turn-taking are adjacency pairs, intonation, gestures and gaze
direction. They are indicators of a change of turn.

 In order for turn-taking in conversation to be

maintained, interruption, overlaps and gaps must be avoided…

=========================================================

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 42

CDA
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (CDA)
Note: (Follow the following course contents and skip the extra materials if you aren’t
interested)
1. Definitions
2. Aims
3. Principles
4. Development of CDA
5. Discourse and Ideology
6. Foucault and CDA
7. 3D Model by Norman Fairclough
8. Socio-cognitive model by Vin Dijk
9. Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
10. Doing CDA
======================================================

1. Critical Discourse Analysis

Definitions:
1. Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a qualitative analytical approach for critically
describing, interpreting, and explaining the ways in which discourses construct, maintain, and
legitimize social inequalities.
2. "Critical Discourse Analysis is a type of discourse analysis research that primarily studies
the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted
by text and talk in social and political contexts" (Van Dijk, 2004).
3. CDA is "a principled and transparent shunting back and forth between the microanalysis of
texts using various tools of linguistic, semiotic, and literary analysis of social formations,
institutions, and power relations that these texts index and construct" (Luke, 2002).
4. CDA may be defined as fundamentally concerned with analyzing opaque as well as
transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as
manifested in language, (Wodak & Meyer, 2001).
5. CDA is a program of social analysis that critically analyses discourse that is to say
language in use as a means of addressing social change (Scollon, 2001).
----------------=======================-------------------------------==============--
2. Aims of CDA
 The Aims of Critical Discourse Analysis
 To investigate how meaning is created in context.
 To expose how language is used in the socio political abuse of power.
 To uncover opaqueness and power relationships.
 To understand, expose and challenge the use of power by social institutions on
political, cultural, ethical or gender basis.
 To uncover the discursive means of mental control.
 To give voice to the marginalized people.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 43

3. General principles of CDA

Fairclough and Wodak (1997: 271-80) summarize the main tenets of CDA as follows:
1. CDA addresses social problems
2. Power relations are discursive
3. Discourse constitutes society and culture
4. Discourse does ideological work
5. Discourse is historical
6. The link between text and society is mediated
7. Discourse analysis is interpretative and explanatory
8. Discourse is a form of social action.

Explanation of the above principles:

1) The first principle is that CDA addresses social problems. CDA not only focuses on
language and language use, but also on the linguistic characteristics of social and cultural
processes. CDA follows a critical approach to social problems in its endeavours to make
explicit power relationships which are frequently hidden. It aims to derive results which are
of practical relevance to the social, cultural, political and even economic contexts (Fairclough
& Wodak, 1997).
2) The second principle is that power relations are discursive. That is CDA explains how
social relations of power are exercised and negotiated in and through discourse (Fairclough
& Wodak, 1997).
3) The next principle is that discourse constitutes society and culture. This means that every
instance of language use makes its own contribution to reproducing and transforming society
and culture, including relations of power (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997).
4) Discourse also does ideological work. In other words, ideologies are often produced
through discourse. To understand how ideologies are produced, it is not enough to analyse
texts; the discursive practice (how the texts are interpreted and received and what social
effects they have) must also be considered (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997).
5) Another important principle is that discourse is history. Thus discourses can only be
understood with reference to their historical context. In accordance with this CDA refers to
extralinguistic factors such as culture, society and ideology in historical terms (Fairclough &
Wodak, 1997; Wodak, 1996, 2001).
6) Another important principle is that the link between text and society is mediated.
CDA, thus, is concerned with making connections between sociocultural processes
and structures on the one hand, and properties of texts on the other . CDA does not take this
relationship to be simply deterministic but invokes an idea of mediation. Fairclough studies
this mediated relationship between text and society by looking at ‘orders of discourse’
(Fairclough, 1992a, 1995a). Wodak (1996), like van Dijk (1997, 2001), introduces a
‘sociocognitive level’ to her analysis, and Scollon studies mediation by looking at ‘mediated
action’ and ‘mediational means’ (Scollon, 1998, 1999, 2001).
7) The next principle is that CDA is interpretative and explanatory. CDA goes beyond textual
analysis. It is not only interpretative, but also explanatory in intent. These interpretations and
explanations are dynamic and open, and may be affected by new readings and new contextual
information. Meyer (2001) calls this process a hermeneutic process and maintains that
compared with the analytical-inductive process employed in some other fields, hermeneutics
can be understood as a method of grasping and producing meaning relations by
understanding the meaning of one part in the context of the whole. He further argues that

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 44

hermeneutic interpretation in particular requires detailed documentation such as an explicit

linguistic analysis of texts.
8) Discourse from the point of view of CDA, then, is a form of social action. The principle
aim of CDA is to uncover opaqueness and power relationships. CDA is a socially committed
scientific paradigm. It attempts to bring about change in communicative and socio-political
practices.(Fairclough & Wodak, 1997).
The term “Critical”
The term ‘critical’ can be particularly associated with the Frankfurt School of Philosophy.
The Frankfurt School re-examines the foundations of Marxist thought. Kantian ‘critique’
entails the use of rational analysis to question the limits of human knowledge and
understanding of, for example, the physical world. The Frankfurt School extends this to an
analysis of cultural forms of various kinds, which are seen as central to the reproduction of
capitalist social relations. According to Jürgen Habermas, a critical science has to be self
reflexive (reflecting on the interests that underlie it) and it must also consider the historical
context in which linguistic and social interactions take place.
----------------===================================-------------------------------
4. Development of CDA
(Extra materials are taken from Sir Khurram Shehzad’s Guide)

In the late 1970s, Critical Linguistics was developed by a group of linguists and literary
theorists at the University of East Anglia. Their approach was based on Halliday's Systemic
Functional Linguistics (SFL). CL practitioners aimed at "isolating ideology in discourse" and
showing "how ideology and ideological processes are manifested as systems of linguistic
characteristics and processes.". Following Halliday, these CL practitioners view language in
use as simultaneously performing three functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual
functions.

Halliday's view of language as a "social act" is central to many of CDA's practitioners

.According to Fowler et al. (1979, 185), CL, like sociolinguistics, asserts that, "there are
strong and pervasive connections between linguistic structure and social structure" However,
whereas in sociolinguistics "the concepts 'language' and 'society' are divided…so that one is
forced to talk of 'links between the two'", for CL "language is an integral part of social
process" (Fowler et al., 1979, p. 189).

Another central assumption of CDA and SFL is that speakers make choices regarding
vocabulary and grammar, and that these choices are consciously or unconsciously
"principled and systematic"(Fowler et al., 1979, p. 188). Thus choices are ideologically
based. According to Fowler et al. (1979), the "relation between form and content is not
arbitrary or conventional, but . . . form signifies content" .In sum, language is a social act
that is ideologically driven.

Theoretical Origins
CDA, in its various forms, has its academic origins in ‘Western Marxism’. In broad terms,
Western Marxism places a particular emphasis on the role of cultural dimensions in
reproducing capitalist social relations. This necessarily implies a focus on meaning
(semiosis) and ideology as key mechanisms in this process. Western Marxism includes key
figures and movements in twentieth-century social and political thought – Antonio Gramsci,

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 45

the Frankfurt School, Louis Althusser. Critical discourse analysts do not always explicitly
place themselves within this legacy, but nevertheless it frames their work.

Gramsci
Gramsci’s observation that the maintenance of contemporary power rests not only on
coercive force but also on ‘hegemony’ (winning the consent of the majority) has been
particularly influential in CDA. The emphasis on hegemony entails an emphasis on ideology,
and on how the structures and practices of ordinary life routinely normalize capitalist social
relations.

Althusser
Althusser made a major contribution to the theory of ideology, demonstrating how these are
linked to material practices embedded in social institutions (e.g. school teaching). He also
showed their capacity to position people as social ‘subjects’, although he tended toward an
overly deterministic (structuralist) version of this process which left little room for action by
subjects.

Foucault
Directed against such structuralist accounts of ideology, Foucault’s work on discourse has
generated immense interest in discourse analysis, but also analysis of a rather abstract sort
that is not anchored in a close analysis of particular texts. For Foucault , discourses are
knowledge systems of the human sciences (medicine, economics, linguistics, etc.) that inform
the social and governmental ‘technologies’ which constitute power in modern society.

Bourdieu
A further influential figure has been the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, in particular his
(1991) work on the relationship between language, social position and symbolic value in the
dynamics of power relations.

Bakhtin
From within linguistics and literary studies the work of Bakhtin has also been important in
discourse analysis. Volosinov (1973) work is the first linguistic theory of ideology. It claims
that linguistic signs are the material of ideology, and that all language use is ideological. As
well as developing a theory of genre, Bakhtin’s work emphasizes the dialogical properties of
texts, introducing the idea of ‘intertextuality’ (see Kristeva, 1986). This is the idea that any
text is a link in a chain of texts, reacting to, drawing on, and transforming other texts.
----------------------------------=========================------------------

5. Discourse, Power & Ideology

 Discourse: language in use-Omnipresent
 Ideology: The set of belief of a group of people
 Power: The ability of an individual/group to influence/shape the behaviors (actions,
communication and thinking process) of others.
The relationship among discourse, power & Ideology:
a. Set of beliefs (Uniform-Strong/ Controversial-Weak)
b. The strength of ideology
c. The power of a discourse
If belief is uniform, Ideology will be strong (Strong Ideology=Strong Discourse)

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 46

If belief is controversial, Ideology will be weak (Weak Ideology= Weak Discourse)

Two types of Identity:
1. Self-Identity: What we think who we are (It should be dominant over ascribed
identity)
2. What others think of you.

Ideologies are social beliefs. Rather trivially, ideologies consist of a specific kind of ideas. In
somewhat more technical jargon (in social psychology and political science), we would call
them belief systems or social representations of some kind (Augoustinos, 1998).
This means that they are not personal beliefs, but beliefs shared by groups, as is also the case
for grammars, socio-culturally shared knowledge, group attitudes or norms and values.
Indeed, we assume that ideologies form the basis of the belief systems or social
representations of specific groups. For instance, at the basis of group knowledge and
attitudes about sexual harassment, glass ceilings and abortion, we may find a feminist or
anti-feminist ideology. Further, a neo-liberal ideology forms the basis of socially shared
beliefs of specific groups (for instance corporate managers) about the freedom of the market
or the intervention of the state.
Processes of social identification ultimately take place on the shared social representations
we call ideologies. The social inspiration for a theory of ideological structure therefore must
be sought in the basic properties of (social) groupness, of which the following ones have
particular relevance:
1. Membership devices (gender, ethnicity, appearance, etc.): Who are we?
2. Actions: What do we do?
3. Aims: Why do we do this?
4. Norms and Values: What is good or bad?
5. Position: What is our position in society, and how do we relate to other groups?
6. Resources: What is ours? What do we want to have/keep at all costs?

We shall for the moment assume that these are some of the fundamental categories that define
social groupness, and that also form the basic self-schema organizing ideologies. In other
words, the same fundamental schema organizes group thought and group life, as may be
expected from ideologies.

If ideologies control the social representations of groups, they also control the knowledge
acquired and shared by groups. This is true, however, only for a specific kind of knowledge,
namely what we shall call group knowledge. These are the social beliefs which a group holds
to be true, according to its own evaluation or verification (truth) criteria as is the case for
scientists, members of a church or members of a social movement. Of course, for other
groups, such beliefs may be mere opinions or false beliefs, and therefore not be called
knowledge at all.

The crucial, empirical and discursive test to distinguish knowledge from other beliefs is that
knowledge shared by a group tends to be presupposed by its members, and not asserted, in
text and talk (except in pedagogical discourse, as well as in discourse directed at non group
members). It is this group knowledge, then, that may be ideologically based.

Thus, what feminists know about sexual harassment are beliefs that are based also on
principles of feminist ideology, such as equality, autonomy and so on. Others (especially anti-
feminists) may deem such knowledge as mere opinions or exaggerated beliefs. The same is

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 47

often true for scientific knowledge, based on the specific criteria of scholarly verification and
method, which may be beliefs (still) unknown outside the scientific community. Obviously, the
power and prestige of each group will also carry over the power and legitimacy of their
beliefs and what beliefs count as society at large. knowledge in society at large.
==================================================

6. Foucault and CDA

(Presentation topic of M.Junaid (PS-20070), 21/12/23)
Outline:
1. What's CDA?
2. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis
3. Theory
4. Foucauldian Discourse
5. Kendall and Wickham outline five steps in using "Foucauldian discourse analysis".
6. Criticism
7. Major concepts of Foucault

1) What is CDA?
'Critical' is primarily applied to the engagement with power relations associated with the
Frankfurt School of critical theory. In this, it argues against a realist, neutral and rationalist
view of the world. Instead the role is to uncloak the hidden power relations, largely
constructed through language, and to demonstrate and challenge social inequities reinforced
and reproduced.
In terms of analysis, CDA takes the view that texts need to be consider in terms of what they
include but also what they omit-alternative ways of constructing and defining the world. The
critical discourse analyst's job is not to simply read political and social ideologies onto a text
but to consider the myriad ways in which a text could have been written and what these
alternatives imply for ways of representing the world, understanding the world and the social
actions that are determined by these ways of thinking and being.
James Gee (1990) uses the term discourse (with a small 'd' to talk about language in use, or
the way language is used in a social context to 'enact activities and identities. His work is
influenced by Michel Foucault.
2) Foucauldian discourse analysis:
 Is based on the theories of Michel Foucault.

 It's a form of discourse analysis, focusing on power relationships in society as

expressed through language and practices.

THEORY:
 Besides focusing on the meaning of a given discourse, the distinguishing
characteristic of this approach is its stress on power relationships.

 These are expressed through language and behavior, and the relationship between
language and power.

 The method analyzes how the social world, expressed through language, is affected
by various sources of power.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 48

 This approach is close to social constructivism, as the researcher tries to understand

how our society is being shaped (or constructed) by language, which in turn reflects
existing power relationships.

 The analysis attempts to understand how individuals view the world, and studies
categorizations, personal and institutional relationships, ideology, and politics

3) A DIVE INTO FOUCAULT'S DISCOURSE.

Discourse, as defined by Foucault, refers to:
 Ways of constituting knowledge, together with the social practices, forms of
subjectivity and power relations.

 Discourses are more than ways of thinking and producing meaning.

 They constitute the "nature of the body, unconscious and conscious mind and
emotional life of the subjects they seek to govern (Weedon, 1987, p. 108).

 A form of power that circulates in the social field and can attach to strategies of
domination as well as those of resistance ( Diamond and Quinby, 1988, p. 185).

 Discourse is a culturally constructed representation of reality, not an exact copy

 Discourse constructs knowledge and thus governs, through the production of

categories of knowledge and assemblages of texts, what it is possible to talk about and
what is not (the taken for granted rules of inclusion/exclusion). As such, it re/produces
both power and knowledge simultaneously

 Discourse is a body of knowledge which has got its own enunciating subjects(people
who have got the authority to represent/designate something/someone as a
deviate(Non-conformist)), and that body of knowledge has also got its own object of
study as look at the Medical Discourses that is one single body language as medical
books and this body of knowledge has got its own enunciating subjects as Doctors and
their object of studies are Diagnosis of diseases in human body etc.

4) Kendall and Wickham outline five steps in using "Foucauldian discourse analysis".
1) The first step is a simple recognition that discourse is a body of statements that are
organized in a regular and systematic way.
The subsequent four steps are based on the identification of rules on:
2) Making practices material and discursive at the same time.
3) How those statements are created.
4) How spaces in which new statements can be made are created.
5) What can be said (written) and what cannot.

5) Criticism:
 There are of course a range of critiques of this social theory how much it denies
material reality, whether it disallows agency, whether anything precedes discourse and
so on...

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 49

 Turning this way of understanding discourse into method to apply to textual analysis
means asking of the text or texts questions such as:

 Turning this way of understanding discourse into method to apply to textual analysis
means asking of the text or texts questions such as:

 What is being represented here as a truth or as a norm?

 How is this constructed? What 'evidence' is used? What is left out? What is fore
grounded and back grounded? What is made problematic and what is not? What
alternative meanings/explanations are ignored?

 What is kept apart and what is joined together? What interests are being mobilized
and served by this and what are not?

 How has this come to be? What identities, actions, practices are made possible and for
desirable and/or required by this way of thinking/talking/understanding? What are
disallowed? What is normalized and what is pathologised?

6) Major Concepts of Foucault

1) Archeological works:

 Foucault's early works are often called archeological works.

 The archaeological approach primarily focuses on the historical analysis of

discourses, knowledge formations, and their transformations. It seeks to understand
how knowledge systems emerge, how they shape different historical periods, and how
they structure our understanding of the world.

 The methodology of the archaeological approach involves analyzing statements,

discursive formations, and the rules that govern their emergence and transformation.

 Archeological works trace impact of power and discourses on individual bodies using
the concept of disciplinarity.

2) Genealogical works:

 Later works of Foucault are classified as his genealogical works.

 Genealogical works aim to trace the historical contingencies, power relations, and
processes of subject formation within specific social practices and institutions.

 The genealogical works are based on his concept of governmentality where power
comes together with knowledge to create discourses that shape larger human
population and label them.

3) DISCIPLINARITY

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 50

 Michel Foucault's works explore the concept of disciplinarity and its role in shaping
power relations and knowledge production within society.

 Foucault's analysis of discipline focuses on the ways in which disciplinary

mechanisms and techniques operate to regulate and control individuals in various
social institutions

 Foucault examines how power operates through disciplinary techniques in institutions

such as schools, prisons, hospitals, and military barracks.

 Disciplinary power functions through surveillance, normalization, and the production

of docile bodies.

 It aims at shaping human bodies that are capable of work, performing the functions,
and at the same time having no will or thought process of their own

4) Concept of Panopticon:

 Originally theorized by philosopher Jeremy Bentham in 17th C.

 In "Discipline and Punish" uses this term to exemplify the way surveillance operates
in society.

 Hypothetical prison design > constant look at the prisoners but prisoners cannot see
the guards. Constant state of uncertainty among individuals.

• Originates from Greek word - panoptes "all seeing" a humane prison which is
generalizable to factories, asylums, hospitals, and schools.

 An annular building; at the center, a tower; this tower is pierced with wide windows
that open onto the inner side of the ring; the peripheric building is divided into cells,
each of which extends the whole width of the building; they have two windows, one
on the inside, corresponding to the windows of the tower; the other, on the outside,
allows the light to cross the cell from one end to the other.

 All that is needed, then, is to place a supervisor in a central tower and to shut up in
each cell a madman, a patient, a condemned man, a worker or a schoolboy.

 Michel Foucault in his book Discipline and Punish (1975) breathed new life into the
concept of panopticon. Foucault argued that the panopticon was being used as a
disciplinary mechanism in societies in order to subjugate its citizens.

• Panopticon as metaphor for modern disciplinary society (emerging in the 18th

century).

 It creates a society of surveillance where people are always under the surveillance of
power.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 51

 Today the panopticon is used to analyze surveillance in various different settings such
as the workplace, govemment administration, and consumer contexts.

 Modern day panopticon architecture is omnipresent and insidious. It no longer

remains in the prison system but has permeated towards society as a whole.

• In the age of social media we are constantly under a vast grid of surveillance
of permanent visibility.

• Television (CCTV) cameras provide a ubiquitous presence.

5) Concept of Governmentality:

 Term coined by Foucault.

 How individuals and societies can be led to govern themselves.

 Emphasizes the diffusion of power throughout the society.

 Regulation of actions and beliefs via surveillance, examination and classification.

 Exercise of disciplinary power.

 The concept of governmentality takes the definition of government as the exercise of

organized political power by a nation or state (see also nation-state) and expands it to
include the active consent and willingness of individuals to participate in their own
governance.

 Governmentality, an expression originally formulated by the 20th -century French

philosopher Michel Foucault, combines the terms government and rationality.

 A form of thinking that strives to be systematic and clear about how things are or
ought to be, suggests that before people or things can be controlled or managed, they
must first be defined.

 Therefore, the state designs systems for defining populations, which make them
known and visible.

 They include mechanisms of management and administration (work processes,

procedures, rules) and ways of classifying individuals or groups (by income, race,
professional and personnel categories), which allow for their identification,
classification, ordering, and control.

6) Concept of Bio-power:

 Used this term in his book "Discipline and Punish".

 Modern Governmentality is based on Bio-power.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 52

 Public health measures, bio-politics and population control.

 Focuses on the regulation and management of life processes in society.

7) Concept of Docile Bodies:

 Refers to individuals whose behaviors are shaped and controlled by different

practices.

 Gives an account of historical incarceration systems in "Discipline and Punish".

 Creation of docile bodies > shapes the subjectivities > becoming part of the system.

 Modern incarceration system> destructive> because of disciplinary practices and

surveillance mechanism.

 Conformity.

 We don’t have our own free-will rather all our actions are controlled by others or
through discourses/Ideologies.

8) Concept of Confessional Society:

• Discusses it in his book "The history of sexuality vol I".

• Term> where people are encouraged to disclose their innermost thoughts and desires., so he
says that this act is not merely an individual choice, but is embedded in power structure.
• Confession > leads to > conformity> due to internalization to norms.
9) Knowledge-Power Paradigm

 Argues that knowledge and power are not independent of each other, but are
interconnected.

 Coined the term "Knowledge-Power Paradigm".

 Concept of Power:

 Given his concept of power in his works; " Discipline and Punish: The Birth of
Prison" and "The history of sexuality volume I".

 Challenges the traditional views of power.

 Foucault argues a number of points in relation to power and offers definitions that are
directly opposed to more traditional liberal and Marxist theories of power. definitions

 Power is not a thing but a relation power is not simply repressive but it is productive
power is not simply a property of the State. Power is not something that is exclusively
localized in government and the State (which is not a universal essence). Rather,
power is exercised throughout the social body.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 53

 Power operates at the most micro levels of social relations. Power is omnipresent at
every level of the social body. the exercise of power is strategic and war-like

 He thinks of power as diffused (Dynamics/Omnipresent)

 No proper center.

 Power is discursive (through language)

 Product of different discourses.

 Not always coercive or negative, rather sometimes it is productive.

 Resistance

•Concept of Knowledge:
 It is crucial for producing any discourse.

 Body of knowledge is essential for creating a scientific discourse> then it becomes the
part of power structure.

 Power dictates discourse and discourse will dictate the masses.

 Examples, Gen Zia >authoritative > to propagate the dominant discourse.

 Ahmad Faraz was exiled.

 Knowledge is always an exercise of power, and having power is always a function of

this knowledge.

7. 3D Model by Fairclough
Fairclough's Three Dimensional Model of Critical Discourse Analysis:
Fairclough's three dimensional model of discourse analysis is one of the important tools that
helps to analyze a connection between the properties of texts and the socio-cultural practices
going on in the society. Fairclough presents his three boxes through which he interrelates
three dimensions of discourse. The most significant aspect of Fairclough's model of discourse
analysis is that it discloses the socially and discursively embedded nature of any text. It also
presents three different areas for focus.
1. Text/Micro Level/Description
The first level of analysis of discourse that Fairclough presents is text. We can simply say that
it is related to the description of texts that what kind of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, etc, have been used in the discourse. What clauses are there, whether dependent or
independent? What kind of stylistic devices are there? Whether similes or metaphors are there
in the text? What kinds of sentences are there, either simple, compound or complex? Is there
alliteration and assonance in the text or not? Is the speaker/author foregrounding sesonance in
the text or not? What kind of cohesive links have been used in the text? Which processes are

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 54

there in the text and which nominal groups are more prominent? And so on.... Hence it is the
analysis of all linguistic features in the text and this level deals with the province of critical
linguistics (Locke, 2004).
In order to try to prove this point, let's consider a rather famous joke told by Groucho
Marx. The example will probably work best if you haven't already heard the joke.
 This morning I shot an elephant in my pyjamas
How he got into my pyjamas, I'll never know!
What makes this example interesting is that it provides evidence of our ability to recognize
functional and structural relations. Why does this joke work? It is based on the fact that the
sentence is ambiguous; in other words it has more than one meaning or interpretation.
However, the ambiguity is hidden because no one would recognize it initially. In the first part
of the joke, the only understanding we have is that one morning while Groucho was still
wearing his pyjamas, he shot an elephant. This sense corresponds to our real-world
expectations because if there is a connection to be made amongst a man, pyjamas and an
elephant, the association will be between the man and the pyjamas. So we understand
immediately that the phrase in my pyjamas is telling us about how he (the speaker) shot an
elephant. However, in the second part of the joke, we are forced to restructure our
interpretation of the language used in order to form new relations and get a different meaning;
we have to reinterpret what he said. By forcing a connection between the elephant and the
pyjamas, we now understand that the elephant was wearing Groucho Marx's pyjamas when
he shot it. The function of in my pyjamas is now to describe the elephant. There was an
inherent ambiguity in the first sentence that went unnoticed and this is where the humour
comes in. It might make us laugh or maybe groan, but one thing the joke does very well is
force us to reconsider how grouped or structured the words in order to make meaningful
relations. This is what is meant by grammar we how words and structures come together to
make meaningful relations.
2. Discourse Practices/Meso Level/Interpretation
The second level of discourse analysis is termed as discourse practice. It involves questions
like:
 Who is producing the text and who is consuming it?
 Who are the target audiences?
 How is the text produced and how is it consumed?
 What modes are being used? Whether written, spoken or some other?
 When and where has the text been produced?
 Which genre has been used to achieve the desired purpose?
 What is the relationship of the text with the other similar texts? And so on....
Thus, analysis at the discourse practice level involves aspects of a text's production,
distribution and consumption (interpretation).
When it comes to the text's production aspect, the questions about interdiscursivity and
intertextuality are raised. Interdiscursivity aims at how the production and consumption of
one discourse helps in the production and consumption of another discourse; moreover, it
deals with the ways in which other texts are used in the process of the construction of the
given text. Focus on the text distribution aspect raises questions about the way a given text
becomes a part of intertextual chains and is used by other texts. Text interpretation involves
readers' disposition and the way the target and non-target audience are exposed to a texť's
reading and how they give response to that text. Whether it strengthens some ideologies
hidden in the text in their minds or not. So, we can conclude that this level of analysis is
basically related to the interpretation of the text or discourse (Locke, 2004).

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 55

3. Sociocultural Practices/Macro Level/Explanation

This is a broader level of discourse analysis which involves so many other things. It helps to
analyze the sociocultural, socio- geographic, socio-economic grounds of a text. It tells that if
a text is produced in certain manner, then what are the reasons behind that production? It
aims at explaining the demands in the society, social conditions, cultural practices and geo-
graphical conditions etc. These may be the underlying themes in a given text. Furthermore,
this level of analysis also helps to explain the similarity of a text to the existing trends or
highlights its digression from the existing discursive hegemony if any. It finds that whether
the existing text contributes to the particular social and discursive practices or helps in its
reproduction or not?
So, critical discourse analysis takes description of a text to us beyond the phase of understood
deeper level where meaning is by keeping in mind the social and cultural contexts (Paltridge,
2012)
=================================================

Alternative Categories: James Paul Gee

(Extra materials)
James Paul Gee also emphasizes the main purpose of CDA that is to highlight the hidden
realities or facts embedded in a text, and if not highlighted would remain invisible and
implicit. Simultaneously, they will remain more powerful. In his book Social Linguistics and
Literacies: Ideology in Discourses, he declares that in order to know about humans' thinking
of the world is by locating similarities. He gives an example of a very simple sentence and
relates it to many other sentences of the same category where an agent transfers something to
someone.
The teacher taught the students French.
This simple sentence leads us to think that some act of transferring is taking place from
teacher to the student though at mental level rather than physical level. We feel like
something is taken out from one original container (mind of the writer or speaker) or package
into another container or package (i.e. words and sentences) and is transferred something to
the hearers or readers who unlock it and get some meaning that is stored in their minds which
is the final container. For Gee this container/conveyer metaphor resembles a lot with other
idiomatic expressions like I catch your meaning, I have got it, I can't grasp what you are
saying. The embeddedness of this idiomatic metaphor in a simple sentence makes it easier for
the readers or listeners to understand, and is difficult to contest Gee gives this example to

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 56

show the hidden frozen theories in a text. The job of critical discourse analysis is to highlight
such theories.
Gee describes five main systems functioning in a language and which make some sense of a
text. The main categories of Gee's checklist are:
1. Prosody
Prosody basically means the patterns of sounds and rhythms used in poetry. It is about the
ways which are followed to say words and sentences of a text; for example, the loudness,
stress, pitch and length which is given to different syllables and the ways in which the
speaker feels hesitation or pauses.
2. Cohesion
Involves different linguistic ways in which sentences are linked to each other; for example,
references, substitution, ellipses, conjunctions, lexical cohesion, etc. These cohesive ties work
as a glue and contribute to the overall meaning.
3. Discourse Organization
It deals with the ways in which smaller units (i.e. sentences) combine together to make larger
units which are bigger than sentences. For example, when scenes and episodes combine, they
make larger units in the form of a story or whole drama.
4. Contextualization Signals
These are the cues given by the speaker or writer in the text through which they make
connection of their texts to the immediate situation of that text production.
5. Thematic Organization
It involves different manners and ways in which themes are produced and signalled through
text.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be concluded that there are different models and ways by which one can critically
analyze a discourse and can highlight the hidden facts and important realities of a discourse.

8. Socio-cognitive model by Van Dijk

 Socio-cognitive approach is a model in which the link between text and society is
mediated by cognition.
 According to Van Dijk, textual structures and social structures are mediated by social
cognition.

Social cognition
(Cognitive Structures)

Textual Structures Social Structures

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 57

 The various structures inside our memories, mind or cognition, create a link between
textual structures and social structures.
 Basic Terminology

 Cognition: Refers to personal as well as social cognition, beleifs, representations,

mental or memory structures...ect.
 Society: Social cognitions are largely acquired, used and changed through texts (Van
Dijk: 1990:65).
 Memory: Memory does not refer only to ability to remember, but also to:
 Opinions
 Ideologies
 Representations
 Concepts
 Social cognition is connected to what Van Dijk (2002) terms social memeory.
 For Van Dijk, 'cognitive processes and reperesentations are defined relative to mental
structures called 'memory' » (2002:207).
Mind, Memory and Discourse Processing
A- Cognitive processes, such as thinking, perceiving, knowing believing, understanding,
interpreting, language use, interaction, planning, hoping, feeling, etc., take place in the mind
or memory of individual social actors as members of social groups and communities.
B- Result of Cognitive Process: forming, changing, storing, or (de)activating the cognitive
structures/mental representations.
Mental Representations: thoughts, knowledge, beliefs, interpretations, plans, attitudes or
ideologies.
C- Cognitive processes and representations cause and control all human action and
interaction and hence all language use and discourse.
Conclusion: Memory Cognitive process Mental representation Human actions,
Interactions and Language use
D- Now there are two types of memory

Short Term Memory (STM) vs Long Term Memory (LTM)

STM: In the Short Term Memory or Working Memory (STM or WM), the 'online' processes
of attention, understanding or the production of action take place.
LTM: LTM stores the results of these processes, for instance in the form of knowledge or
beliefs.

 Both are used during the production & comprehension of language.

Memory
(Social Cognition)

Short Term Long Term

Episodic Memory Semantic Memory

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 58

1. Episodic Memory: Personal facts/information.

2. Semantic Memory: General & socially shared facts/info.

Cognition:
Personal and social
1. Personal Cognition: Mental Models.
2. Social Cognition: Knowledge, Attitudes and Ideologies.

1. Personal Cognition: Mental Models

A- Mental models are subjective representations of events or situations in Episodic or
Autobiographical Memory (EM), the personal part of LTM where we store our ongoing and
past personal experiences.
B- Producing a meaningful discourse about an event, such as a story or news article, involves
the (partial) expression of a mental model of that event.
Understanding such a discourse consists in the construction or updating of a mental model of
the event.
C- Mental models are individual, personal, subjective and multimodal
 Subjective b/c they involved our personal emotions and opinions
 Multimodal b/c they contain visions, sounds, gestures, motor movements etc…

2. Social Cognition: Knowledge, Attitudes and Ideologies

A- Individuals are social actors and as members of groups, communities, organizations or
institutions. They share:
i. Knowledge of language and discourse,
ii. Sociocultural knowledge of the world,
iii. Attitudes, ideologies, norms and values.
➤ Forms of Social Cognition are located in Semantic Memory (better called Social Memory)
B- Function in the Understanding of discourse and in the construction of personal mental
models.
C- SC or Social cognition is also Multimodal as it involves vision, sound, smell, and
sensorimotor information.
D- Social actors may also act and communicate as members of social movements or
ideological groups, and share attitudes about fundamental social issues, such as immigration,
gender inequality, racism, colonialism, imperialism, abortion, poverty or terrorism.
E- Social attitudes; ideologies, such as socialism, feminism, neoliberalism, racism and anti-
racism, militarism and pacifism, socialism and capitalism, colonialism and anticolonialism,
etc.
Their attitudes: Polarization between Us (ingroup) and Them (outgroup)
The Model of Us vs Them/ Us & Them Model
(Related to Vin Dijk Model)
According to Dijk, we have textual structures, social structures and cognitive structures.
The relationship between social structures and textual structures is mediated or
controlled by the cognitive structures (human mind: personal cognition and social
cognition). STM and LTM: episodic and semantic memory. Social attitudes or social
ideologies polarize people into groups of US and THEM. How we select this US and
THEM? It is by asking who we are and who we are not. We show support to the

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 59

INGROUP while resistance to the OUTGROUP in our discourses. And this support or
resistance is shown through certain indicators proposed by Van Dijik.
INDICATORS
1. Actor description
a. Positive Self-representation (US) (INGROUP) (Mujahedeen) (Shaheed)
b. Negative Other-representation (THEM)(OUTGROUP) (Terrorists) (Halak)
2. Authority
It can be a person, organization or book. It is an influential, higher or superior power
that exerts control: gives order, and enforces obedience in any particular situation.
3. Disclaimer
The negation in such a case primarily serves as a form of positive self-representation.
Disowning the wrong deeds.
4. Evidentially
Rely on evidences. Proving the opponent to be the guilty one. Statistics.
5. Comparison
Claims vs actions, North vs South, Rich and Poor.
6. Polarization
Categorical division of people or ideas. A clear cut division. Muslims and Hindus.
7. Euphemism
Replacement of an apparently unpleasant or offensive word.
8. Hyperbole
Exaggerating the bad things of others and good things of oneself.
9. Irony
For emphasis.
10. Victimization
Showing the ingroup members as the victimized ones by the hand of outgroup.
11. Presupposition
Assuming to be already known.
12. Hedging
Speaking something not so clearly.
Note: Extra materials about Vin Dijk Model ( At the end, I’m sharing the research paper
about Us & Them Model for further elaboration that would help in understanding the topic
easily and I would include only those points and sections which are important and relevant to
the topic and for further reading this article you could read it from internet thoroughly )Read
extra materials in the last few pages…..
=================================================================
9. Systematic Functional Linguistics(SFL)
 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language and discourse
developed by M.A.K. Halliday and his followers.
 SFL refers to the study of relationship b/w language and its functions in social
setting.
 Systemic in SFL refers to a conception of language as a network of systems, or
choices, for expressing meaning.
 Functional refers to a concern for what language does and how it does it, in
contrast to more structural approaches.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 60

Difference b/w SFL & TG (Transformational Grammar)

SFL TG
Descriptive Prescriptive
Functional Formal
Semantic Syntactic

Rank Hierarchy
SFL works according to a hierarchy of ranks or units
Clause Complex

Clause

Group

Word
Example of Clause Complex:
 Ibad & Talha cooked the meal quickly and served it on
the table.
Example of Clauses:
 Ibad & Talha cooked the meal quickly
 and served it on the table.
Examples of Group (In SFL Group refers to Phrase)
 Ibad & Talha
 Cooked
 the meal
 On the table
Examples of word:
 On, it, the, table, Talha etc.
 The basic unit of analysis in SFL is CLAUSE
 There are three components of a Clause as
a. Process
 Recognized by verbal group
b. Participants
 Nominal group (Noun, pronoun)
c. Circumstances
 Prepositional
 Adverbial group
Example: Transitivity Analysis of the Clause

Yesterday she gave flowers to Ahmad.

Circumstance Participant Process Participant Participant

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 61

• According to SFL, meanings/functions are expressed according to three broad

metafunctions (Linguistic items or big functions): 1) Interpersonal, 2) textual
metafunctions & 3) Ideational metafunctions.
1. The interpersonal metafunction
 This metafunction deals with the role of language in
interpersonal relationships and social interaction.
 Role and relationship of participants
(Speaker/reader/listener/writer etc)
Recognized by
 Modal verbs
 Sentence types
 Declarative & Interrogative
 Interpersonal meanings/metafunctions realise what is called the
tenor (the relations between the participants in the text).
 It includes the expression of social roles, identities, attitudes,
and interpersonal relationships.
 It's about how language is used to negotiate meaning, establish
solidarity, exert power, or manage social distance in
communication.
2. The textual metafunction
 This metafunction focuses on the organization and coherence of
language in texts.
Recognized by
 Discourse markers
 Conjunctions
 Theme, Rheme & Thematic progression, Cohesion &
Coherence
 It involves the structuring of discourse, including cohesive
devices (such as conjunctions and pronouns), thematic
organization, information flow, and genre conventions.
 It deals with how language is organized to create coherent and
meaningful texts, whether spoken or written.
 Textual meanings/functions realise what is referred to as the
mode (how the language is organised and functions in the
interaction, for example, whether it is written or spoken.
 (Note: Textual metafunction includes Cohesion, coherence,
Theme, Rheme and Thematic Progression which we have studied
in details, so don’t need to mention them again here,,,better to
study them which I’ve written in the first few pages)
3. The ideational or Experiential metafunction
(This metafunction is the most important in SFL)
 It concerns the representation of experience and meaning,
focusing on how language constructs our understanding of the
world.
 It deals with how language represents reality and our
experiences within it.
 Recognized by Lexis

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 62

 Ideational meanings/metafunctions realise what is called the

field of discourse (the purpose of the communication and what it
is about);
 It encompasses the expression of processes (actions, events,
states), participants (who is involved), and circumstances
(when, where, why, how)
1. Process
 Recognized by verbal group

2. Participants
 Recognized by nominal group (Noun, pronoun)
3. Circumstances
 Recognized by Prepositional & Adverbial group

Processes(Verbal group) Participants(Nominal group) Circumstances(Prepositional

Six types & Adverbial group)
1) Material process Actor-Process-Goal • Time(when) as
2) Mental process Sensor-Process-Phenomenon yesterday
3) Relational process Attribute or Identifying • Place(where) as in the
Carrier-Process-Attribute park
Identified-Process-identifier • Manner(how) as
4) Behavioral process Behavior-Process carefully etc
5) Verbal process Sayer-Process-Receiver_Verbiage • Reason(why) as for fun
• Extant as from Mon to
Wed
• Matter as about his
job…

6) Existential process Process-Existence

 Explanation with examples of six types of processes as below:

1. Material Processes:
 Doing physical actions
 Material processes refer to actions or activities that involve physical or mental effort.
 These processes typically describe actions performed by animate beings or processes
that have a tangible effect on the world.
 Examples of material processes include "run," "eat," "think," and "build."
 Material processes are central to narratives, descriptions of events, and discussions of
human and animal behavior.
Participants:
1) Actor
2) Goal
3) Scope
4) Recipient
5) Beneficiary
6) Attribute
Examples:

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 63

1) IBAD kicked the ball. (actor)

2) I punished IBAD. (goal)
3) We played CRICKET. (scope)
4) I sent IBAD a letter. (recipient)
5) I bought IBAD a pen. (beneficiary)
6) I painted it GREEN. (attribute)
2. Relational Processes:
 The process of being or becoming.
 Linking verb/copulative verb
 Relational processes describe states of being, identity, or attribution.
 Unlike material processes, which involve actions, relational processes focus on the
existence or nature of entities.
 Examples of relational processes include "be," "seem," "become," and "belong."
 Relational processes are commonly used to express relationships, classifications, and
attributions of qualities or characteristics.
Three categories:
1) Attributive:
Carrier…Attribute
2) Identifying:
Token….Value
3) Possessive:
Possessor….Possession
Examples:
1) Attributive: (Participants can’t be exchanged)
• IBAD was successful in his plan.
2) Identifying (participants can change)
• Dr. Arif Ali is the President.
3) Possessive
• I have a new car.
3. Mental Processes:

 The process of cognition(thinking), perception(perceiving through senses), and

affection(feeling).
 Mental processes describe cognitive or psychological activities, such as thinking,
feeling, or perceiving.
 These processes involve the internal experiences and mental states of individuals.
 Examples of mental processes include "believe," "understand," "love," and
"remember."
 Mental processes are crucial for representing thoughts, emotions, attitudes, and
perspectives in discourse.
Participants:
Sensor….Phenomenon
Examples:
1) I love you. (affection) (“I” is a sensor, and “you” is a phenomena)
2) I didn’t understand what you just said. (cognition)
3) Ibad saw a beautiful bird. (perception)
4) I like eating Apples. (affection)

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 64

4. Verbal Processes:
 The process of saying something.
 Verbal processes involve the use of language itself as an action.
 It relates any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning.
 These processes typically describe acts of speaking, writing, or communicating.
 Examples of verbal processes include "say," "write," "ask," and "announce."
Participants:
• Sayer (subject)
• Object can be Verbiage, Receiver or Target
Examples:
1) John cried, “Help me”.
2) Junaid told me that he was happy.
3) I could never talk to her.
5. Behavioral Processes:
 The process of behaving.
 Blend of both as material and mental process
 Behavioral processes describe actions or behaviors exhibited by non-human entities,
such as animals or inanimate objects.
 These processes involve movements or behaviors that are characteristic of specific
entities.
 Examples of behavioral processes include "grow," "swim," "spin," and "float."
 Behavioral processes are often used in descriptions of natural phenomena, ecological
systems, and scientific observations.
Participants:
1. Behaver
2. Behavior (optional)
Examples:
(Partially material)
1) John smiled
(Partially mental)
2) Everyone stared at me.
6. Existential Processes:
 The existence of an entity, place etc.
 Existential processes describe the existence or occurrence of events or phenomena.
 These processes typically express the presence or absence of entities or states.
 Examples of existential processes include "exist," "occur," "happen," and "appear."
 Existential processes are commonly used in statements of fact, observations, and
descriptions of reality.
Participants:
• Existent
“There”/”It”….the verb “Be”.
Examples:
1) There was a bar right in the front of the mosque.
2) In the playground, there are a number of pitches now.
NOTE: No explicit empty “there” always as in this example, on the wall (there) is a bird.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 65

Process Type Examples

(Participants underlined; Process in Bold; Circumstances
in Italics)

Material I do my exercise near University Town, Peshawar.

Behavioural I smile at them.
Mental I don’t understand.
Verbal They say I have no knowledge.
Relational I am a writer.
Existential Today there’s paper in NUML, Peshawar Campus.
 By identifying and analyzing these six types of processes, SFL scholars can uncover
the underlying meanings and representations encoded in language. Processes play
a crucial role in constructing narratives, expressing thoughts and emotions, and
conveying information about the world. Understanding the diverse functions of
processes in language use enhances our ability to interpret and analyze texts across
various contexts and genres in critical discourse analysis.

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS & SFL

• What roles are assigned to the participants?
• What processes are they involved in?
• What are the circumstances associated with the process they are involved in?
• Who are people
• What are they doing?
• How, when, where & why are they doing?
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS & SFL
• To give voice to the marginalized group of people.

Male/Rich Female/Poor

Mental & verbal -----------------Material

MENTAL PROCESSES
Male/ Rich Female/Poor

Cognition -------------------------------------- Affection

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 66

CDA & SFL

Examples:
1. Junaid brought me a glass of water. (brought is a physical activity or
material process given to a male by author/writer)
2. Areej thought about her family. (thought is a mental process given to a
female by the writer/author)
3. Abdullah said to me, “this topic is easy”. (Said/saying is a verbal
process given to a male by a writer/author,)
So, all these processes (brought, thought & saying) given by writers to a gender show
the status and position of marginalized group of people and in this way the writers give
voice to marginalized group of people in their writing)

10. Doing CDA or How to do CDA?

OR
Doing critical discourse analysis
(Taken from the book by Brian Paltridge 9.2)
Critical discourse analysis ‘includes not only a description and interpretation of discourse in
context, but also offers an explanation of why and how discourses work’ (Rogers 2004 : 2).
Researchers working within this perspective are concerned with a critical theory of the social
world, the relationship of language and discourse in the construction and representation of the
social world, and a methodology that allows them to describe, interpret and explain such
relationships.
A critical analysis, then, might commence by deciding what discourse type, or genre, the text
represents and to what extent and in what way the text conforms to it (or not). It may also
consider to what extent the producer of the text has gone beyond the normal boundaries for
the genre to create a particular effect.
The analysis may consider the framing of the text; that is, how the content of the text is
presented, and the sort of angle or perspective the writer or speaker is taking. Closely related
to framing is the notion of foregrounding; that is, what concepts and issues are emphasized,
as well as what concepts and issues are played down or backgrounded in the text. Equally
important to the analysis are the background knowledge, assumptions, attitudes and points of
view that the text presupposes (Huckin 1997).
At the sentence level, the analyst might consider what has been topicalized in each of the
sentences in the text; that is, what has been put at the front of each sentence to indicate what
it is ‘about’. The analysis may also consider who is doing what to whom; that is, agent-
patient relations in the discourse, and who has the most authority and power in the discourse.
It may also consider what agents have been left out of sentences such as when the passive
voice is used, and why this has been done (ibid.).
At the word and phrase level, connotations of particular words and phrases might be
considered as well as the text’s degree of formality or informality, degree of technicality and
what this means for other participants in the text. The choice of words which express degrees
of certainty and attitude may also be considered and whether the intended audience of the text
might be expected to share the views expressed in the text, or not (ibid.).

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 67

The procedure an analyst follows in this kind of analysis depends on the research situation,
the research question and the texts that are being studied. What is essential, however, is that
there is some attention to the critical, discourse and analysis in whatever focus is taken up in
the analysis (Rogers 2011 ).
Critical discourse analysis, then, takes us beyond the level of description to a deeper
understanding of texts and provides, as far as might be possible, some kind of explanation of
why a text is as it is and what it is aiming to do. It looks at the relationship between discourse
and society and aims to describe, interpret and explain this relationship (ibid.). As van Dijk (
1998 ) has argued, it is through discourse that many ideologies are formulated, reinforced and
reproduced. Critical discourse analysis aims to provide a way of exploring this and, in turn,
challenging some of the hidden and ‘out of sight’ social, cultural and political ideologies and
values that underlie texts.

(All of the below materials taken from Sir Khurram Shahzad's guide "Intro to Discourse
Analysis" except summary+main points which are written in my own words)
SUMMARY & MAIN POINTS of Doing CDA
Six steps of a scientific research:
1. Identification of problem
2. Stating Hypothesis(For quantitaive research)or Posing questions(For
qualitative research)
3. Literature review
4. Collecting Data
5. Analyzing data
6. Conclusion

Three things are usually seen in the topic/title as

1) Discourse/Text
2) Ideology/hidden agenda
3) Theoretical framework
Examples:
1) The Resistance of Israel's Brutality in the Pakistani English Newspaper: A Critical
Discourse Analysis
 The Resistance of Israel's Brutality (Ideology) in the Pakistani English Newspaper
(Discourse): A Critical Discourse Analysis (Theoretical Framework)

2) Things Fall Apart by Chinue Achebe as an Anti-orientalist Discourse: A Post-colonial

Perspective (It was my topic for term-paper writing assigned by Sir Asghar)
 Things Fall Apart by Chinue Achebe (Discourse) as an Anti-orientalist
Discourse(Ideology): A Post-colonial Perspective (Theoretical framework)

3) Solidarity with Palestinian Muslims by Pakistani Journalists and teachers on

Facebook Posts: A Critical Discourse Analysis (My topic for term-paper assigned by Sir
Suleiman)

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 68

 Solidarity with Palestinian Muslims(Ideology/Hidden agenda to uncover) by Pakistani

Journalists and teachers on Facebook Posts(Discourse): A Critical Discourse
Analysis(Theoretical framework)

=================================================

Criteria for Doing Discourse Analysis

Doing practical discourse analysis is a very systematic and formal processes. Paltridge (2012)
mentions certain criteria for performing the analysis of a particular discourse. According to
her, a discourse analyst, while analyzing a particular discourse, must:
1. possess an idea about a piece of discourse and that idea should be stated in the form of a
question or questions;
2. know the importance and practical value of the questions
in a larger context; know the appropriate discourse analytic techniques and
3.their usage; be familiar with and have access to the location from where
4.the data is to be collected;
5. be able and competent enough to collect the required data and analyze it;
6. have sufficient time to collect and analyze the data and write the results.

The Stages of Doing Discourse Analysis

"Conducting a discourse analysis is a difficult thing to explain" (Goodman, 2017, p. 144)
because it is a very systematic and formal type of research. Following are some steps that will
help the student/discourse analyst to conduct a professional and systematic discourse
analysis.
1. Choosing a Research Topic
The very first step in conducting discourse analysis is to choose a good research topic.
Choosing a research topic is a very important step of performing discourse analysis because it
enables us to have a well-defined, specific and manageable size of study. But the question
arises here: where to get a research topic from? There are many sources from which we can
select a good topic for conducting our discourse analysis. Airasian, Gay & Mills (2012)
mention the following sources for choosing a research topic.
i. Theories
"A theory is an organized body of concepts, generalizations, and principles that can be
investigated" (Airasian, Gay & Mills, 2012, p. 62). There are a number of theories of
discourse analysis given by the experts and practitioners of discourse analysis. We can simply
get a theory of discourse analysis and can develop a research topic based on that theory. For
instance, based on the theories of feminism or Marxism, we may develop a research topic
about the power relations between the members of a society or in a particular text such as
novels, etc. Similarly, on the basis of the theory of Consumerism, we can attempt to explore
the language of advertisements, etc.
ii. Personal Experience
We may develop a research topic by observing a particular phenomenon in our surrounding.
When we come across a phenomenon in our society, "we should ask ourselves questions such
as, 'Why does that happen?' 'What causes that?' 'What would happen if? and 'How would a
different group respond to this?" (Airasian, Gay & Mills, 2012, p. 62). Such type of questions
may enable us to find out a list of topics related to that particular phenomenon.
iii. Replication

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 69

Replication refers to the repetition of an already conducted study by taking different subjects.
For instance, to replicate the research study conducted on the speeches of American orators
and similar study of discourse analysis on the speeches of Pakistani politicians may be
conducted here. It is, however, generally advised thats while conducting a replication study,
wers could change the focus, sample or population of our study in order to bring variation
and novelty in our study.
io. Suggested Topics in the Previous Research Studies
This is a very simple and easy way to find a research topic. Almost in every research study,
the research provides some recommendations for future research studies. We may simply
look into the existing research studies about discourse analysis and can pick up a research
topic suggested by the authors in those research studies.
While choosing a research topic, it should be noted that the topic is interesting, researchable,
significant, ethical and (Airasian, Gay, & Mills, 2012). manageable
2. Posing a Research Question
After choosing an appropriate research topic, we need to pose a research question or a set of
questions. To be able to ask appropriate questions, we should read the available related
research studies. In doing so, we may come to know how the previous researchers have
formulated the questions of their research studies. While posing a research question, it should
be taken into consideration that the research question is worth asking and capable of being
answered from a discourse analysis perspective. In addition, it should be well phrased and
well structured. Paltridge (2012, p. 208) cites the following two examples of appropriate
research question:
 In what ways are Chinese and English letters to the editor similar or different?
 Can we use genre theory and intercultural rhetoric to understand these similarities and
differences?
 Similarly, the following questions that can be addressed while conducting a discourse
analysis.
 How is our view and understanding of immigrants shaped by the political and public
discourses?
 How do youth construct their self-identities within their subculture?
 How do ESL/EFL students display their gendered, racial, and cultural identities
through their talk in the classroom?
 How is our understanding of health shaped by various medical and psychological
discourses?

3. Establishing the Context

After asking the research question, we should establish the social and historical context in
which the discourses (data/source/materials) are produced. In doing so, we should collect
information about the producer of the discourse, including his personal, educational, regional,
political and ideological backgrounds. In addition, we, as discourse analysts, should ask
ourselves that where the data is produced, when, where and why it is produced and for whom
it is meant to be consumed. Moreover, we should be clear about the socio-political, socio-
economic and socio-historical backgrounds of the data we have collected for our discourse
analysis.
Apart from this, while establishing the context of the data that we intend to analyze, we
should explore the production process of the data that how the data (discourses) were
produced. To do so, the most important point is that we should take notes on the medium

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 70

through ugh which the source materials were produced, as according to Schneider (2013, p.
164), "the medium in which information is presented is the crucial element that shapes
meaning". He adds an example and argues that "the layout of a newspaper article and its
position on the page will be different in a print edition than in an online edition. The latter
will also offer comments, links, multi-media content, etc. All of these factors frame the
meaning of the actual text and should be considered in an analysis". Finally, we should take
into consideration the genre to which our source material belongs. Question like "Are we
analyzing a commentary, a report, an editorial comment, a reader's letter, a news item, an
interview, a report, or something else?" can help us investigate what genre-specific
mechanism have been foregrounded or backgrounded by the producer of the discourse we
want to analyze.
4. Preparing and Coding the Source Materials
Before starting a formal analysis of our source materials, we need to code them and arrange
them for analysis. This stage may include several steps and techniques such as transcribing
oral/visual materials into written text, printing the text on paper, digitizing or giving numbers
to paragraphs, sentences or lines, etc. If we are conducting a corpus-based discourse analysis
study, then we might have to generate a corpus which is "the collection of all the appropriate
data that will be analyzed" (Goodman, 2017, p. 146) In addition, this is the stage where we
outline few categories (or key themes) which we intend to look for in the text we are going to
analyze. This is worth noting that those categories must be based on the questions of our
discourse analysis study.
5. Preliminary Reading/Action Orientation
After the data being prepared and coded, we need to read and re-read it in order to get
familiar with the text. "What an analyst will be looking for at this stage is what is being
accomplished in the data- that is the action orientation of the texť" (Goodman, 2017, p. 147).
It is worth noting that there may expectedly be a large number of action orientations present
in the text we are reading, but our focus, as analysts, should be only on what is most relevant
to our research questions.
6. Collecting and Examining Linguistic and Discursive Devices
After the preliminary reading, the actual process of analysis begins. In this stage, we study
our source materials (text) at the very linguistic level for finding out discursive devices in the
text. "Discursive devices, may also be referred to as 'rhetorical strategies or 'interactional
resources'. Rhetorical resources, are ways of making arguments which may achieve (or can
be seen at least as attempting to achieve) some kind of action orientation, that accomplishes
something in the interaction" (Goodman, 2017, p. 148). Following are the features/strategies
we should find out in the text we are analyzing.
6.1. Word Groups
First of all, we should focus on the word groups used by the producer of the text that we are
analyzing. The lexis of a text can give us an idea what the text is actually about. In other
words, it can let us know about the register of the text that whether it is political discourse,
religious, military or business discourse. The nominal groups (noun phrases) may give us an
idea about the people involved in a text. Similarly, the verbal groups (verb phrases) can give
us an idea about the actions, activities and processes the people in the text are engaged, such
as mental processes, material processes, relational processes and verbal processes, etc. In
addition, the adverbial and prepositional groups may tell us about the circumstances the
people in the text are involved. To put it simply, from a systematic analysis of the word
groups of a text, we can come to know that who are the people involved in the text, what they
are doing and where, when, how and why, they are doing things. Schneider (2013) suggests
that while analyzing the word groups of a text, we should take a closer look at nouns,

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 71

adjectives, verbs and adverbs, etc. in the text concerned and see if we find any common
features.
6.2. Grammatical Features
Exploring the grammatical features of a text can also help us to itemize the subjects and
objects that appear in the text (Hill, 2012). For instance, the high frequency of the pronouns
we and they may signify the concept of us and them (proposed by his 1997) and the in-group
the conceptoup members in societyjectives and adverbs in text and outgro deep analysis of
the adjectives and adverbs used by writer in a text might shed light on the judgment passed
by the author on the groups of people involved in the text. Apart from this, the active versus
passive structures might make us know whether the author engages or ignores a particular
group of people in his/her text. For instance, "A statement like we are under economic
pressure is very different from X puts us under economic pressure... particularly if 'X' is self-
inflicted" (Schneider, 2013). We should attempt to make such strategies visible while
performing a discourse analysis.
6.3. Rhetorical, Figurative and Literary Features
In addition to the aforementioned features, we should look for the various rhetorical and
literary devices in the text we are analyzing. Some of the most common features include
similes, metaphors, allegories, proverbs, idioms, parallelism, synecdoche, metonymy,
hyperbole, rhetorical questions and anaphora, etc. These are the features of discourse which
play a very vital role in shaping the arguments of the author. "For instance, if an orator uses a
simile that compares the state with a parent, and the citizens with children, then the orator is
not only simplifying what is actually a very complex relationship, he/she is also conjuring up
categories and relationships that legitimize certain kinds of politics, for instance, strict
government- intervention in the social sphere" (Schneider, 2013, p. 89).
6.4. Evidentialities
One of the strongest features of discourse is how it naturalizes certain statements as common
sense or fact, even if the statements are actually controversial (Schneider, 2013). So, while
analyzing a piece of discourse, we should explore the facts the author uses for supporting
his/her arguments. These facts can be present in the form of phrases such as: as everyone
knows, this is crystal clear, in fact, of course, obviously, certainly, etc. Such types of
discursive moves should be explored in a text while doing discourse analysis.
6.5. Ways of Speaking
If a same sentence may change the meaning, is articulated with change in its prosody, it or at
least, the nature of the meaning sentence. To clarify this, let's consider the following
examples given by Hill (2012). of that
A. "If your child is taking fluoride treatment, seek professional advice concerning daily
intake".
B. "If your child is taking fluoride treatment, seek professional advice concerning daily
intake".
In the aforementioned two examples, the former indicates advice while the latter indicates an
explicit directed command to the parents. So, while conducting a discourse analysis, we need
to highlight certain emphasized words in a particular sentence and read that sentence in
normal voice. Then, we should highlight some different words in that same sentence and
should re-read it in normal voice. This is how we can come to know about the actual meaning
and the intended meaning of the author conveyed in text
Doing such type of structural analysis might give us an idea about the intensions and
concerns of the author and even of the hidden ideologies conveyed in a particular discourse
we are concerned with. So, we, as discourse analysts, should focus on the word groups,

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 72

grammatical features, rhetorical devices and the particular chunks of language that have been
used by the producer of the discourse we are analyzing.
7. Understanding and Interpreting the Data
After collecting all the linguistic, rhetorical and prosodic features from the text, here arises
the question that: what does all this mean? So, we need to bring together all the said features
and then logically relate them to the major themes and concepts of our concern. In doing so,
we should take each of the major themes/concepts of our concern and should support it with
the arguments, examples and facts we have collected in the form of the said linguistic and
theoretical devices. After doing this, we will be in the position to argue that how this
discourse works in the broader context and what sort of ideologies have been, either
explicitly or implicitly, depicted in the text we are analyzing.
Moreover, one can become 'critical'. The term 'critical' in this context means something rather
different from its more general meaning within the context of discourse analysis. It was
initially associated with the work of linguists such as Roger Fowler, Gunther Kress, Robert
Hodge and Tony Trew (1979) and Hodge and Kress (1993) who were interested in the
relationship between linguistic structures and processes of representation. In other words,
they constructed theories about how particular selections in grammatical and semantic
structures affected the way in which people, events and processes were talked about and
written about, particularly within the context of the news media, but also in other genres
popular texts. These linguists argued that the structures of representation were ideologically
based, and that particular social and cultural weted and their associated activities, tended to
be represented al group which reinforced the dominant language andere ways of viewing
those groups. This research into language and representatiof focuses particularly on the role
of agency and transitivity patternson put simply, "who does what to whom [and how when]'
8. Presenting the Data
In this last, but the most important step, we need to present the results of our discourse
analysis to our target audience. Here, we should provide answers to the questions that have
been addressed in the initial steps. In addition, we need to present all the major arguments,
concepts and ideologies we have drawn from the concerned text and should support those
arguments and concepts with the help of evidences and examples of the various linguistics
and rhetorical features which have been collected from the data. However, in doing so, we
should be greatly careful about the relevance and coherence, and should move through our
analysis based on the issues we want to present..

For critical discourse analysis, the model of Fairclough is summarized here. The most
elaborate and ambitious attempt towards theorising the CDA programme is undoubtedly
Fairclough's Discourse and Social Change (1992a), later followed by Chouliaraki and
Fairclough's Discourse in Late Modernity (1999). Fairclough (1992a) constructs a social
theory of discourse for which he claims affinity with Foucault, and he provides a
methodological blueprint for Critical Discourse Analysis in practice. Fairclough sketches a
three-dimensional framework for conceiving of, and analyzing, discourse. The first
dimension is discourse-as-text, i.e. the linguistic features and organization of concrete
instances of discourse. Choices and patterns in vocabulary (e.g. wording, metaphor),
grammar (e.g transitivity, modality), cohesion (eg. conjunction, schemata), and text structure
(e.g. episode marking, turn-taking system) should be systematically analyzed. The use of
passive verb forms or nominalizations in news reporting, for instance, can have the effect of
obscuring the agent of political processes.
The second dimension is discourse-as-discursive-practice, ie discourse as something which is
produced, circulated, distributed and consumed in society. Fairclough sees these processes

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 73

largely in texty of the circulation of concrete linguistic objects (specific texts or Remtypes
that are produced, circulaguistic objects (sped so forth) (Sociably little time is sperulated,
consumed, and se (sociolinguistic resources - the language varieties, for the rice and other
'macro' conditions on the production and distribution of discourse such as literacy.
Approaching discourse as discursive practice means that after the analysis of vocabulary,
grammar, cohesion, and text structure, attention should be given to speech acts, coherence,
and intertextuality - three aspects that link a text to its wider social context. Fairclough
distinguishes between 'manifest intertextuality' (i.e. overtly drawing upon other texts) and
'constitutive intertextuality' or 'interdiscursivity' (i.e. texts are made up of heterogeneous
elements: generic conventions, discourse types, register, style). An important aspect of
'manifest intertextuality' would be discourse representation: how quoted utterances are
selected, changed, contextualized (see Baynham and Slembrouck 1999 for recent
contributions to the study of discourse representation).
The third, dimension is discourse-as-social-practice, i.e. the ideological effects and
hegemonic processes in which discourse is seen to operate. Hegemony concerns power that is
achieved through constructing alliances and integrating classes and groups through consent,
so that 'the articulation and re-articulation of orders of discourse [ie. the Foucauldian
regimentation and disciplining of and through discourse] is correspondingly one stake in
hegemonic struggle (Fairclough 1992a, p. 93). It is from this third dimension that Fairclough
constructs his approach to social change: hegemonies change and this process can be
witnessed in discursive change when the latter is viewed from the angle of intertextuality. The
way in which discourse is being represented, re-spoken, or re-written sheds light on the
emergence of new orders of discourse, struggles over normativity, attempts at control, and
resistance against regimes of power.

Extra Study materials

A Brief History of Discourse Analysis

(Not included in the mid exam as it was shared & assigned to us by Sir Sulaiman for
presentation in the end-term course)

The ancient concepts of Rhetorica and Grammatica are indeed foundational to the field of
discourse analysis. These concepts date back to classical antiquity and were central to the
education and scholarly thought of the time, particularly within the trivium, which was part of
the liberal arts curriculum in medieval universities.

The concepts of rhetorica (rhetoric) and grammatica (grammar) are foundational to the field
of discourse analysis for the following reasons:

Rhetorica: Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It involves studying the techniques that writers or
speakers use to inform, persuade, or motivate specific audiences in particular situations. In
discourse analysis, rhetoric helps us understand how language is crafted to achieve certain
effects, such as building trust, creating doubt, or evoking emotions.

Grammatica: Grammar is the set of rules that governs the structure of sentences. In discourse
analysis, grammar is crucial because it shapes how sentences are constructed and how

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 74

meaning is conveyed. Analyzing grammatical structures can reveal aspects of intended

meaning, power dynamics, and social relations.

Together, these concepts allow discourse analysts to examine not just what is said, but how it
is said, and the potential impact it has on the audience. They provide tools to dissect language
use in various social contexts and understand the interplay between language, power, and
society.

The term “discourse analysis” was first introduced by Zellig Harris in 1952 as a method for
analyzing connected speech and writing. His work laid the foundation for the field and has
been influential in the development of modern linguistic theory. Harris’s approach to
discourse analysis focused on the formal structure of discourse without relying on the
meaning of individual morphemes, which was a significant advancement in the ability to
analyze longer stretches of language.

Zellig Harris’s approach to the development of discourse analysis was innovative because it
focused on the formal structure of discourse, rather than the semantic meaning of individual
morphemes. Here’s a bit more explanation:

 Formal Analysis: Harris’s method depended solely on the occurrence of morphemes

as distinguishable elements within a text. He believed that by analyzing the
distribution and patterns of these morphemes, one could uncover the underlying
structure of the discourse.
 Independence from Semantics: Unlike traditional linguistic analysis, which often
relies on the analyst’s understanding of the language and the meanings of words,
Harris’s method did not require knowledge of the particular meanings of each
morpheme. This allowed for a more objective analysis of the text’s structure.
 Patterns of Recurrence: By focusing on how morphemes recur within a text, Harris
aimed to identify patterns that could reveal something about the structure of the text
and what is being done in it. This approach helps to understand not just what a text is
saying, but how it is saying it.
 Text-Specific Interrelations: Harris’s analysis was applied only in respect to the text
being studied, in relation to other elements within the same text. This helped to
discover the particular interrelations of morphemes in that specific text, providing
insights into its unique structure.
 Discourse Structure: Through this formal analysis, Harris sought to show consistent
differences in structure between discourses of different persons, styles, or subject
matters. This could lead to formal conclusions about the distribution of morphemes in
a text and contribute to our understanding of discourse analysis.

Harris’s contributions laid the groundwork for modern discourse analysis, allowing
researchers to dissect texts in a way that reveals the formal properties of language and its role
in communication and social interaction.

Vladimir Propp’s work in Russian formalism, particularly his analysis of the narrative
structure of folktales, contributes to discourse analysis in several specific ways:

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 75

 Narrative Structure: Propp’s identification of 31 narrative functions and 7 character

types in his book “Morphology of the Folktale” provides a framework for analyzing
the structure of narratives, which is a key aspect of discourse analysis.
 Abstract Form Analysis: By focusing on the abstract form of texts rather than their
content, Propp’s approach allows discourse analysts to study the underlying structure
of narratives, which can be applied to a wide range of discourses beyond folktales.
 Universal Patterns: Propp’s work revealed universal patterns in storytelling, which
discourse analysts can use to understand how narratives are constructed across
different cultures and contexts.
 Influence on Structuralism: Propp’s formalist approach influenced structuralism,
which in turn has had a significant impact on discourse analysis, providing tools for
analyzing the deep structure of texts.

Propp’s contributions to Russian formalism have thus provided valuable tools and concepts
for the field of discourse analysis, allowing for a more structured and formalized approach to
the study of language and narratives.

Michel Foucault’s work on the history of language has made significant contributions to the
field of discourse analysis in the following ways:

 Power and Knowledge: Foucault’s concept of the relationship between power and
knowledge is central to understanding how discourse operates within society. He
argued that discourse is a means through which power is exercised and knowledge is
constructed.
 Discursive Formations: Foucault introduced the idea of discursive formations, which
are the rules and structures that determine what can be said and thought within a
particular domain of knowledge.
 Archaeology of Knowledge: In his work “The Archaeology of Knowledge,” Foucault
developed a method for analyzing historical discourses, which has influenced the way
discourse analysts approach texts and their historical context.
 Genealogy: Foucault’s genealogical method examines the historical processes that
lead to the formation of discourses and the power relations they embody. This
approach has been adopted by discourse analysts to study the evolution of discourses
over time.
 Subjectivity and Identity: Foucault’s work on how discourses shape subjectivity and
identity has informed discourse analysis by showing how language constructs social
identities and subject positions.

Overall, Foucault’s work provides critical discourse analysts with theoretical and
methodological tools to examine how language is used to exercise power, construct
knowledge, and shape social realities.

Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe’s discourse theory is a significant contribution to the
field of discourse analysis. They argue that discourse is composed of signs, and the meaning
of these signs is not inherent but is constructed through a process they call articulation. This

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 76

process involves the linking of signs to social forces, ideologies, and power relations, making
meaning contingent and context-dependent. Laclau and Mouffe emphasize that discourse is
not merely a reflection of social reality but actively shapes it. The content of a sign (the
signified) is never fixed; it is constantly being renegotiated and rearticulated within the
political process.

 Discourse as a Central Element: They believed that the way people talk and write
about things shapes our understanding of the world. By studying this, we can see how
powerful groups influence society’s thoughts and actions.
 Rejection of Essentialism and Foundationalism: They challenged traditional ways of
thinking that assume there are fixed truths or foundations in society. Instead, they
suggested that our understanding of social practices should be based on how language
and communication shape them.

The Essex School of Discourse Analysis: Laclau and Mouffe helped create a new way of
studying politics and society that focuses on how language and communication are used to
shape people’s identities and the world around them. This approach is used in various fields,
like politics, business, and media.

Their ideas have helped us understand that the way we talk about things can influence and
change society and politics. They showed that language is powerful and can be used to
challenge the status quo and create a more democratic society.

The mid-1960s was a period of significant development in the field of discourse analysis,
with several scholars making foundational contributions:

 Claude Bremond: (French literary critic) He is known for his critical analysis of
Vladimir Propp’s work. Bremond expanded on Propp’s structural analysis of folktales
by introducing a more dynamic and functional approach to narrative structures. He
developed a method for analyzing narratives by identifying the logical possibilities
within a story. This involves understanding the choices characters can make and the
consequences of those actions, identifying possible functions and transformations
within the narrative. Bremond’s approach helps us understand how narratives are
constructed and how they function, which is essential in discourse analysis as it deals
with the structure and meaning of spoken or written language. His work provides
tools for dissecting the narrative flow and understanding the underlying mechanisms
that drive the progression of a story.
 Tzvetan Todorov: Todorov applied modern linguistics and semantics to literature,
which helped bridge the gap between linguistic structures and literary studies. His
work, Todorov explored the concept of genre in literature. He proposed that narratives
follow a structure that begins with equilibrium, is disrupted by some event
(disequilibrium), and then seeks resolution, leading to a new equilibrium. Todorov
believed that reading is an active process where the reader constructs meaning from
the text. This idea emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting narratives. In his
work, Todorov defined discourse as the use of language in a particular context, which
is essential for understanding how narratives convey meaning. Todorov’s work in

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 77

discourse analysis helps us understand how stories are told and interpreted, and how
genres shape our expectations and understanding of literature.
 Roland Barthes: Roland Barthes was a French literary theorist who made significant
contributions to discourse analysis, which is the study of how language is used in
texts and conversation. In his book “Mythologies,” Barthes analyzed how cultural
myths shape our understanding of the world. He showed how everyday objects and
media representations carry hidden meanings that reinforce societal values. Barthes
was associated with structuralism, a method of analyzing cultural phenomena that
emphasizes the underlying structures that govern them. He applied this to narratives,
exploring how stories are constructed and understood.
Barthes’ introduction of semiotics as a new discipline was a major contribution to
discourse analysis. Semiotics is the study of signs and symbols as elements of
communicative behavior. Barthes’ work in this field provided tools for analyzing not
just verbal language but also non-verbal systems of communication, such as fashion,
food, and cultural phenomena.
Barthes’s approach to textual analysis looked beyond the content to see how language
itself shapes meaning. He believed that the author’s intentions are less important than
the reader’s interpretation. In his essay “The Death of the Author,” Barthes argued
that a text’s meaning is not fixed by the author but is created by the reader. This idea
shifted the focus from authorial intent to reader experience.
In simpler terms, Roland Barthes’s work helps us understand that language and texts
are not just about conveying information but also about the deeper structures and
meanings that influence how we perceive the world.

 Christian Metz: Christian Metz was a pioneering French film theorist who made
significant contributions to the field of discourse analysis, as he extended the analysis of
a discourse to film and applied structuralist and semiotic approaches to cinema. He is
known for his work on film language and narrative and his theories contribute to the
development of film studies as a discipline. He is renowned for his concept of
“imaginary signifier”, which integrates Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytic theories
into the analysis of film spectatorship, emphasizing the psychological engagement of the
viewer with the cinematic experience. Metz work laid the groundwork for understanding
film as a language transforming the sensory perception of film into a structured system of
sign and codes that communicate meaning. In simpler terms, Christian Metz’s work
helps us understand how films tell stories and create meaning, much like how language is
used in written and spoken forms to communicate.

1960s: Expansion of Linguistic Methods

 Dell Hymes was an influential linguist and anthropologist who made significant
contributions to the field of discourse analysis. Here’s a simpler explanation of his work:

S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G. Model: Hymes developed the S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G. model, which stands for
Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends, Act Sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, and
Genre. This model helps analyze various aspects of communication in different contexts.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 78

Ethnography of Communication: He proposed the ethnography of communication, which

studies how language use varies across different cultures and social groups. This approach
emphasizes the importance of context in understanding language.

Beyond Linguistic Competence: Hymes was critical of the idea that knowing a language was
just about grammar and vocabulary. He introduced the concept of “communicative
competence,” which includes the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.

Influence on Sociolinguistics: His work laid the foundation for sociolinguistics, which
examines the relationship between language and society, including how social factors
influence the way language is used.

In essence, Dell Hymes’ work helps us understand not just what people say, but also why they
say it, how they say it, and what it means in the context of their culture and society.

 The application of semiotic and linguistic methods to texts and communicative events
began to take shape, with scholars from various disciplines contributing to the
understanding of discourse. This period was characterized by interdisciplinary
exploration and the gradual emergence of discourse analysis as a field of study.

In the 1970s, discourse analysis became its own field of study, focusing on how language is
used in society, not just its structure. At the same time, philosophers like J.L. Austin, H.P.
Grice, and John Searle explored the idea that language can do things, not just say things.
They introduced the concept of “speech acts,” which are words that act as actions. For
example, when someone says “I promise,” they’re not just speaking; they’re making a
promise. This idea helped people understand that language has power in real-life situations
and is not just about words. It’s about what we mean and do with those words in different
contexts. This understanding of language as action became a key part of studying how we
communicate and interact with each other.

The emergence of text grammars in the 1970s marked a pivotal shift in linguistic studies, as it
extended the analysis of language from isolated sentences to entire texts within their
communicative context. This approach aligns with the principles of sociolinguistics and
pragmatics, emphasizing the importance of language function and use in social interactions.
Text grammars explore the structures that enable coherent discourse, such as how sentences
connect and flow within larger conversations or written documents. By considering the
broader context and purpose of language, text grammars contribute significantly to discourse
analysis, offering insight into the dynamic and functional aspects of language in real-world
communication.

William Labov is a significant figure in the field of linguistics, particularly known for his
contributions to discourse analysis and sociolinguistics. In simple terms, Labov’s work
focused on how people tell stories about their personal experiences and how these stories are
structured in everyday conversation.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 79

Labov developed a model for analyzing oral narratives, which are stories people tell when
they speak. He identified specific parts that make up a well-formed narrative, such as
abstracts, orientations, complicating actions, evaluations, resolutions, and codas. This model
helps to understand not just the content of what is being said, but also the social function of
the narrative—why people tell stories and how they use them in conversations.

Moreover, Labov’s research showed that the way people speak—their language variation—is
closely linked to their social identity, including factors like region, class, and gender. He
argued that language variation is not random but structured, meaning that different ways of
speaking are associated with different social groups in a predictable way.

In essence, Labov’s work has provided a framework for understanding the complex
relationship between language and society, and his methods have brought a more empirical,
data-driven approach to studying language in its social context. His contributions have had a
lasting impact on the field, influencing not only linguists but also researchers in psychology,
anthropology, and other disciplines interested in human communication and storytellings into
the dynamic and functional aspects of language in real-world communication.

These developments reflect the rich and interdisciplinary nature of discourse analysis, which
continues to evolve and incorporate new theories and methodologies. The field remains
vibrant, constantly adapting to analyze the complex interplay between language and society.
The contributions of these scholars have laid the groundwork for contemporary discourse
analysis, providing tools and frameworks for analyzing how language shapes and is shaped
by social reality.

Extra materials for further studying this topic (Foucault and CDA) taken from Dr. Khurram
Shehzad’s notes of Discourse Studies)
Foucault's work is saturated with an attention to history, not in the traditional sense of the
word but in attending to what he has variously termed the 'archaeology' or 'genealogy' of
knowledge production. That is, he looks at the continuities and discontinuities between
'epistemes' (taken by Foucault to mean the knowledge systems which primarily informed the
thinking during certain periods of history: a different one being said to dominate each
epistemological age), and the social context in which certain knowledges and practices
emerged as permissible and desirable or changed. In his view knowledge is inextricably
connected to power, such that they are often written as power/knowledge.
Foucault's conceptual analysis of a major shift in (western) cultural practices, from
'sovereign power' to 'disciplinary power', in Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison
(1979), is a good example of his method of genealogy. He charts the transition from a top-
down form of social control in the form of physical coercion meted out by the sovereign to a
more diffused and sinister form of social surveillance and process of 'normalization'. The
latter, says Foucault, is encapsulated by Bentham's Panopticon; a nineteenth century prison
system in which prison cells were arranged around a central watchtower from which the
supervisor could watch inmates, yet the inmates could never be certain when they were being
watched, therefore, over time, they began to police their own behaviour. The Panopticon has
become the metaphor for the processes whereby disciplinary technologies', together with the
emergence of a normative social science, 'police' both the mind and body of the modern
individual (Dreyfus and Rabinow, 1982, p. 143-67).

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 80

Power, in Weedon's (1987) interpretation of Foucault is:a dynamic of control and lack of
control between discourses and the subjects, constituted by discourses, who are their agents.
Power is exercised within discourses in the ways in which they constitute and govern
individual subjects (p. 113).
Foucault's focus is upon questions of how some discourses have shaped and created meaning
systems that have gained the status and currency of 'truth', and dominate how we define and
organize both.
ourselves and our social world, while other alternative discourses are marginalized and
subjugated, yet potentially offer sites where hegemonic practices can be contested,
challenged and resisted. He has looked specifically at the social construction of madness,
punishment and sexuality. In Foucault's view, there is no fixed and definitive structuring of
either social (or personal) identity or practices, as there is in a socially determined view in
which the subject is completely socialized. Rather, both the formation of identities and
practices are related to, or are a function of, historically specific discourses. An
understanding of how these and other discursive constructions are formed may open the way
for change and contestation.
Foucault developed the concept of the 'discursive field' as part of his attempt to understand
the relationship between language, social institutions, subjectivity and power. Discursive
fields, such as the law or the family, contain a number of competing and contradictory
discourses with varying degrees of power to give meaning to and organize social institutions
and processes. They also offer a range of modes of subjectivity (Weedon, 1987). It follows
then that, "if relations of power are dispersed and fragmented throughout the social field, so
must resistance to power be" (Diamond & Quinby, 1988, p. 185).
Foucault argues though, in The Order of Discourse, that the 'will to truth' is the major system
of exclusion that forges discourse and which 'tends to exert a sort of pressure and something
like a power of constraint on other discourses', and goes on further to ask the question 'what
is at stake in the will to truth, in the will to utter this true discourse, if not desire and power?'
(1970, cited in Shapiro 1984, pp. 113-4).
Thus, there are both discourses that constrain the production of knowledge, dissent and
difference and some that enable new knowledges and difference(s). The questions that arise
within this framework, are to do with how some discourses maintain their authority, how
some voices get heard while others are silenced, who benefits and how - that is, questions
addressing the issues of power/ empowerment/disempowerment.
Some excerpts from the speeches of Dr. Tahir-ul-Qadri are discussed here to show the leaners
how discourse the hearts and minds of the people. It will further show how powerful the
discourse is.
Excerpt from the Speech
Encouraging his supporters in his evening speech, Dr. Qadri said the soldiers of Inqilab
March and Tigers of Azadi March had really proved solemselves that they are not weak and
they are here on the road to get their rights and bring a revolution in the country. "Inqilab
and Azadi marches will move together from now onwards," Dr. Qadri announced. Dr. Qadri
alleged that the Sharif family has established global business empire by looting the public's
money and they have investment all over the world.
Emotional Attachment
In this excerpt we see that Dr. Tahir ul Qadri addresses the audience of both Pakistan Awami
Tehrik (PAT) and Pakistan Tehrik- e-Insaaf (PTI) as soldiers of revolution (Inqalab) and
Tigers of Azadi March. In fact he wants to show that the leaders of both the political parties
are brave like soldiers and tigers and so are the workers of both the parties. They have stood

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 81

by their leaders to get rid of this corrupt government which does not care for the difficulties
faced by the poor people of the country; rather, they are busy making money for themselves.
Excerpt from the Speech
"The Sharif brothers don't even know anything about democracy as they are businessmen, not
democrats", he said. Dr Qadri strongly condemned the excessive use of power on peaceful
protesters by the authorities. He said democracy never allows the use of force to disperse
peaceful protesters. He said now the protests would continue even if Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif and Chief Minister Punjab Shahbaz Sharif resign till the objective of the revolution is
achieved".
Mind Control
In the excerpt above Dr. Tahir ul Qadri controls the mind of his audience by telling them that
those who are ruling the country do not know the very meanings of the word democracy. They
are in fact businessmen who only know about the business and know many ways of promoting
their business. These people are innocent and the cruel rulers hating their businality by using
force against unarmed Pretestors which is against the very spirit of democracy. He convinces
the audience to prolong the sit-in by putting in their minds that even the resignation of pris
lee sinister and chief minister will not be enough to save them from the revenge of the masses
with whom they dealt with aggression.
Excerpt from the Speech
Dr Qadri said he and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PAT) chairman Imran Khan were brothers
fighting for the same cause. The PAT chief said he and Imran Khan had to win this war
together. Dr Qadri said terrorism and attempted murder cases would be lodged against
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and others. Qadri informed his workers that he had recently
undergone an eye operation and his health had deteriorated due to tear gas shelling. The PAT
chief added that rulers should forget that they would return as he praised his workers for
their bravery.
Rhetorical Art of Speaking
In the excerpt above we come across the rhetorical style of Dr. Tahir ul Qadri in which he
claims that he and Imran Khan are brothers. Their struggle is for the same purpose. They are
so determined that they would not accept anything less than resignation of the prime minister
and the chief minister. He stresses upon the fact that the rulers themselves are terrorists
because they are using force against innocent people. He says that these rulers are murderers
because they are accused of casualties in model town. He uses rhetorical style to gain the
sympathies of the audience by asserting that he himself became the victim of the atrocities of
the ruler because they have used tear gas against him.
From the excerpts that the researcher has analyzed above it can be seen that Dr. Tahir ul
Qadri, for the sake of his hidden agenda which was to put an end to the government, said that
workers of both the parties are fighting for the same cause which is quite unlikely because
PTI is a liberal political party whereas PAT is a religious group. Both have different
ideologies. The outcome of the sit in was not conclusive but it is a fact that the government
remained in a fix for several days due to the discourse disseminated by Dr. Tahir ul Qadri.

The following topics as CDA+3D model by Fairclough+ Doing CDA are taken from Sir
Khurram Shahzad's guide)
This chapter describes to the learners of this book that the customs, beliefs, values and norms
which underlie texts are often 'out of sight rather than clearly stated. As Hyland (2005b, p. 4)
observes, acts of meaning making (and in turn discourse) are 'always engaged in that they

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 82

realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who enact them.
The purpose of a critical approach to discourse analysis is to help disclose some of these
hidden and often out of sight norms, values, positions and perspectives. In other words,
discourses are always socially, politically, racially and economically loaded' (Rogers, 2004,
p. 6) or motivated. Critical discourse analysis examines the use of discourse in relation to
social and cultural issues such as race, politics, gender, power and identity and asks why the
discourse is used in a particular way and what the implications are of this kind of use. This
chapter explains such issues in detail.
The word critical is derived from Greek word kritikos, which means to be able to judge'. This
leads us to the root word critic. The main task of a critic is to judge the value or quality of
something like a movie, book or any other piece of art or literature. It may also be about
systematic analysis of any written or oral discourse. The word 'critical' is attached to several
other names of phenomena or theory like 'critical theory', 'critical applied linguistics',
'critical approaches', 'critical literacy' and so on. From the perspective of discourse analysis,
critical means power relations are based on social as well as historical situation;
ideological inscription and values are inseparable to discuss the fact that there is inflexibility
between concept and object, and signifier and signified, and these are also associated with
capitalist production and consumption by the social relation;
language plays a vital role in indicating subjectivity consciously or unconsciously;
discrimination and marginalization are always there in the society;
this marginalization always occurs whenever subordinates accept it naturally, and
it is of various kinds mostly related to class, gender, race, colour or nature of work or status
(Kincheloe and McLaren, 1994).

In short, most generally, critical discourse analysis (CDA) can be defined as a problem-
oriented interdisciplinary research programme, including a variety of approaches, each with
different theoretical models, research methods and agendas. What unites them is a shared
interest in the semiotic (meaning making) dimensions of power, identity politics and political-
economic or cultural change in society.

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is undoubtedly one of the schools in the field under
scrutiny in this chapter. At the same time, it would be a mistake to see CDA as the only
possible critical perspective on language in society. This chapter offers a brief discussion of
the emergence and development of the 'school of CDA, as well as a survey of its main areas
of inquiry: political discourse, media, advertisement, ideology, racism, institutional
discourse. I shall also offer a brief survey of the main theoretical and methodological
assumptions in CDA.

An obvious warning to be extended at this point is that whenever we make reference to a

'school', we find ourselves on thin ice. People identified as 'members' of this school may not
always perceive themselves as such, and many observers would emphasize the incoherence
and internal contradictions in what I am presenting here as a more or less unified and
streamlined movement. What we are facing when we talk about CDA is a group of leading
scholars, each with a background of their own, who agree on certain principles of analysis,
who agree to address similar issues, and who have developed some institutional tools for
doing so. The leading scholars are usually seen as the quartet of Norman Fairclough, Ruth
Wodak Teun van Dijk, and Paul Chilton, with people such as Margaret Wetherell, Michael
Billig, Christina Schaffner, Theo van Leeuwen, Gunther Kress, and others also quite closely
associated. Rather than group, we are dealing with a network of scholars with very different

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 83

backgrounds and preferences. Norman Fairclough has a background bacsystemic-functional

linguistics, Teun van Dijk in text and cognitive linguistics; Ruth Wodak in interactional stude
Chilton in linguistics, semiotics and communication studies, Paul work and approaches
develop fast. So there is always a danger of objectification when movement we discuss a
dynamic and developing such as CDA as a 'school', locked in time and space.
A second danger is that of isolation and intellectual-historical closure. For example, CDA
historically emerged out of Hallidayan linguistics, but this, in turn, needs to be
contextualized. Hallidayan linguistics is still considered as crucial to CDA practices (notably
by Fairclough) because it offers clear and rigorous linguistic categories for analyzing the
relations between discourse and social meaning Post-Second World War developments in the
study of language included the Chomskyan revolution and a number of strong reactions
against this revolution, often focusing on the exclusion of social and cultural dimensions from
the Chomskyan programme of linguistics. The emergence of sociolinguistics in the early
1960s was a reaction in this sense, as well as the result of an interdisciplinary dynamics in
the social sciences of the day. Hallidayan linguistics, in turn, was inspired by a desire to
incorporate social semiotic functions into a theory of grammar (Butler, 1995; Kress, 1976).
In literary analysis, the (re)discovery of Bakhtin's work turned scholars towards voice and
social layering in communication. Social theorists such as Foucault, Bourdieu and Habermas
addressed language from a broadly social- semiotic viewpoint and offered new foundations
for sociolinguistic and discourse analytic work. Applied linguistics took hold and focused,
among other things, on education as a field where social and linguistic forces met and often
clashed. CDA was founded on the premises that linguistic analysis could provide a valuable
additional perspective for existing approaches to social critique, and it attempted to combine
(at least a number of) these post-Second World War developments. In that sense, the
intellectual history of CDA is far wider and deeper than often suggested. With these caveats
in mind, we can now turn to a discussion of the main features of CDA.
The Programme of CDA
In general, power, and especially institutionally reproduced power, is central to CDA. The
purpose of CDA is to analyze 'opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of
dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language'
(Wodak, 1995, p. 204). More specifically, [CDA] studies real, and often extended, instances
of social interaction which take (partially) linguistic form. The critical approach is distinctive
society, and (b) the relationship between analysis and the practices analyzed. (Wodak, 1997,
p. 173)
CDA states that discourse is socially constitutive as well as socially Conditioned.
Furthermore, discourse is an instrument of power, of condasing importance in contemporary
societies. The way this instrument of power works is often hard to understand, and CDA aims
to make it more visible and transparent:
It is an important characteristic of the economic, social and cultural changes of late
modernity that they exist as discourses as well as processes that are taking place outside
discourse, and that the processes that are taking place outside discourse are substantively
shaped by these discourses. (Chouliaraki & Fairclough, 1999, p. 4)
In that sense, CDA sees its own contribution as ever more crucial to an understanding of
contemporary social reality, because of the growing importance in the social order of
discursive work and of discourse in relation to other practices.
CDA focuses its critique on the joint (crossing) of language/discourse/speech and social
structure. It is in uncovering ways in which social structure relates to discourse patterns (in
the form of power relations, ideological effects and so forth), and in treating these relations
as problematic, that researchers in CDA situate the critical dimension of their work. It is not

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 84

enough to uncover the social dimensions of language use. These dimensions are the object of
moral and political evaluation and analyzing them should have effects in society:
empowering the powerless, giving voices to the voiceless, exposing power abuse and
mobilizing people to remedy social wrongs. As part of critical social science, CDA
may subvert the practices it analyses, by showing proto-theories to be miscognitions and
producing scientific theories to be miscognitions which may be taken up within practices
(Chouliaraki & than chough, 1999, p. 3)
But apart from (passive) subversion, CDA also supports (active) (1997) even opts for a
prescriptive stance: CDA should make intervention in the social practices it proposals for
change and suggest corrections to particular discourses.
CDA thus openly acknowledges strong commitments to change, empowerment and practice-
orientedness.
CDA's preference for work at the intersection of language and social structure is obvious in
the choice of topics and domains of analysis. CDA-practitioners tend to work on applied
topics and social domains such as:
Political discourse: i.e. the discourse of politicians (e.g. Wodak, 1989; Fairclough, 1989,
2000; Chilton & Schaffner, 2002).
Ideology: discourse is seen as a means through which (and in which) ideologies are being
reproduced. Ideology itself is a topic of considerable importance in CDA. Kress and Hodge
already set the tone with their Language as ideology in 1979. More recently, van Dijk has
produced a socio- cognitive theory of ideology (van Dijk 1998).
Particular attention within this study of ideology is given to racism. Van Dijk stands out as a
prolific author (1987, 1991), but the topic has also been covered by many others (see Wodak
and Reisigl 1999 for a survey; see also the special issue on racism of Discourse and Society,
2000). Related to the issue of racism is a recent interest in the discourse on immigration (e.g.
van Leeuwen & Wodak, 1999).

Metalanguage in CDA: the Need of Critical Discourse Analysis

In order to know the importance of Critical Discourse Analysis consider a very simple
sentence,
A woman was kidnapped yesterday evening in Karachi.
This sentence is not limited to one context like its present occurrence in a news story but can
also be found in other contexts. If we look at this sentence, it seems as a kind of information
which indicates that language is a tool through which different functions are achieved.
However, the apparently looking simple sentences conveying some information are basically
not that simple (Locke, 2004). Each text underlies some norms and values which are usually
not prominent or clearly stated. CDA's main job is to sort out the denseness of utterances and
texts, and to locate different meanings or discursive practices hidden in texts in the form of
some information. In order to highlight those hidden values, positions and perspectives are
analyzed in a way which helps to deal with the opacity of a text. According to Rogers,
discourses always involve social, economic, racial and political elements and discourses are
always produced by keeping in mind all these elements. CDA aims at exploring various issues
like gender, identity, ideology, etc. and manifestation of all these in particular texts. So, one
can start with the analysis of discourse to explore how it is used with explanation and
interpretation as the upcoming goals of the discourse analysis (Paltridge, 2012).
Now if we analyze the above sentence, we come to know that it has a subject (A woman), a
finite verb (was kidnapped) along with two adverbial expressions showing when and where
the incident happened (yesterday evening, in Karachi). We can also say that the sentence is in
passive voice which shows that something was done to her. There is no adverb which can

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 85

show that by whom the action was done. So, we can say that it is a discourse or a story where
the main focus is on the female subject, and the identity of the doer of the action is of no
importance. Hence, this is the role played by CDA to highlight the hidden realities of a text.
We need a linguistic toolkit or metalanguage to talk about the opacity of language. However
nobody can clearly tell what critical discourse analysis basically is. The linguistic tools that
we have selected for this chapter are:
Fairclough's three dimensional model of discourse analysis
Alternative categories such as given by James Paul Gee
Related to Van Dijk model of US & Them (This research paper published by Dr Tariq
Mahmood, Dr. Sajjad Ali & Sir Sulaiman Ahmad)
Title: Dominance and Resistance in Political Discourse: An Analysis of the Rhetoric of the
Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad from CDA Perspective
Abstract
The aim of this research is to explore the resistance of the western hegemony in the rhetoric
of the Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad from the perspective of critical discourse
analysis. To achieve the said aim, the researchers used Van Dijk’s model as the theoretical
underpinning of this research study in order to explore the phenomena of domination,
imperialism, power abuse, resistance of power and injustice both in social as well as in
political context imbibed in Ahmadinejad’s speeches. The results of the study reveal that the
discourse producer, Ahmadinejad, has utilized positive self-representation and negative
other-representation and in doing so, has represented the in-group members (Muslim world)
in a positive way while the out-group members (the Western powers) in a negative tone. In
addition, by using a number of other discursive strategies, including authority,
generalization, evidentiality, euphemism, disclaimer, hyperbole, vagueness, presupposition,
irony, polarization and victimization, Ahmadinejad has proven the Muslim world as the
innocent party, whereas, the western powers have been represented as being involved in the
war on terror. The main ideology behind the discourse of Ahmadinejad is the resistance of the
hegemony and power of several international powerful groups in order to bring the injustice
done by them in places such as the Middle East and other Muslim countries. The researchers
suggest that rhetoric of resistance in politics can be significantly helpful in terms of
international political diplomacies and policies for the nations of the world. in politics can be
highly important for the countries of the world in terms of international political policies and
diplomacy.
CDA and Van Dijk’s Theoretical Framework
The Van Dijk’s (2005) CDA model serves as the theoretical underpinning of this
investigation (2005). He claims that CDA is a type of analytical discourse analysis that
focuses on topics like violence, dominance, and social power disparities that are introduced,
repeated, and resisted in the social and political context through text (McGregor, 2003).
Critical discourse analysts adopt a clear stance as an unorthodox study, explores social
injustice, and ultimately rejects it (van Dijk, 2004). Memory and social cognition as
components of the connective bridge between context and discourse. The relationship
between the discourse structure and the social structure is not direct but rather indirect and
involves a type of interface known as social cognition (Van Dijk, 2002a).). According to Van
Dijk, cognitive processes enable the most meaningful semantic depictions to be preserved.
The Van Dijk CDA model is a discourse analytical study approach that focuses on how
violence, dominance, and injustice are introduced, duplicated, and resisted by text and chat in
the social and political context of social power, as indicated below.

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 86

Presupposition, Generalization, Polarization, Actor Description, Victimization, Disclaimers,

Irony, Euphemism, Hyperbole, Authority, Evidentiality and Vagueness

Analysis of Ahmadinejad’s Speech through Van Dijk’s CDA Model

1. Actor Description
The way a person describes another person, place, thing or event shows the attitude of the
person towards the other person, place, thing or event. In this speech, Ahmadinejad describes
his in-group member, i.e. the Muslim nations; in a positive way while the out-group
members, i.e. the Western countries, in a negative way. Following is the discussion of the
positive traits of the Muslim countries and negative traits of the Western nations as
highlighted by Ahmadinejad in this speech.
A. Positive Self-Representation
Being the representative of the Muslim world, particularly of Iran, Ahmadinejad describes the
Muslim nations in a very positive way, focusing on the positive traits of the Muslim countries
and representing them as the champions of peace. In the beginning of this speech, he thanks
Almighty Allah for granting him an opportunity to address the UN General Assembly on
behalf of the great nation of Iran. He represents the “great nation of Iran as a member of the
IAEA which is committed to the NonProliferation Treaty” (Ahmadinejad, 2006). Being a
brave leader, he wants the Muslim leaders to raise their voice for the rights and betterment of
the Muslim nations. In this speech, he is very happy for and appreciates the courageous
presence of the Muslim representatives in different internationally organized gatherings and
for the brave expression of their opinions about the issues of the world, particularly of the
Muslim nations. Similarly, he describes the Muslims of the world in a very positive way. To
him, Muslimsare the people who are guided and disciplined by their divine nature, they seek
God, perfection, virtue, and beauty intrinsically (Ahmadinejad, 2006), and these are the
personality traits which make a person look for peace, security, justice, tranquility, love and
betterment in a given society. In addition, Ahmadinejad describes all the humans of the world
as equal inhabitants with equal privileges, rights freedom and thus, resists the occupation of
one nation (the oppressed)by the hands of another (the oppressors). To emphasize the equality
of human beings, he describes humans and all the nations of the world in the following
words: All people are created in the image of God and need to be treated with respect and
dignity. Every nation and state have a right to peace, development, and security. Nobody is
better than anyone else. No person or state has the right to claim special advantages for
oneself, ignore the rights of others, or portray themselves as the world community by
pressure and coercion. Asia, Africa, Europe, and America all have equal rights as citizens.
The planet's more than 6 billion people are all on par and deserving of respect. The two
cornerstones of sustaining global peace, stability, and calm are justice and the defence of
human dignity. (Ahmadinejad, 2006). In the above quote from the speech, Ahmadinejad
describes all the “6 billion inhabitants of the world, no matter whether they are from Asia,
Africa, Europe or America, as God‟s creature bearing equal rights, equal privileges, and
equal respect and so, no nation is superior or has the right to suppress or occupy another
nations” (Ahmadinejad, 2006).
B. Negative Other-Representation
In order to resist the dominance of the US, Zionest Israel and other Western powers and their
occupation of the Muslim nations as well as the occupation of the Security Council by the
Western powers, Ahmadinejad portrays the western powers and the Security Council in a
negativelight. The speech is primarily concerned with the three issues, including the
unlimited expansion of chemical and nuclear weapons by the US, the warmongering attitude
of the US and the occupation and misuse of the Security Council. Since the US uses these

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 87

weapons as a threat to exert control over other nations, including Iran, Palestine, Iraq,
Lebanon, and many others, Ahmadinejad claims that the US has been developing its nuclear,
chemical, and biological arms beyond bounds. He refers to these weapons as the instruments
of coercion and threat against other peoples and governments (Ahmadinejad, 2006). They are
the “occupiers” and “aggressors”, because they have occupied Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan,
Palestine, Africa and Lebanon etc. forcefully by killing millions of innocent people in the said
countries. In Palestine particularly, the Israel military people have occupied Al-Qods Al-
Sharif and have established their regime there, and their regime has been established through
“a constant source of threat and insecurity in the Middle East region” and has been used as a
tool used to divide, oppress, and put pressure on the local population (Ahmadinejad, 2006).
He opines that the US people do not want to establish peace in the region of Palestine
because the members of the parliament are subject to imprisonment by the “so- called
champions of democracy” and are not let to govern the region with peace and security. But
the major objection of Ahmadinejad in this speech is on the control and hijacking of the
Security Council at the hands of these occupiers. He uses the phrase “an instrument of threat
and coercion” for the Security Council because some of the Security Council's permanent
members are also involved in the international conflict and they use the council to occupy the
lands and other sources of the oppressed countries. Just as in Lebanon, the Security Council
gave the invaders a chance to accomplish their military goals. While for so many days, the
Security Council watched helplessly and left millions of the innocent Lebanese people
helpless (Ahmadinejad, 2006).
2.Authority
In order to support their arguments and demonstrate that the members of their In-group are
innocent and the members of their Outgroup are mistaken, speakers often cite various
superior or higher authorities in their speeches. Ahmadinejad cites a number of authorities in
this address to defend the members of his In-group (Muslims) and to criticize the members of
his Out-group (the US). Below is a quick discussion of the many authorities Ahmadinejad
referred to in this speech. In this speech, Ahmadinejad cites some religious authorities. He
makes a reference to the power of the Almighty Allah right at the opening of his discourse.
He firmly believes that Almighty Allah is the greatest force and that everything in the
universe operates in accordance with His will. In this speech, he praises Almighty Allah for
granting him the opportunity to represent the Muslim world, particularly Iran and to speak up
for the rights of the Muslim world. In addition, he expresses his gratitude to Allah for
arousing a sense of awareness of their due rights in the Muslims and for giving him the
courage to join such international events and express his opinions about the rights of Muslims
and to resist the oppression of the oppressors with courage and bravery. After expressing his
gratitude to Almighty Allah, by stating that Allah, the Almighty, orders His creatures to
promote goodness, piety and virtue rather than evil and corruption, he draws attention to the
authority of Allah to spread the message of peace across the world. Then, in an effort to
challenge the dominance and oppression of one group (Westerners) over another (Muslims),
he asserts that the Almighty did not create human beings in order for them to transgress
against and oppress others. In order to give a message of peace and to prove peace and justice
over war and suppression, He mentions the names of Almighty Allah's holy prophets and
asserts that all of them guided humanity to practice justice, affection and brotherhood
(Ahmadinejad, 2006)
3.Evidentiality
The world only believes in evidence—whether genuine or fake, opines Zeb (2015). In
discourses, the producers of discourse provide various evidences in order to prove their
arguments in favor of their ingroup members and against their opponents. According to Athar

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 88

(2018), evidences can be either in the form of information or in the form of examples, facts
and figures, and such type of evidences may be collected from various authorities,
institutions, or history. In this speech, Ahmadinejad has provided various evidences,
particularly in the form of facts and figures, to reject the power abuse by the US.
4. Generalization In the production of discourse, the discourse producers take specific and
minor instances of bad things practiced by the ―others (outgroup) and generalize them. In
the same way, they make generalizations on the basis of specific instances of the good things
done by the ―US (In-group).
5.Euphemism
According to Van Dijk (1998), the producers of discourses sometimes euphemize words in
order to avoid the discrimination and negative opinions against the marginalized group and to
show more politeness. In this speech, Ahmadinejad has not used any euphemistic strategy
because it is full of harsh criticism, satirical remarks, and ironical questions about theUS
dominance and the role and responsibilities of the UN General Assembly and the Security
Council.
6. Disclaimer Disclaimer is an indicator used by the producers of discourses to disclaim or
disown some wrong deed, usually done by the out-group members. By using this discursive
strategy, the orators put the responsibility of the wrong things and deeds on the shoulders of
the opponents and try to prove that they have nothing to do with those wrong things and
wrong deeds. The various disclaimers used by Ahmadinejad used in this speech are as
follows. Ahmadinejad, in the very beginning of the speech, makes an attempt to prove that
the religion of Almighty Allah, i.e. Islam, has nothing to do with power abuse, oppression and
transgression. He argues that did not create anyone to commit crimes against and oppress
other people, and thus, makes the audience know that Islam is very much against illegal and
unlawful acts such as oppression, occupation and suppression of other nations. He goes on to
say that mankind today is unquestionably inconsistent with human dignity (Ahmadinejad,
2006), and since the Muslims and their religion are concerned with human dignity, so the
suppression, wars, chaos and injustice in the world are not due to them, rather due to the
Western people. The laws and regulations for the extension and use of the nuclear weapons
have never been violated by Iran. Ahmadinejad disclaims the violation of such international
rules and regulations as he opines that “all of our nuclear operations are open, peaceful, and
monitored by IAEA inspectors.” (Ahmadinejad, 2006) and puts the blame of violation on the
shoulders of the US and Zionists by saying that the governments who profit from the fuel
cycle and nuclear energy have objections on Iran ‘s legal rights.
7. Hyperbole
Exaggerating or overestimating the positive deeds of one's ingroup and the negative deeds of
one's out-group is known as hyperbole. The main function is to enhance meaning. In this
speech, Ahmadinejad exaggerates many points in order to prove the out-group member
wrong. For instance, he says that none of the international organization such as the Security
Council defends the rights of the suppressed nations or opposes the acts of oppression and
aggression, and resultantly, the oppressed nations have no one to seek justice from. Similarly,
he argues that “Nothing suggests that the oppressors have the required political will to
remove the roots of instability.” (Ahmadinejad, 2006).
8.Vagueness
According to Van Dijk (1998), the producers of discourses use vague statements in their
discourses to hide the ‗politically incorrect ‘or contextually inappropriate points. In this
speech, Ahmadinejad has used only one instance of vagueness. While speaking about and
resisting the brutality of the Zionists in Palestine, he comes up with a vague statement and
worst of all, this administration has received unjustified, widespread support (Ahmadinejad,

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 89

2006). He is actually stressing the point that it‘s not only the Zionists who are oppressing the
innocent Palestinians, rather all the Western countries. He calls it an “unwarranted support”
because the Security Council does not issue any warrant order to the oppressors for seizing
the brutality brought by them in Palestine, but it may be politically incorrect ‘and
contextually inappropriate if he explicitly claims that the Security Council is not making an
attempt to stop the oppressors from making the innocent Palestinians suffer, that is why, he
makes the statement vague.
9. Presupposition The discourse producers sometimes assume that something is already
known to theaudience and thus, they usually highlight the negative face of their out-group
members. For example, at the start of this speech, Ahmadinejad asserts that the world's
people, particularly the younger generations and the vibrant youth, have legitimate demands,
such as rejecting violence and domination and standing up for the oppressed. They yearn for
a world devoid of decadence, aggression, and injustice and overflowing with love and
compassion (Ahmadinejad, 2006)
10. Irony
Irony is a figure of speech and a discursive device in which the intended meaning of an
expression is totally different than its literal meaning. In discourses, ironies are used to put
emphasis on a point and to make a discourse more argumentative. It is worth noting that
irony can be both explicit and implicit, but in both cases, they have a substantial effect on the
meaningand credibility of a discourse. In the speech currently under investigation,
Ahmadinejad uses several instances of irony in order to resist the US hegemony, but most of
the ironies are in interrogative form, that means, in the form of rhetorical questions. Some of
those examples are listed below: i. Is the creation and storage of these lethal weapons
intended to advance democracy and peace? the development and stockpiling of these deadly
weapons designed to promote peace and democracy? (Ahmadinejad, 2006). In this example,
by making use of an irony, he puts to question the purpose behind the production of the
nuclear weapons by the US and opines peace and democracy can never be promoted with
through the nuclear war or through threatening other nations using the chemical and nuclear
weapons. ii. Can any United Nations member allow such a catastrophe taking place in their
own country? (Ahmadinejad, 2006). In the given ironical expressions, he is trying to make
the oppressors stand in the shoes of the oppressed and encourage the audience to imagine if
they themselves can bear the brutalities brought by them upon the innocent and helpless
people of Palestine, thereby making the oppressors realize that they have ruined the lives of
millions of innocent people in Palestine through their inhumane acts.
11.Polarization
Polarization is a discursive strategy which is used by the producers of discourses for
separating the In-group members (US) from the outgroup members (THEM). Through this
strategy, the discourse producers either polarize people in to two binaries or ideas. Some of
the binaries created by Ahmadinejad in this speech are briefly discussed below.
i. Oppression vs. Human Dignity
According to Ahmadinejad, the subjugation of some of the nations by the hands of the others
is completely against the norms of humanity. He opines that “what afflicts humanity today is
certainly not compatible with human dignity” (Ahmadinejad, 2006). On the one hand, the
world is experiencing conflict, wars and the oppression of the innocent people, such as
Palestinians, Iraqis and the Lebanese people, by the hands of the aggressors, while on
theother hand, there is humanity and human dignity, and according to Ahmadinejad, both
these phenomena cannot exist together.
ii. Rich Exploiters vs. Poor Exploited People

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 90

As a result of conflicts and wars, the nations of the world are polarized into two
groups; the rich as exploiters and the poor as exploited people. He says: “some are
quickly extending their dominance, gaining more riches, and seizing control of all the
resources by inciting conflict etc..
13. Victimization
Victimization is a discursive strategy in which the discourse producers present their in-
group members as the victims of the wrong deeds performed by the out-group members.
In this speech, Ahmadinejad presents the Muslim nations as the victims of the brutality
brought upon them by the western nations such as the US and the Zionists. Few
instances of victimization highlighted by him in this speech include: in Palestine, the
occupation of its land through war, bombardment of its inhabitants in their own homes
and murdering the innocent children in their own streets, the imprisonment or besieging
million of its citizens and turning them into refugees, the occupation of Al-Qods Al-
Sharif, and the illegal abduction of the ministers and members o its parliament; in
Lebanon, keeping the people under the barrage of fire and bombs for thirty- three long
days and displacement of about 1.5 million people; and in Iran, the violation of the
legally recognized rights by the IAEA and NPT, and so on (Ahmadinejad, 2006).
Findings and Conclusions of this research
In this research, the researchers explored the rhetoric of the Iranian president
Ahmadinejad from the perspective of discourse, power and resistance. In this regard, a
number of discursive strategies used by Ahmadinejad in his rhetoric were highlighted
and it was found that Ahmadinejad resists the hegemony of the US in a very significant
way. As discussed in the analysis above, he has represented the Muslim world in a very
positive way while the western powers, in a very negative tone. In addition, he has
mentioned several authorities in order to prove his views stance in favor of the ingroup
members and against the outgroup ones. Furthermore, he has given evidences,
disclaimed the wrong doings done by the western powers, and has generalized and
exaggerated the good deeds done by the ingroup members and the wrong doings done
by the outgroup members to polarize between the two groups. The aim of using all these
discursive strategies was to prove the Muslim world as victims by the hands of the
western powers and to make the real face of the western powers explicit to the masses
(Note: Read full article published on internet)

THE END

[Points to be kept in mind before studying these Notes]

 Please follow the course content as I’ve followed the course content but!
 In these notes I've included many extra materials for myself for broader
understanding and sometimes I just use copy paste from the original sources which I
think would be better to study and read deeply…(If you aren’t interested in extra
materials, just skip them)
 Practical examples and the assignments assigned to us are also included.
 In CDA section , I've tried to include all the materials from the original sources as I
think it'd be better to study them from the original sources

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.
 91

 I got help from Brian Paltridge’s book, research papers shared by Sir Sulaiman and
especially I got help from Sir Khurram Shahzad's guide of Discourse Studies which
was recommended to us by Sir Sulaiman himself.
 I also got help from the Video lectures of Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad
and Sir Khurram Shehzad which are available on Youtube,
Note: These notes of Discourse Studies are compiled, prepared and written by me and I have
used so many sources as mentioned above and I, as a student of BS English 8th (B), Morning,
can’t claim that these notes are perfect and don’t have any mistake or these are the only
notes to rely on; so, suggestions for further improvement will be cordially accepted and
welcomed.
 I have prepared notes of linguistic subjects from 1st to 8th semester according to
NUML syllabus….

“You have to keep breaking your heart until it opens.” (RUMI)

Email: [email protected]
M. Junaid (Mjunaidswabian)
BS 8th (B), Morning
NUML, Peshawar
22/1/24

Discourse Studies by Sir Sulaiman Ahmad

Notes Prepared by Mjunaidswabian
BS English, 8th, NUML, Peshawar.