UNIT-1: DC Circuits

GTU End Sem Exam Solution

Exam Question Marks
Jan- Que: State Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s Laws in context with DC circuits 3
2020 Solution:
 Ohm’s Law - Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R,
provided the temperature remains constant.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law – The algebraic sum of all branch current meeting at a
junction or node is Zero.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law – The algebraic sum of all branch Voltage around in a closed
loop is Zero

Nov- Que: State and explain Kirchhoff’s Laws in context with DC circuits 3
2020 Solution:
June-  Kirchhoff’s Current Law – Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total
2019 current or charge entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the
node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the node“.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must
be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as
the Conservation of Charge.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law – Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed
loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum of all
voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as
the Conservation of Energy.
June- Que: Compare the resistive series and parallel circuit. 3
2019 Solution:
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

A circuit is said to be a series circuit A parallel circuit refers to a circuit with

when the flow of current is the same two or more two paths for the current to
throughout all the components in the flow.
circuit.
If a fault occurs at one point, the total In a parallel circuit, if any one
circuit will break. component gets damaged, the current
does not stop and continues to flow
through the other components; hence
other components work efficiently.
If V is the total voltage across the total f V is the total voltage across the total
components in the series circuit, it is components in the parallel circuit, it is
equal to V1+V2+V3. equal to V1=V2=V3
If I is the total current through all the If I is the total current through all the
component of series circuit then It is component of parallel circuit then It is
equal to I = I1 = I2 = I3 equal to I = I1 + I2 + I3
The equivalent resistance is always more The equivalent resistance always has a
than highest value of resistance in the less value than any of the single resistors
series connection. connected parallely.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……+ RN R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+…….+1/RN
Nov- Que: State the superposition theorem with suitable example. 4
2020 Solution:
 The superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network that consisting of
two or more independent sources, current through (or voltage across) an element is the
algebraic sum of the currents through (voltages across) that element caused by each
independent source acting alone with all other sources are replaced by their internal
resistances.
 Example:- Find the current through 10ohm By using superposition theorem.

 Case - 1 Only Voltage source.

So the Current of the circuit IL1 = 20/ (20+10) = 20/30 = 2/3 = 0.66A which is the same
current passing through 10 ohm.
 Case -2 Only Current Source.

By using current divider rule current through 10 ohm resistor is

IL2 = (20/20+10) x 1 = 20/30 = 0.666A
So Total IL = IL1 + IL2 = 0.666 + 0.666 = 1.333A

Jan- Que: State Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem. 3

2020 Solution:
 Thevenin’s Theorem
 “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be replaced by just
one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load”.
 In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with
a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load.

 Norton’s Theorem
 “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by
a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor”.
 As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and
IS is the short circuit current at the output terminals.
Jan- Que: Derive an expression for equivalent resistances of a star connected network to 7
2020 transform into a Delta connected network.
Solution:

Jan- Que: Derive an expression for the voltage across the capacitor during charging through 7
2020 the resistor at any instant Vc= V(1-e-t/RC). Assume that RC series circuit is connected across
Jan- a DC supply of voltage V.
2019 OR
Derive the equations of capacitor voltage and circuit current in a series R-C circuit
connected to a DC supply through a switch. Assume that switch is initially open and it is
closed at time t=0 second.
Solution:
 Consider a circuit consisting of resistance of R ohms and a capacitor of capacitance C
farads connected in series with switch S and a battery of V volts.
 At the instant of closing the switch, No charge on the capacitor and Potential difference
across the capacitor is zero.
 As a result, the entire voltage V acts momentarily across the resistors R and charging
current is maximum say Im.
 Initial charging current, Im = V/R
 Let at any instant during charging,
 Vc = p.d. across the capacitor
 i = charging current
 qc = charge on the capacitor = CVc
 According to KVL, Applied voltage = Voltage across capacitor+ voltage across resistor
V= Vc + iR
dq
V  Vc  R c
dt
d  CVc  d  Vc 
V  Vc  R V  Vc  RC
dt , dt
d  Vc 
V  Vc  RC
dt
dVc dt dVc dt
   
V  Vc RC , V  Vc RC
 Integrating both the side
dVc dt
 V  V    RC
c

t
loge
V  Vc 
 K
RC
 Where, K is a constant of integration. Its value can be determined from the initial
conditions. At the instant of closing the switch S,
t = 0, Vc = 0
log eV  K
 Putting the value of K= logeV
 t t
loge
V Vc 
loge
V  Vc 
  log eV  log eV 
RC RC
 V  Vc   t V  Vc t
log e   e RC
 V  RC V
 t
  t

Vc  V 1  e 
RC
Vc  V 1  e  
   
 Where λ = CR is known as time constant.
 Variation of charging current with time
V  Vc
i
V – Vc = iR R
 t

V  V 1  e   t
i   V
i e
t

R R i  Im e 

Nov - A resistance of 10Ω is connected in series with two resistances each of the 15Ω arranged in 3
2020 parallel. What resistance must be shunted across this parallel combination so that total
current taken shall be 1.5 A with 20 V applied.
Solution:
Nov – Calculate the resistance of a 100 m length of wire having a uniform cross sectional area of 3
2020 0.02 mm2 and having resistivity of 40 µΩcm
Solution

Jan - A 100V,60 Watt bulb is to be operated from a 220V supply. What is the resistance to be 4
2020 connected in series with the bulb to glow normally?
Solution

June Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Reduce the portion of the circuit to the left of 7
- terminals a–b to (a) Thévenin equivalent and (b) a Norton equivalent. Find the current
2019 through R = 16 Ohm.
 Solution

Nov - For the Wheatstone bridge diagram shown in Figure 1, obtain the current flowing through 7
2020 the 20Ω resistance using Thevenin's equivalent network.
Solution
 UNIT-2: AC Circuits
GTU End Sem Exam Solution
Exam Question Marks
Nov Define the following terms for AC (alternating current) signal: 04
2020 (i) Crest Factor (ii) Form Fator (iii) Average Value (iv) RMS Value.
(i) Crest Factor/Peak Factor:
Crest factor is defined as the ratio of peak value to rms value of an alternating quantity
(current or voltage).

(ii) Form Factor:

The ratio of the rms value to the average value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) is
called Form Factor.

(iii) Average Value:

(iv) RMS Value:

NOV A current of 5 A flows through a non-inductive resistance in series with a choking coil when 07
2020 supplied at 250V,50Hz. If the voltage across the resistance is 125 V and across the coil 200V,
calculate (i) impedance, reactance and resistance of the coil (ii) the power absorbed by the coil
(iii) and total power.
NOV Prove that the current in purely inductive circuit lags its voltage by 90° and average power 07
2020 consumption in pure inductor is zero.
NOV Write the comparison between series resonance and parallel resonance condition in AC circuit. 03
2020/
JAN
2020
NOV Derive the relation between line-voltage and phase-voltage for three-phase four wire star 07
2020/ connection network. Also, prove that the total three-phase power consumption in star
JAN connection is PT = √3 VL IL cos φ.
2020
JAN A single phase R-L-C circuit having resistance of 8Ω, inductance of 80mH and capacitance of 07
2020 100μF is connected across single phase ac 150 V , 50Hz supply. Calculate the current, power
factor and voltage drop across inductance and capacitance.
JAN Define the following terms in connection with AC waveforms: 03
2020 1. Q-Factor 2. Power Factor 3. Form factor.
1. Q-Factor:

2. Power Factor:
It is the ratio of active (true) power to apparent power. It is also defined as the cosine of the
angle between voltage and current signals.
3. Form Factor:
The ratio of the rms value to the average value of an alternating quantity (current or voltage) is
called Form Factor.
JAN Draw impedance triangle, Voltage triangle, Power triangle for single phase R-L series circuit. 04
2020 Impedance Triangle:

(i) Impedance Triangle (ii) Voltage Triangle (ii) Power Triangle

JAN Define the terms:- 1. Real power 2. Reactive power 3. Apparent power. 03
2020

JAN With neat circuit diagram and a phasor diagram prove that two watt meters are sufficient to 07
2020/ measure total power in 3-phase system.
JUNE
2019
JUNE For series resonant circuit with brief description draw the phasor diagrams for following 03
2019 conditions (i) At resonant (ii) Below resonant (iii) Above resonant.
(i) At Resonance:
At the resonance condition XL=XC. The net impedance of the circuit is only resistance. Therefore,
R-L-C circuit behaves like a purely resistive circuit. The power factor of the circuit is Unity.
 (ii) Below resonance:
At the frequencies below resonant frequency, XL<XC. The net impedance is capacitive in nature.
Therefore, the circuit acts like an R-C Series circuit. The power factor of the circuit is leading.

(iii) Above resonance:

At the frequencies below resonant frequency, XL>XC. The net impedance is inductive in nature.
Therefore, the circuit acts like an R-L Series circuit. The power factor of the circuit is lagging.

JUNE A series RLC circuit with L= 160 mH, C= 100 μF and R = 40 Ω is connected to a sinusoidal voltage 07
2019 V(t) = 40 Sinωt, with ω= 200 rad/sec. Find (i) What is the Impedance of the circuit. (ii) Let the
current at any instant in the circuit be I(t) = I0 Sin(ωt-Φ). Find I0 (iii) What is the Phase Φ ?
Solution:
Given Data: L=160 mH, C=100 μF, R=40 Ohm, Vm=40 V, ω= 200 rad/sec
XL= ωL = 200*160*10-3 =32 Ohm
Xc=1/ ωC = 1/(200*100*10-6) = 50 Ohm
 I0 = Vm/Z = 0.911 Amp
Phase angle Φ = Cos-1(R/Z) = Cos-1(40/43.86) = 24.21° (leading)

JUNE A balanced star connected load of (4+j3) Ω per phase is connected to a balance 3 phase 400 V 07
2019 supply. Find the line current, power factor, active power and reactive power.
Solution:
Impedance per phase Zph = (R22+XL2)1/2= (16+9) ½ = 5 Ohm.
In star connection Line voltage = 1.732*Phase Phase Voltage VL = 1.732*Vph
Therefore, Vph = VL/1.732 = 400/1.732 = 230.94 V
In star connection Line current = Phase Current = Vph/Zph = 230.94/5 = 46.18 Amp
Power factor Cos Φ = R/Z = 4/5 = 0.8 (lagging)
Active power = 1.732*VL*IL*Cos Φ = 1.732*400*46.18*0.8 = 25594.80 Watt
Reactive Power = 1.732*VL*IL*Sin Φ = 1.732*400*46.18*0.6 = 19196.10 VAR

JUNE For A.C. sinusoidal current prove that Irms = 0.707 Im. 03
2019
JAN Define Amplitude, Frequency and Time period for alternating quantities. 03
2019

Amplitude:

Frequency:

Time period:

JAN The maximum values of voltage and current in a circuit are 400 V and 20 A respectively. Both 07
2019 the quantities are sinusoidal with 50 Hz frequency. The instantaneous values of voltage and
current at time t=0 second are 283 V and 10 A respectively (both increasing and positive).
Obtain the equations of voltage and current in this circuit at time ‘t’ second. Also find out the
active power consumption in the circuit.
JAN In a series R-L circuit, a voltage of 10 V at 50 Hz frequency produces a current of 750 mA. In 07
2019 the same circuit with same magnitude of applied voltage with a frequency of 75 Hz produces
a current of 500 mA. Find out the values of R and L in the circuit.
 UNIT-3: Transformers
GTU End Sem Exam Solution
Exam Question Marks
Jan/2021 Que: Derive the EMF equation of single-phase transformer. 04
Nov/2020 Solution:
June/2019  The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the product of number of turns and
the rate of change of flux.
d
e  N
dt

 As, shown in the fig., the flux rises

sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm
from 0. It reaches to the maximum
value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in
T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the
sin wave of the supply = 1/f).
 average rate of change of flux
m 
  m
T 1
4 4f
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm ....... (Wb/s).
 Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
 Average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).
 RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor × average emf per turn.
 As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11
 RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 × 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm
RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf
per turn × Number of turns in primary winding
E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm
Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as
E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm
Jan/2021 Que: Explain working principle of single-phase Transformer. 03
Solution:

 Principle of Single-Phase Transformer:

 The single-phase transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. Typically, mutual induction between primary and
secondary windings is responsible for the transformer operation in an electrical
transformer.
  When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux f is
set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces
e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as
secondary e.m.f.

 magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up
transformer. On the other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2< V1) and we get a
step-down transformer. If load is connected across the secondary winding, the
secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load. Thus, a
transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another with a
change in voltage level.
Nov/2020 Explain various connections of three phase transformer with diagram. 07
June/2019 Solution:

 Windings of a three-phase transformer can be connected in various

configurations as (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star
(i) star-star
 Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers.
Because of star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as
phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the
amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is equal to
the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other.
 This connection can be used only if the connected load is balanced.

(ii) delta-delta

 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of

required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to the
transformation ratio of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer is
disabled, system can continue to operate in open delta connection but with
reduced available capacity.
(iii) star-delta

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and the
secondary winding is delta connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation end
of the transmission line.
  The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation
ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
(iv) delta-star

 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is

connected in star with neutral grounded. Thus, it can be used to provide 3-
phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the beginning
of transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation
ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.

Nov/2020 Explain magnetic hysteresis. 03

Solution:
 The phenomenon of lagging behind of induction flux density (B) behind the
magnetizing force (H) in magnetic material is called magnetic hysteresis.
 Hysteresis loop is a four quadrant B – H graph from where the hysteresis loss,
coercive force and retentively of magnetic material are obtained.
 To understand hysteresis loop, we suppose to take a magnetic material to use
as a core around which insulated wire is wound. The coils is connected to the
supply (DC) through variable resistor to vary the current I.

 When supply current I = 0, so no existence of flux density (B) and magnetizing

force (H).
  When current is increased from zero value to a certain value, magnetizing force
and flux density both are set up and increased following the path o to a.
 For a certain value of current, flux density becomes maximum (Bm). The point
indicates the magnetic saturation or maximum flux density of this core material.
All element of core material get aligned perfectly.
 When the value of current is decreased from its value of magnetic flux
saturation, H is decreased along with decrement of B not following the previous
path rather following the curve a to b. The point b indicates H = 0 for I = 0 with
a certain value of B. This lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis.

Nov/2020 State the difference in core type and shell type transformer with neat and clean 07
June/2019 construction diagram.
Solution:
 Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary are wound
on the core, transformers are of two types viz., (i) core-type transformer and
(ii) shell-type transformer.

(i) Core-type transformer:

 In a core-type transformer, half of the primary winding and half of the secondary
winding are placed round each limb as shown in Fig.
 This reduces the leakage flux. It is a usual practice to place the low-voltage
winding below the high-voltage winding for mechanical considerations.

(ii) shell-type transformer:

 Shell-type transformer. This method of construction involves the use of a

double magnetic circuit. Both the windings are placed round the central
limb the other two limbs acting simply as a low-reluctance flux path.

 The choice of type (whether core or shell) will not greatly affect the efficiency
of the transformer. The core type is generally more suitable for high voltage and
small output while the shell-type is generally more suitable for low voltage and
high output.
June/2019 Explain voltage step-up and step-down operation in autotransformer with diagram. 04
Solution:
 An autotransformer is a transformer where a part of the winding belongs to both
the primary winding and secondary winding of the transformer. Its operating
principle is the same as the conventional transformer, then the relation between
input and output voltages, input and output currents and the ratio of number of
turns between the primary and the secondary winding is the same.

 Step-down autotransformer
 If an alternating voltage is applied to points A and B, and the output voltage is
measured at points B and C, a lower voltage is obtained. This transformer is a
step-down auto transformer. In this case, the turn ratio = Ns/Np < 1.

 Step-up autotransformer
 If an alternating voltage is applied to points A and B, and the output voltage is
measured at points B and C, a higher voltage is obtained. This transformer is a
step-up autotransformer. In this case, the turns ratio is: Ns/Np > 1.
 UNIT-4: Electrical Machines
GTU End Semester Exam Solution
Exam Question Marks
Nov Que: Why single-phase induction motor is not self starting while three-phase induction 4
2020 motor is self starting. Explain in brief.

Solution: A single-phase induction motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and a stator
carrying a single-phase winding. When a single phase supply provide to stator winding, it
produces a flux (or field) which only alternating i.e. one which alternates along one space axis
only. It is not a synchronously revolving (or rotating) flux, as in the case of a two or three
phase stator winding, fed from a 2 or 3 phase supply. Now, alternating or pulsating flux acting
on a stationary squirrel cage rotor cannot produce rotation. That is why a single phase motor
is not self-starting.

Three-phase induction motor is self-starting, because winding displacement is 120 degrees for
each phase and supply also has 120 phase shift for 3-phase. It results in a unidirectional
rotating magnetic field is developed in air gap which causes 3-phase induction motor to self-
start.
Nov Que: Explain construction of Alternator with neat diagram. 7
2020
Jan Solution:
2020
June
2019

A synchronous generator (alternator) is a machine which produces 3 phase AC power when it

receives mechanical input. It thus converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. It consists
of a stator which carries a 3 phase winding and rotor which carries the field winding as shown
in the fig.

Construction:
1. Stator: It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel laminations
having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots and serves
as the armature winding of the alternator. The armature winding is always connected in
star and the neutral is connected to ground.
 2. Rotor: The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two
slip rings by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small
d.c. shunt or compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator. Rotor
construction is of two types, namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type

(i) Salient pole type

In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame
which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in Fig. The individual field pole
windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is
energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities. Low and
medium synchronous generators are driven by diesel engines or water turbines that
use salient pole rotors.

(ii) Non-Salient pole type:

In this type of rotor, smooth solid steel is used to form a radial cylinder. This cylinder has a
number of slots along its outer periphery. These slots carry the field windings which in turn
are connected in series to the slip rings through which they are energized by the d.c. exciter.
The regions which form the poles are left un-slotted. The non-salient rotor is shown in the fig.
High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines and use non-salient
type rotors
Nov Que: Justify that how back e.m.f. in DC motor acts like a governor. 3
2020
Solution:

When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of the driving torque, the
armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence e.m.f. is induced in them as
in a generator The induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage V(Lenz’s
law) and in known as back or counter e.m.f. Eb.

The back e.m.f. Eb (= PΦZN/60 A) is always less than the applied voltage V, although this
difference is small when the motor is running under normal conditions. Consider a shunt
wound motor shown in Fig. When d.c. voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the
field magnets are excited and armature conductors are supplied with current. Therefore,
driving torque acts on the armature which begins to rotate. As the armature rotates, back
e.m.f. Eb is induced which opposes the applied voltage V. The applied voltage V has to force
current through the armature against the back e.m.f. Eb. The electric work done in
overcoming and causing the current to flow against Eb is converted into mechanical energy
developed in the armature. It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a d.c. motor is only
possible due to the production of back e.m.f. Eb.
Net voltage across armature circuit = V – Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then, Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra

Nov Que: State the comparison of generator and motor action with respect to design and 4
2020 working principle. Draw the necessary diagram.

Solution:
 Sr. Differentiating
Motor Generator
No. Property
An electric generator is a
An electric motor is a machine that
machine that converts
1 Definition converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy to electrical
mechanical energy.
energy.
Electric motor follows Fleming’s Electric generator follows
2 Rule
left-hand rule. Fleming’s right-hand rule.
The working principle of a motor is
based on the current-carrying The working principle of
3 Principle conductor that experiences a force generator is based on
when it is kept in the magnetic electromagnetic induction.
field.
The shaft of an electric motor is The shaft of an electric
Driving force for driven by a magnetic force which is generator is connected to the
4
shaft developed between the armature rotor which is driven by a
and field. mechanical force.
In a generator, current is
In a motor, current is supplied to the
5 Current Usage produced in the armature
armature winding.
winding.
Ceiling fans, cars, etc. are all In power stations, generator is
6 Example
examples of motor. used to generate electricity.
Nov Que: Write working principle of DC motor with neat diagram. 7
2020
Jan Solution:
2020
Basic principle: A machine that converts d.c. power into mechanical power is known as a d.c.
motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force
is given by Fleming’s left hand rule and magnitude is given by;

F = BIl newtons

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c. generator. The
same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.
 Consider a part of a multipolar d.c. motor as shown in Fig. When the terminals of the motor
are connected to an external source of d.c. supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry currents in one
direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite direction.

Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane of the paper and those
under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of the paper as shown in Fig. Since each armature
conductor is carrying current and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it.
Referring to Fig. and applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it is clear that force on each
conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these forces add
together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. When the conductor
moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in that conductor is reversed and at
the same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity.
Consequently, the direction of force on the conductor remains the same.
Nov Que: A d-c generator has an e.m.f of 200 volts and provides a current of 10 amps. How 3
2020 much energy does it provide each minute?

Solution:
Energy = Power x Time
Power = V x I
= 200 x 10
= 2000 watts
Energy = 2000 x 60
= 120,000 Joules or 120 kJ

Jan Que: Give Merits, Demerits and Applications of Induction Motor. 4

2020
Solution:
Merits:
1) The working of an induction motor is very simple. It can operate in any environmental
condition. The construction of an induction motor is robust and sturdy.
2) It is very cheap in cost to compare the other motors.
3) It is a highly efficient motor. The efficiency of IM is varying from 85 to 95%.
4) The brushes are not used in an induction motor. So, there are no sparks in the motor and it
can be used in polluted and hazards environment.
5) The maintenance of IM is very less compared to the DC motor and synchronous motor.
6) 3 phase induction motor is the self-starting motor. So, any special starting arrangement or
extra starting motor is not required. However, single-phase induction motors do not have self-
starting torque, and it uses some auxiliaries to rotate.
7) In this motor, only one AC source requires to operate. It does not require DC excitation
like a synchronous motor.
8) The speed variation from no-load to rated load is very less.

Demerits:
1) The power factor of the motor is very low during the light load condition.
2) The three-phase induction motor is constant speed motor. The change in speed of the motor
is very low during different loading conditions. So, the speed control of IM is difficult.
3) Single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. It requires some auxiliary for stating.
4) The motor cannot use in such applications where high starting torque is necessary like
 traction and lifting weight.

Applications of Induction Motor:

1. Lifts
2. Cranes
3. Hoists
4. Large capacity exhaust fans
5. Driving lathe machines
6. Crushers
7. Oil extracting mills
8. Pumps
9. Compressors
10. Small fans
11. Mixers
12. Toys
13. High speed vacuum cleaners
14. Electric shavers
15. Drilling machines
Jan Que: Compare poly phase Induction Motor and single phase Induction Motor. 4
2020
Solution:
Basis Single phase induction motor Three phase induction motor
Three Phase induction motor uses
Single Phase induction motor uses single
Supply three phase supply, for its
phase supply, for its operation.
operation.
Starting
The starting torque is low. The starting torque is high.
torque
Maintenance They are easy to repair and maintain. Difficult to repair and maintain.
Simple in construction, reliable and
Complex in construction and
Features economical as compared to three phase
costly.
induction motors.
Efficiency Efficiency is less Efficiency is high
Power factor Power factor is low Power factor is high
They are mostly used in domestic
Three phase induction motors are
Examples appliances such as mixer grinder, fans,
mostly used in industries.
compressors etc
Nov Que: Explain Generation of Rotating Magnetic Field in 3-phase Induction Motor with 7
2020 diagrams and equations.
Jan
2020 Solution:
June When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
2019 produced. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go
on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating Held. It can
be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 Φm where Φm is
the maximum flux due to any phase.
 Fig. 1.

To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3-phase winding as shown in Fig. (i).
The three phases X, Y and Z are energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases
are indicated as Ix, Iy and Iz [See Fig. (ii)]. Referring to Fig. (ii), the fluxes produced by these
currents are given by:
Here Φm is the maximum flux due to any phase. Fig. (1) shows the phasor diagram of the
three fluxes. We shall now prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant
magnitude equal to 1.5 Φm.

(i) At instant 1 [See Fig. (ii) and Fig. (iii)], the current in phase X is zero and currents in
phases Y and Z are equal and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top
conductors and inward in the bottom conductors. This establishes a resultant flux towards
right. The magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 Φm as proved under:

At instant 1, ωt = 0°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

The phasor sum of - Φy and Φz is the resultant flux Φr [from above phasor diagram]. It is
clear that:

(ii) At instant 2, the current is maximum (negative) in Φy phase Y and 0.5 maximum
(positive) in phases X and Z. The magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 Φm as proved under:
At instant 2, ωt = 30°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

The phasor sum of Φx, - Φy and Φz is the resultant flux Φr

Note that resultant flux is displaced 30° clockwise from position 1.

(iii) At instant 3, current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal and
opposite (currents in phases X and Y are 0.866 × max. value).

The magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 Φm as proved under:

At instant 3, ωt = 60°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

The resultant flux Φr is the phasor sum of Φx and - Φy (Φz = 0).

Note that resultant flux is displaced 60° clockwise from position 1.

(iv) At instant 4, the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases Y
and Z are equal and negative (currents in phases Y and Z are 0.5 × max. value).
 This establishes a resultant flux downward as shown under:

At instant 4, ωt = 90°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

The phasor sum of Φx, - Φy and - Φz is the resultant flux Φr

Note that the resultant flux is downward i.e., it is displaced 90° clockwise from position 1.
June Que: Classify and compare various DC motor. 4
2019
Solution:
There are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the connections of field winding in
relation to the armature viz.:
(i) Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature [See Fig. 1]. The current through the shunt field winding is not the same
as the armature current. Shunt field windings are designed to produce the
necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively large number of turns of wire having
high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively small compared with
the armature current.

Fig.1
 (ii) Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the
armature [See Fig. 2]. Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.
Since the current passing through a series field winding is the same as the
armature current, series field windings must be designed with much fewer turns
than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f. Therefore, a series field winding has
a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore, will possess a low
resistance.

Fig. 2.
(iii) Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of
compound motor connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is
directly connected across the armature terminals [See Fig. 3], it is called short-
shunt connection. When the shunt winding is so connected that it shunts the series
combination of armature and series field [See Fig. 4], it is called long-shunt
connection.

Fig. 3 Fig. 4
June Que: Give the classification of Induction motor. 3
2019
Solution:
There are mainly two types of induction motor on the basis of power supply, Single Phase
Induction Motor and Three Phase Induction Motor.

i. Single phase induction motor may be classified on the basis of their construction and
starting methods. On this basis, they can be further categorized into following types:
1. Split Phase Induction Motor
2. Capacitor Start Induction Motor
3. Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
 4. Shaded Pole Induction Motor

ii. A three phase induction motor classified on the basis of its rotor construction. On this
basis, they can be further categorized into following types:
1. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
2. Wound Rotor or Slip Ring Induction Motor
June Que: Explain the working of single phase induction motor with diagram. 7
2019
Solution:
When the stator winding (distributed one as stated earlier) carries a sinusoidal current (Being
fed from a single-phase supply), a sinusoidal space distributed mmf, whose peak or maximum
value pulsates (alternates) with time, is produced in the air gap. This sinusoidal varying flux
(φ ) is the sum of two rotating fluxes or fields, the magnitude of which is equal to half the
value of the alternating flux (φ / 2), and both the fluxes rotating synchronously at the speed, in
opposite directions.

The first set of figures show the resultant sum of the two rotating fluxes or fields, as the time
axis (angle) is changing from θ = 0° to π°(180).

The above figure shows the alternating or pulsating flux (resultant) varying with time or
angle.

The flux or field rotating at synchronous speed, say, in the anticlockwise direction, i.e. the
same direction, as that of the motor (rotor) taken as positive induces EMF (voltage) in the
rotor conductors. The rotor is a squirrel cage one, with bars short circuited via end rings. The
current flows in the rotor conductors, and the electromagnetic torque is produced in the same
direction as given above, which is termed as positive (+ve). The other part of flux or field
 rotates at the same speed in the opposite (clockwise) direction, taken as negative. So, the
torque produced by this field is negative (-ve), as it is in the clockwise direction, same as that
of the direction of rotation of this field. Two torques are in the opposite direction, and the
resultant (total) torque is the difference of the two torques produced.

Let the flux φ1 rotate in anti clockwise direction and flux φ2 in clockwise direction. The flux
φ1 will result in the production of torque T1 in the anti clockwise direction and flux φ2 will
result in the production of torque T2 In the clockwise direction.

At standstill, these two torques are equal and opposite and the net torque developed is zero.
Therefore, single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. Note that each rotating field tends
to drive the rotor in the direction in which the field rotates.

Now assume that the rotor is started by spinning the rotor or by using auxiliary circuit, in say
clockwise direction. The flux rotating in the clockwise direction is the forward rotating flux
(φf) and that in the other direction is the backward rotating flux (φb). The slip w.r.t. the
forward flux will be

The rotor rotates opposite to the rotation of the backward flux. Therefore, the slip w.r.t. the
backward flux will be

Thus for forward rotating flux, slip is s (less than unity) and for backward rotating flux, the
slip is 2 − s (greater than unity). Since for usual rotor resistance/reactance ratios, the torques
at slips of less than unity are greater than those at slips of more than unity, the resultant torque
will be in the direction of the rotation of the forward flux. Thus if the motor is once started, it
will develop net torque in the direction in which it has been started and will function as a
motor.
June Que: State significance of the back emf in DC motor. 3
2019
Solution: The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it
makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque
required by the load.
Armature current, Ia = (V – Eb)/Ra

(i) When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome the
friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and the
back e.m.f. is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow
down. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the
field is reduced and hence the back e.m.f. Eb falls. The decreased back e.m.f.
allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger current means
increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as the motor slows
down. The motor will stop slowing down when the armature current is just
sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load.
(iii) If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily in excess
of the requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the armature speed
increases, the back e.m.f. Eb also increases and causes the armature current Ia to
decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the armature current is just
sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by the load.
It follows, therefore, that back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of armature current
i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
 UNIT-5: Electrical Installations
GTU End Sem Exam Solution
Exam Question Marks
June Que: State function of various parts of HT cable 03
2019 Answer:
Cores/Conductors –
It consists of one central core or a number of cores of tinned stranded copper or
aluminum conductors.
Conductors are used in stranded form to provide flexibility
Conductor numbers are 3, 7, 19, 37 and so on.

Insulation
The satisfactory operation of cable depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of
insulation.
The insulation is provided according to voltage to be withstood by cable.

Metallic sheath (Al) –

As cable is placed underground, the soil may present moisture, gases and some other
liquids.
Therefore, a metallic sheath is applied over the insulation for protecting the conductor
from moisture, gases, and alkalies in soil.

Bedding (jute)- It is used to protect metallic sheet against corrosion and mechanical injury
from armouring.

Armouring (Galv. Steel) -

It protects cable from mechanical injury while laying and handling.

Serving (jute) – It protects armoring from atmosphere conditions.

June Que: Give the comparison of fuse and MCB. 04
2019, MCB FUSE
Jan 2019

• MCB trips off in case of excessive • Fuse melts/fuses in case of

load. excessive load.
• MCB is to be just put-on after • Fuse needs to be replaced with a
correcting the fault in wiring new one.
• Since we do not change the MCB, • There is a risk of putting on the
there is no risk of putting on the switch in case; due to ignorance
MCB/switch even if the fault is not higher capacity fuse-wire is
correctly repaired. positioned.
• Compact, small equipment. • It has Porcelain base and top.
• Works on Bi-metal expansion or • Works on melting/fusing due to
induced magnetism. high temperature.
• Relatively costlier than fuse. • Relatively cheaper than MCB.
June Que: Explain plate earthing with diagram 07
2019 Answer:
This is one of the common methods of earthing. In this case, the earthing is done by
embedding GI or copper plate in the earth sufficiently deep. The size of the plate used
should not be less than 60 cmx 60 cm x 6.35 mm in case of GI plate and 60 cm x 60 cm x
3.18 mm in case of copper plate. The copper on account of its high cost is not used
nowadays.

A pit is dug about 4 meters deep, and the earth electrode is placed in such a way that its
face is vertical. The space around the plate is filled with layers of charcoal and salt for a
minimum thickness of 15 cm. The electrode or plate is connected to GI pipe of 12.7 mm
diameter for carrying GI each wire for connection to earth electrode. The earth wire is
securely bolted to the earth plate with the help of bolt, nut, washer and GI thimble, the
details of which is shown in the diagram.

It should be remembered that the nut and bolts thimble and washers must be of copper
for copper plate and GI for galvanized earth plate or electrode. The pit filled with charcoal
and salt is also connected with a pipe for carrying water from concrete work so that area
for the purpose of increasing dampness and moisture which ultimately reduces earth
resistance. The cement work is covered with iron plate for periodic opening. It is better to
have an independent earth plate in domestic installation.
 Figure: Diagram of Plate Earthing
June Que: What is power factor and why improvement is required in that? 03
2019 Answer:
Power factor is the ratio of active power consumed by the load to the apparent power
demanded by the load.
The poor power factor leads to increased current in the conductor.
The increased current causes more losses in the current carrying conductor resulting into
poor efficiency.
Due to this, the utility imposes additional charges on certain consumer as a penalty of poor
power factor.
Hence, it is necessary to improve the power factor for certain consumers.
The improvement of power factor is very important for both consumers and generating
stations as discussed below :
(i) For consumers. A consumer* has to pay electricity charges for his maximum demand in
kVA plus the units consumed. If the consumer imporves the power factor, then there is a
reduction† in his maximum kVA demand and consequently there will be annual saving due
to maximum demand charges. Although power factor improvement involves extra annual
expenditure on account of p.f. correction equipment, yet improvement of p.f. to a proper
value result in the net annual saving for the consumer.
(ii) For generating stations. A generating station is as much concerned with power factor
improvement as the consumer. The generators in a power station are rated in kVA but the
 useful output depends upon kW output. As station output is kW = kVA × cos φ, therefore,
number of units supplied by it depends upon the power factor. The greater the power
factor of the generating station, the higher is the kWh it delivers to the system. This leads
to the conclusion that improved power factor increases the earning capacity of the power
station

June Que: State and explain in brief important electrical characteristics of battery. 04
2019 Answer:
There are three important characteristics of an accumulator (or storage battery) are: 1.
Voltage 2. Capacity 3. Efficiency
1. Voltage:
The value of emf of a cell does not remain constant but varies with the change in specific
gravity of electrolyte, temperature, and the length of time since it was last charged.

2. Capacity:
There are two types of capacities of a battery.
(i) Ampere – hour capacity: It is the amount of energy which can be supplied by it. It applies
only to a certain range of load current. Thus, it is the product of the rated current during
discharge and the number of hours.
Mathematically,
𝐴 − ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑇𝑑
(ii) Watt-hour capacity: The product of the average battery voltage during the discharge
and ampere -hour capacity is called the watt-hour capacity of the battery.
Mathematically,
𝑊 − ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝑑 𝑇𝑑
Where Vd is the average voltage of the battery during discharge

3. Efficiency:
The efficiency of the battery is the ration of output of the battery during discharging to the
input to the battery during discharging. There are two ways of defining the efficiency of the
battery.
(i) Ampere-hour efficiency: The ratio of output ampere-hour during discharging to the input
ampere-hour during charging of the battery is called ampere-hour efficiency of the battery.
𝐼𝑑 𝑇𝑑
𝜂𝐴−ℎ = × 100
𝐼𝑐 𝑇𝑐
(ii) Watt-hour efficiency: The ratio of output watt-hour during discharging to the input
watt-hours during charging of the battery is called watt-hour efficiency of the battery. It is
also known as the energy efficiency of the battery.
Mathematically,
𝐼𝑑 𝑉𝑑 𝑇𝑑
𝜂𝑊−ℎ = × 100
𝐼𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑇𝑐
June Que: Calculate the electricity bill amount for a month of April, if 4 bulbs of 40 W for 5 h, 07
2019 4 tube lights of 60 W for 5 h, a TV of 100 W for 6 h, a washing machine of 400 W for 3 h,
a water pump of 0.5 HP for 15 minutes are used per day. The cost per unit is Rs 3.50.
Consider 1 HP = 746 watts
Answer:
Let us calculate the energy utilization per day.
Energy utilized by bulbs = no. of bulb x wattage of bulb x duration of operation
Energy utilized by bulbs = 4 x 40 x 5 = 800 Wh
Energy utilized by tube lights = 4 x 60 x 5 = 1200 Wh
Energy utilized by TV = 100 x 6 = 600 Wh
Energy utilized by washing machine = 400 x 3 = 1200 Wh
Energy utilized by Water pump = 0.5 * 746 * 15/60 = 93.25 Wh
Total Energy utilized on per day basis = 3,893.25 Wh = 3.893 kWh or units per day
Total Energy utilized for the month of April = 3.893 * 30 = 116.8 kWh

The electricity bill amount for the month of April is Rs. 408.8.

Nov Que: Discuss types of cables used for residential and commercial wiring. 04
2020 Answer:
In residential and commercial wiring, low tension cables are employed. These cables have
voltage withstanding capacity upto 1000V. Depending on the type of insulation employed,
different types of cables are enlisted as follows:
1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables.
2. Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cabtyre sheathed (CTS) cables.
3. Lead sheathed cables.
4. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables.
5. Weatherproof cables.
6. Flexible cords and cables.
7. XLPE cables.
8. Multi-strand cables.

1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) insulated cables.

VIR, cables are available in 240/415 volt as well as in 650/1,100-volt grades.
VIR cable consists of either tinned copper conductor covered with a layer of vulcanized
Indian rubber insulation. Over the rubber insulation cotton tape sheathed covering is
provided with moisture resistant compound bitumen wax or some other insulating material
for making cables moisture proof. The thickness of rubber insulation depends upon the
voltage grade for Which the cable is required.
 VIR cables

2. Tough rubber sheathed (TRS) or cabtyre sheathed (CTS) cables.

These cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1,100 volt grades and used in CTS (or
TRS) wiring. TRS cable is nothing, but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an outer
protective covering of tough rubber, which provides additional insulation and protection
against wear and tear. These cables are waterproof, hence can be used in wet conditions.
These cables are available as single core, circular twin core, circular three core, flat three
core, twin or three core with an earth continuity conductor (ECC). The cores are insulated
from each other and covered with a common sheathing.

TRS cables

3. Lead sheathed cables.

These cables are available in 240/415 volt grade. The lead sheathed cable is a vulcanized
rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous sheath of lead. The lead sheath
provides very good protection against the absorption of moisture and sufficient protection
against mechanical injury and so can be used without casing or conduit system. It is
available as a single core, flat twin core, flat three core and flat twin or three core with an
earth continuity conductor.

Lead Sheath Cables

 4. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cables.
These cables are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1,100-volt grades and are used in
casing-capping, batten and conduit wiring system. In this type of cable conductor is
insulated with PVC insulation. Since PVC is harder than rubber, PVC cable does not require
cotton taping and braiding over it for mechanical and moisture protection.
PVC cables are most widely used for internal wiring these days. Though the insulation
resistance of PVC is lower than that of VIR but its effect is negligible for low and medium
voltages, below 600V.

Nov Que: Explain the following protective devices in detail: 07

2020 (i) SFU (ii) MCB (iii) ELCB
Answer:
In electrical distribution system of residential, commercial, or industrial buildings, as and
when the fault occurs or abnormality is detected, it becomes necessary to isolate the
abnormal condition from the rest of the connection. This function is fulfilled by using
protective devices such as Fuses, Switch Fuse Units (SFU), MCB or ELCBs. These apparatuses
are discussed below in detail.
(i) SFU –
Switch Fuse Unit(SFU) is a combined unit and is known as an iron clad switch, being made
of iron. It may be double pole for controlling single phase two-wire circuits or triple pole
for controlling three-phase, 3-wire circuits, or triple pole with neutral link for controlling 3-
phase, 4-wire circuits. The respective switches are known as double pole iron clad(DPIC),
triple pole iron clad (TPIC), and triple pole with neutral link iron clad (TPNIC) switches.
Switch Fuse Units are classified into following:
1. For Two-wire DC Circuits or Single-Phase AC Circuits:
240V, 16A, DPIC switch fuse
2. For Three-Wire DC Circuits:
500V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS approved TPIC switch fuse.
3. For Three-Phase Balanced Load Circuits: 415V, 32A
(63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS approved TPIC switch fuse.

(ii) Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):

A miniature circuit breaker is an electromechanical device which operates and
disconnected the circuit when the current reaches a predetermined value. The MCB may
therefore, be used in lieu of fuses and can be fitted in consumer’s distribution panel.
An MCB is a replacement or most modern substitute for a conventional rewirable fuse.
It is more accurate and efficiency system in overload and short circuit protection.
An MCB will normally operate at 1.25 times its rated current i.e. a 20A MCB operates at
25A.
MCB is a device which operate on the two principles for the protection against overload
and short circuit:
1. Thermal for normal overload protection
2. Magnetic for short circuit protection
 The thermal operation is achieved by bimetallic strip, which deflected when heated by any
overcurrent flowing through it. In doing so, it releases latch mechanism and causes the
contact to open.
It possesses inverse time-current characteristics i.e. greater the current short the time
required to operate the MCB.

(iii) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):

It is a device designed to prevent death, injury and fire arising from electric shock to a
human body or a loose current carrying wire accidentally touching an earthed metal part
of a component. The component cuts off the supply before any hazard occurs.
It is a current operated device designed to operate when a leakage current exceeds a
predetermined value. It essentially consists of an operating coil and a trip mechanism which
operates contacts controlling the supply to the circuit.

Nov Que: Explain the construction of the lead-acid battery with neat diagram 04
2020 Answer:
The various parts of the lead acid battery are as follows:
1. Positive Plate or Anode: It is lead peroxide (PbO2) plate of chocolate, dark brown color.
2. Negative Plate or Cathode: It is made up of pure lead (Pb) which is grey in color.
3. Electrolyte: For necessary chemical action, aqueous solution of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is
used as an electrolyte.
4. Separators: The positive and negative plates are arranged in groups and are placed
alternately. The separators are used to prevent them from coming in contact with each
other short circuiting the cell.
5. Container: The entire assembly of plates along with the solution is placed in the plastic
or ceramic container.
6. Bottom blocks: To prevent short circuiting of cell due to active material fallen from the
plates, the space known as bottom blocks is provided at the bottom of the container.
7. Plate Connector: The number of negative and positive plates are assembled alternately.
To connect positive plates together (or negative plates together) separate connectors are
used which are called plate connectors. The upward connection of plates are nothing but
the terminals of the cell.
8. Vent Plug: These are made of rubber and screwed to the cover of the cell. Its function is
to allow the escape of gases and prevent escape of the electrolyte.

Figure below shows the construction of lead acid battery.

Nov Que: Explain different types of earthing and its importance in electrical utility system in 07
2020 detail.
Answer:
Earthing means the connection of the neutral point of the supply system or the non-
current carrying parts of electrical apparatus such as metallic framework (CPU body),
metallic covering of cables, earth terminals of socket outlet etc. to the general mass of
the earth by wire of negligible resistance in such a manner that at all times an immediate
discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger.
This brings the body of the equipment to zero potential and thus will avoid the electric
shock to the operator.
There are various types of achieving the zero potential and few of the common types are
as follows:
1. Strip earthing or wire earthing
2. Earthing through water mains
3. Rod Earthing
4. Pipe earthing
5. Plate earthing

Diagram of pipe earthing

The pipe earthing is explained below.

Pipe earthing:
Taking into consideration the factors such as initial cost, inspection, resistance
measurement etc. the GI pipe earthing is the best form of ground connection. Iron is the
cheapest material and remains serviceable even if put in salty mass of earth. The pipe used
as earth electrode is galvanized and perforated.
According to ISI standard specifications, the galvanized pipe shall not be less than 38 mm
diameter and 2 meter long for ordinary soil but if the soil is dry and rocky, the length of the
 pipe should be increased to 2.75 meter. The diameter of the pipe has little effect on the
resistance of the earth connection.
The pipe must be placed in a permanently wet ground. The depth at which the pipe should
be buried depends upon condition of the soil and moisture. According to ISI, the pipe
should be placed at a depth of 4.75 meter again depending upon moisture.
The pipe having tapered casting at the bottom is placed up right in that pit. The charcoal
and salt are filled in that pit alternately in layers upto about 2 meters from the bottom and
for a distance of about 15 cm around the pipe to increase dampness and moisture around
each pipe. The pipe placed has 12 mm diameter holes drilled in it so that water poured
from top is made to spread in the charcoal layers through the holes to decrease earth
resistance accordingly. The pit of about 40 cm2 is dug in the soil.
At the top, a cement concrete work is made for the protection of earth pipe from
mechanical damage and to facilitate water pouring arrangements for provision of
dampness. A funnel with wire mesh is provided in the concrete work so that water is put
through that funnel to have an effective earth.
Another GI pipe is taken from the funnel towards outer side for its connection to earth
wire. According to ISI specifications, GI wire of size not less than 8 SWG(standard wire
gauge) should be used for earthing in case of small installations. The earth wire from the
GI pipe of 19 mm diameter should be carried in a GI pipe of diameter 12.7 mm at a depth
of about 60 cm below the ground.
The size of continuous earth wire used with cables in domestic installation should not be
less than 14 SWG in any case. It is important to note that the earth wire must be electrically
continuous.

Jan 2019 Que: Give a list of safety devices used for home appliances. 03
Answer:
Following is the list of safety devices used for home appliances:
1. Fuse
2. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
3. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
4. Residual current devices (RCDs)
In addition to above, following devices can also be used for protection:
5. Ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs)
6. Arc fault circuit breakers (AFCBs)
7. Surge protection devices (SPDs)
Jan 2019 Que: Why the consumers should improve their power factor? 04
Answer:
The consumer should Improve their power factor in installation as it presents several
technical and economic advantages, notably in the reduction of electricity bills.
The poor power factor leads to increased current in the conductor.
The increased current causes more losses in the current carrying conductor resulting into
poor efficiency.
Improving the PF can maximize current-carrying capacity, improve voltage to equipment,
reduce power losses, and lower electric bills.
Jan 2019 Que: What is MCCB? Where is it used? 03
Answer:
The Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) provides overload and short circuit protection
to normal service apart from serving as a circuit breaker. The overload and instantaneous
tripping element are adjustable over wide range. This makes it ideal for distribution
applications.
Jan 2019 Que: Compute the monthly energy charges for an air conditioner having consumption of 04
2 kW. Daily usage of the air conditioner is 10 hours. Energy charges are Rs 8 per unit.
Answer:
Let us calculate the energy utilization of an air conditioner (AC) per day.
Energy utilized by AC per day = Consumption of AC x duration of operation of AC
Energy utilized by AC per day = 2kW x 10 hours = 20 kWh (units)
Considering an average month of 30 days,
Energy utilized by AC per month = 20 kWh x 30 days = 600 kWh (units)
Since the energy charges per units are Rs. 8 per unit. The total electricity bill of AC for the
month = 600 kWh x Rs. 8/- per unit = Rs. 4800

Jan 2019 Que: Write a short note on Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) 04
Answer:

A miniature circuit breaker is an electromechanical device which operates and

disconnected the circuit when the current reaches a predetermined value. The MCB may
therefore, be used in lieu of fuses and can be fitted in consumer’s distribution panel.
An MCB is a replacement or most modern substitute for a conventional rewirable fuse.
It is more accurate and efficiency system in overload and short circuit protection.
An MCB will normally operate at 1.25 times its rated current i.e., a 20A MCB operates at
25A compared with 30A for cartridge fuse or 40A for rewireable fuse. Other advantages of
MCB are that they can be quickly reset by hand after operations without any cost and they
can be reclosed if the fault still exists. They can be manually reclosed after rectifying the
 fault. Also, the MCB which has tripped due to overload or short circuit can be readily
identified as the knob automatically moves to the OFF position.

MCB is a device which operate on the two principles for the protection against overload
and short circuit:
1. Thermal for normal overload protection
2. Magnetic for short circuit protection
The thermal operation is achieved by bimetallic strip, which deflected when heated by any
overcurrent flowing through it. In doing so, it releases latch mechanism and causes the
contact to open.
It possesses inverse time-current characteristics i.e. greater the current short the time
required to operate the MCB.
When the short circuit occurs, the rising current energizes the solenoid operating plunger
to strike the trip lever causing immediate release of the latch mechanism. Rapidity of the
magnetic solenoid operation causes instantaneous opening of contacts.
Application of MCB:
MCBS are required in homes, offices, shops, distribution boards for protection of individual
circuit and complete wiring system.
MCBs are slightly expensive than fuses but this is offset by the fact that no cost is involved
in resetting them.

Jan 2019 Que: Write a short note on Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) 04
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is current operated device designed to operate
when leakage current exceeds a predetermined value. It essentially consists of an operating
coil and a trip mechanism which operates contacts controlling the supply to the circuit
concerned.
Consider a single-phase circuit. The two supply wires i.e. phase and neutral are fed through
separate winding of current transformer as shown in the figure. Another winding controls
the tripping mechanism. The current through the phase wire is equal to the current in the
neutral wire i.e. 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑛 .

Circuit Diagram of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

 Therefore, the fluxes linking the phase and neutral conductor are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction. Thus, no flux links with the tripping winding. Hence, no induced emf
is produced at the secondary or tripping winding. However, if more current flows in the
phase conductor than in the neutral conductor as a result of leakage or fault between phase
and earth, an out of balance flux will result in an emf being in the trip coil of secondary coil
wound on the transformer. This will open the contacts of ELCB and isolate the circuit from
the supply.

A test button is included in the ELCB testing the trip mechanism. ELCB should be tested by
pressing the “Test Switch”, at least once in a month. If the ELCB does not trip even after
pressing the “Test Switch”, it means that the ELCB has become faulty and will not trip even
if the human body comes in contact with live conductor.
Jan 2020 Que: Classify different types of cables with reference to voltage and insulation materials. 03
Answer:
The underground cable is classified mainly as follows:
1. According to the voltage level
2. According to the insulation material used.
Usually, classification according to voltage level is preferred.

1. According to voltage level, cables are classified as:

(i) Low Voltage (LT) Cables – upto 1 kV
(ii) High Voltage (HT) cables – upto 11 kV
(iii) Super Tension (ST) cables – upto 33 kV
(iv) Extra High Tension (EHT) cables – upto 66 kV
(v) Extra Super Voltage cables – upto 132 kV and above

According to the insulating material, cables are classified as:

(i) Vulcanized Rubber Sheathed (VRS) cables
(ii) Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) cables
(iii) Cab Tyre Sheathed (CTS) cables
(iv) Weatherproof cables
(v) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) cables
(vi) Lead Sheathed cables

Jan 2020 Que: Explain the process of charging and discharging of Lead acid cell. 07
Answer:
When a lead acid cell is ready for use, its positive plate is of lead peroxide (PbO2)- chocolate
brown in color and negative plate is of spongy lead (Pb)- grey in color. Both the plates are
immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.28. When the load is connected
across the terminals of the cell, it starts delivering current to the load and this process is
called as discharging of cell. In this process chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
 Operation of Lead Acid Battery

Discharging Operation of Cell:

When the load is connected, the sulphate ions move towards cathode and hydrogen ions
moves toward anode. The following chemical action takes place.
At cathode, Pb + SO4  PbSO4
At anode, PbO2 + H2SO4 +2H  PbSO4 + 2H2O
Thus during discharging :
Both plates are converted to lead sulphate
Specific gravity of sulphuric acid is 1.15
Terminal voltage fall from 2.0 V to 1.8 V
Chemical energy changes to electrical energy

Charging Operation of Cell:

For recharging anode is connected to positive terminal of source and cathode is connected
to negative terminal. During this hydrogen ions moves towards cathode and sulphate ions
towards anode.
At anode, PbSO4+ O + H2O  PbO2 + H2SO4
At cathode, PbSO4 + 2H  Pb + H2SO4

During recharging :
Plates regain their original composition
Specific gravity of acid become 1.28
Terminal voltage increases from 1.8 V to 2.0 V
Electrical energy converted to chemical energy which is stored in cell.
Jan 2020 Que: Compare MCB and ELCB. 03

MCB ELCB
The MCB is only installed for one cable The ELCB is installed for both cables i.e. phase
i.e. phase cable and neutral.
MCB only functions as security when ELCB functions when there is electrocution or
there is overcurrent or short circuit. electric shock or when there is current surge.
The MCB cannot work for human The ELCB works primarily for human safety.
safety.
The MCB cannot detect leakage The ELCB can detect leakage current and
current. provide protection against it.
It is relatively cheap than ELCB It is relative expensive that MCB.
Jan 2020 Que: Write safety precautions for electrical Applications. 04
Answer:
Following precautions should be taken while working with the electricity:
1. Never work with bare feet. It is better to wear rubber shoes while working.
2. Use safety belt before starting the work on the electric pole or tower.
3. Phase or positive wire should always be connected through the switch.
4. Before replacing the blown fuse, always switch off the main switch.
5. Do not disconnect the flexible wire of an electrical apparatus from the socket by pulling
it out.
6. Do not touch electrical installation without any purpose.
7. Always keep earth connection in good condition.
8. Do not charge the battery in a dark room. The wrong connection may lead to hazard.
9. In case of fire, do not throw water on a live wire and equipment, it is dangerous. The
best remedy is to disconnect the main supply immediately.

Jan 2020 Que: Explain different methods of power factor improvement 07

Answer:
Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region
of 0·8 to 0·9. However, sometimes it is lower, and, in such cases, it is generally desirable to
take special steps to improve the power factor. This can be achieved by the following
equipment :
1. Static capacitors.
2. Synchronous condenser.
3. Phase advancers.
 Static Capacitor for Power Factor Improvement

1. Static capacitor.
The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the equipment
operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static condenser)
draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging reactive
component of load current. This raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads,
the capacitors can be connected in delta or star as shown in Fig. Static capacitors are
invariably used for power factor improvement in factories.

2. Synchronous condenser
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore, behaves
as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as
synchronous condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it
takes a leading current which partly neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load.
Thus, the power factor is improved.

Synchronous condenser for Power Factor Improvement

Fig shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3φ load
takes
current IL at low lagging power factor cos 𝜑𝐿 . The synchronous condenser takes a current
∗
𝐼𝑚 which leads the voltage by an angle 𝜑𝑚 . The resultant current 𝐼 is the phasor sum of 𝐼𝑚
and 𝐼𝐿 and lags the voltage by an angle 𝜑. It is clear that 𝜑 is less than 𝜑𝐿 so that cos 𝜑 is
greater than cos 𝜑𝐿 . Thus, the power factor is increased from cos 𝜑𝐿 to cos 𝜑.
Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for power
factor improvement.

3. Phase advancers.
Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of induction motors. The low power
factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator winding draws exciting current
which lags behind the supply voltage by 90o. If the exciting ampere turns can be provided
from some other a.c. source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current,
and the power factor of the motor can be improved. This job is accomplished by the phase
advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter. The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft
as the main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It provides exciting
ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By providing more ampere turns than
required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an over-
excited synchronous motor.