Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr.
Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
CHAPTER 7: Data Analysis
(Results and Discussion)
OBJECTIVES
In this chapter, we will show how to perform data analysis to obtain accurate results
so that readers can replicate them. The third major section of a research paper
includes results and discussion. The results section contains facts related to your
experiment. We should use figures, tables, and equations so that understanding our
data becomes easier. The results are interpreted in the discussion section.
7.1 Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
A measurable amount is referred as “quantity.” Therefore, something that one
can express in the results with a specific amount that could be compared can be
called as quantitative research. Imagine a researcher trying to gain insights about the
amount of pollution and its percentage impact. Such a research is a case of
quantitative research- that has rigorous experimentation and many findings.
Therefore, for the said example findings can be different plots with percentile
impacts on people in different geographical areas and so on.
In case of qualitative research, its deals with subjective analysis. More of
psychological aspects involved here. A survey about how much people are depressed
if they spend time on social media can be an example of qualitative analysis. We can
relate it to the behavior or cognitive sciences. A very common example we can say
about qualitative analysis is of social network sites. We often get recommendations
for some specific posts. Though there is some sort of intelligence embedded in the
methodology that is used, but the outcomes are qualitative. We get to know the kind
of person, his/her likes, dislikes and so on.
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
7.2 Results and Discussion
After performing the experiment on our chosen problem, we should prepare the
section on results and discussion. In this section, we should give all evidence
relevant to the research problem and its solution. A bare statement of the findings is
not enough; the implications need to be informed. Data analysis and the report must
be accurate. These must be based on the research questions we have formulated. This
section must include statistical operations. We compare our findings to see whether
they agree with previous research. We inform the strengths and weaknesses of our
work and our suggestions for the study. In addition, we can show the direction of
our future research.
The organization of the results section should be as follows:
1- We start with a paragraph, not tables or figures.
2- We produce tables and figures after mentioning them in the text.
3- We can explain if any data are missing or problems exist.
4- We explain the main results and compare our expectation (hypothesis) with
that of other researchers.
5- We explain all other interesting trends in our data.
7.3 Methods of displaying analyzed data
Having analyzed the data that we collected through either quantitative or
qualitative method(s), the next task is to present our findings to our readers. The
main purpose of using data display techniques is to make the findings easy and clear
to understand, and to provide extensive and comprehensive information in a succinct
and effective way. There are many ways of presenting information. The choice of a
particular method should be determined primarily by our impressions/knowledge of
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our likely readership’s familiarity with the topic and with the research methodology
and statistical procedures. If our readers are likely to be familiar with ‘reading’ data,
we can use complicated methods of data display; if not, it is wise to keep to simple
techniques. Although there are many ways of displaying data, this chapter is limited
to the more commonly used ones. There are many computer programs that can help
us with this task.
Broadly, there are five ways of communicating and displaying the analyzed data.
These are:
1- text;
2- tables;
3- graphs;
4- statistical measures; and
5- equations.
Because of the nature and purpose of investigation in qualitative research, text
becomes the dominant and usually the sole mode of communication. In quantitative
studies, the text is very commonly combined with other forms of data display
methods, the extent of which depends upon your familiarity with them, the purpose
of the study and what you think would make it easier for your readership to
understand the content and sustain their interest in it. Hence as a researcher, it is
entirely up to you to decide the best way of communicating your findings to your
readers.
7.3.1 Text
Text, by far, is the most common method of communication in both quantitative
and qualitative research studies and, perhaps, the only method in the latter. It is,
therefore, essential that we know how to communicate effectively, keeping in view
the level of understanding, interest in the topic and need for academic and scientific
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
rigor of those for whom we are writing. Our style should be such that it strikes a
balance between academic and scientific rigor and the level that attracts and sustains
the interest of our readers.
7.3.2 Tables
Other than text, tables are the most common method of presenting analyzed data.
Tables offer a useful means of presenting large amounts of detailed information in a
small space. They can dramatically clarify text, provide visual relief, and serve as
quick point of reference. It is, therefore, essential for beginners to know about their
structure and types. Figure 7.1 shows the structure of a table.
A table has five parts:
a- Title – This normally indicates the table number and describes the type of data
the table contains. It is important to give each table its own number as we will
need to refer to the tables when interpreting and discussing the data (refer
them with Table 1, Table 2, ...). The tables should be numbered sequentially
as they appear in the text. The description accompanying the table number
must clearly specify the contents of that table.
b- Stub – The subcategories of a variable, listed along the y-axis (the left-hand
column of the table). The stub, usually the first column on the left, lists the
items about which information is provided in the horizontal rows to the right.
It is a vertical listing of categories or individuals about which information is
given in the columns of the table.
c- Column headings – The subcategories of a variable, listed along the x-axis
(the top of the table).
d- Body – The cells housing the analyzed data.
e- Supplementary notes or footnotes – There are four types of footnote: source
notes; other general notes; notes on specific parts of the table; and notes on
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the level of probability. These notes should be identified at the bottom of the
table.
Figure 7.1: The structure of a table.
Examples of tables include:
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
7.3.3 Graphs
Graphs are good for showing the overall trends and are much easier to
understand. Graphs and tables should not depict the same data. Figures (refer them
with Fig. 7.1, Fig. 7.2, ...) should be presented as part of the text, leaving enough
space so that the caption is not confused with the text. The caption should be self-
contained and placed below or beside the figure. Generally, only original drawings
or photographic reproductions are acceptable. Utmost care must be taken to correctly
align the figures with the text. If possible, you should include your figures as images
in the electronic version.
For the best image quality, the pictures should have a resolution of 300 dpi (dots
per inch). Color figures are good for the online version of the journal. Generally,
these figures will be produced in black and white in the print version, partly for
reducing the cost of publication. We can use many different types of graphs to show
our results: histogram, bar chart, line graph, scatter plot, etc.
a- The histogram
A histogram consists of a series of rectangles drawn next to each other without
any space between them, each representing the frequency of a category or
subcategory (Figures, 7.2a,b,c). Their height is in proportion to the frequency they
represent. A histogram can be drawn for both categorical and continuous variables.
Figure 7.2a Two-dimensional histogram
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
Figure 7.2b Three-dimensional histogram
Figure 7.2c Two-dimensional histogram with two variables
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b- The bar chart
The bar chart or diagram is used for displaying categorical data (Figure 7.3). A
bar chart is identical to a histogram, except that in a bar chart the rectangles
representing the various frequencies are spaced, thus indicating that the data is
categorical. The bar chart is used for variables measured on nominal or ordinal
scales. The discrete categories are usually displayed along the x-axis and the number
or percentage of respondents on the y-axis. However, as illustrated, it is possible to
display the discrete categories along the y-axis. The bar chart is an effective way of
visually displaying the magnitude of each subcategory of a variable.
Figure 7.3 Bar charts
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
c- The stacked bar chart
A stacked bar chart is similar to a bar chart except that in the former each bar
shows information about two or more variables stacked onto each other vertically
(Figure 7.4). The sections of a bar show the proportion of the variables they represent
in relation to one another. The stacked bars can be drawn only for categorical data.
Figure 7.4 The stacked bar chart
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
d- The pie chart
The pie chart is another way of representing data graphically (Figure 7.5), this
time as a circle. There are 360 degrees in a circle, and so the full circle can be used
to represent 100 per cent, or the total population. The circle or pie is divided into
sections in accordance with the magnitude of each subcategory, and so each slice is
in proportion to the size of each subcategory of a frequency distribution. The
proportions may be shown either as absolute numbers or as percentages. Manually,
pie charts are more difficult to draw than other types of graph because of the
difficulty in measuring the degrees of the pie/circle. They can be drawn for both
qualitative data and variables measured on a continuous scale but grouped into
categories.
Figure 7.5 Two- and three-dimensional pie charts
e- The line diagram or trend curve
A set of data measured on a continuous interval or a ratio scale can be displayed
using a line diagram or trend curve. A trend line can be drawn for data pertaining to
both a specific time (e.g. 1995, 1996, 1997) or a period (e.g. 1985–1989, 1990–1994,
1995–). If it relates to a period, the midpoint of each interval at a height
commensurate with each frequency – as in the case of a frequency polygon – is
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
marked as a dot. These dots are then connected with straight lines to examine trends
in a phenomenon. If the data pertains to exact time, a point is plotted at a height
commensurate with the frequency. These points are then connected with straight
lines. A line diagram is a useful way of visually conveying the changes when long-
term trends in a phenomenon or situation need to be studied, or the changes in the
subcategory of a variable are measured on an interval or a ratio scale (Figure 7.6).
Trends plotted as a line diagram are more clearly visible than in a table. For example,
a line diagram would be useful for illustrating trends in birth or death rates and
changes in population size.
Figure 7.6 The line diagram or trend curve
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Research Methodologies Prepared by: Dr. Muhanad Tahrir Younis (2020-2021)
7.3.4 Statistical measures
Statistical measures are extremely effective in communicating the findings in a
precise and succinct manner. Their use in certain situations is desirable and in some
it is essential, however, we can conduct a perfectly valid study without using any
statistical measure.
There are many statistical measures ranging from very simple to extremely
complicated. On one end of the spectrum, we have simple descriptive measures such
as mean, mode, median and, on the other; there are inferential statistical measures
like analysis of variance, factorial analysis, multiple regressions.
Because of its vastness, statistics is considered a separate academic discipline
and before we are able to use these measures, we need to learn about them.
Use of statistical measures is dependent upon the type of data collected, our
knowledge of statistics, the purpose of communicating the findings, and the
knowledge base in statistics of our readership.
Before using statistical measures, make sure the data lends itself to the
application of statistical measures, we have sufficient knowledge about them, and
our readership can understand them.
7.3.5 Equations
Equations (refer them with Eq. 1, Eq. 2, . . .) should be indented 5 mm (0.2”).
There should be one line of space above and below the equations. They should be
numbered sequentially, and the number should be put in parentheses at the right-
hand margin. Equations should be punctuated as if they were part of the text.
Punctuation appears after the equation but before the equation number, such as
c2 = a2 + b2. (1)
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7.4 Examples of Results and Discussion
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