TOPICS & SYLLABUS:

Topic 1: Site investigation

Topic 2: Slope Stability
Topic 3: Shallow Foundations
Topic 4: Mat (Raft) Foundations
Topic 5: Pile Foundations
Topic 6: Earth Retaining Structures

1
 Topic 3: Shallow Foundations
Key points of a foundation design:
(a) shall be safe against overall shear failure (Ultimate Limit State);
(b) cannot undergo excessive displacement (Serviceability Limit State).
I. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (ULS) II. Settlement (SLS)
❖ General Concept ❖ Types of Settlement
❖ Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Theory ❖ Elastic Settlement
❖ Effect of Groundwater Table ❖ Consolidation Settlement
❖ Factor of Safety
❖ General Bearing Capacity Equation
❖ Eccentrically Loaded Foundations
❖ Special Cases

2
Ma On Shan, HK 2002
Civil Engineering 2022/2023
Subject: Geotechnical Design (CSE40403)

Topic 3 Shallow Foundations

II. Settlement

By Dr. Ning Zhang

Office: ZS928, Tel: 3400-8473
Email: [email protected]
Consultation hours: 15:00~17:00 Monday
3
Types of Foundation Settlement
Foundation settlement under load can be classified to:
(1) Immediate, or elastic settlement, Se
(2) Consolidation settlement, Sc Primary consolidation settlement Sc(p)
Secondary consolidation settlement Sc(s)
Se

Sc(p)

Clayey soils?
Sandy soils?

Sc(s)

Stresses in ground induced by surface loading have to be clear! 4

 II.1 Stresses in ground
K0 = 1 − sin c
❖ Stress due to self-weight of soils
K0 = (1 − sin c ) OCR sin c

sz=gh s h = K 0s z -
efective stress

sh=? (s h = K 0s z ? ) (x)

(s h = s h + u ) (√)
6n = k 06之 tu
Example 1:
Please plot the distribution of vertical stress (total/effective) and horizontal
stress (total/effective) along the depth for four cases.
Cas-1 Cas-2 Cas-3 Cas-4

gsat, c,  g, c,  g1, c1, 1

H g, c,  H H
hw hw
h2 g2, c2, 2

(assuming g ≈ gsat) (assuming g1 ≈ g1sat)

5
 II.1 Stresses in ground
Example 1:
Please plot the distribution of vertical stress (total/effective) and horizontal stress
(total/effective) along the depth for four cases.
Cas-1

H g, c, 

Cas-2

H gsat, c, 

6
 II.1 Stresses in ground
Example 1:
Please plot the distribution of vertical stress (total/effective) and horizontal stress
(total/effective) along the depth for four cases.
Cas-1

H g, c, 

s'z=sz=gH s'h=sh=K0gH

Cas-2

Attention: s h = K 0s z (No)
H gsat, c,  s h = s h + u = K 0s z + u  K 0s z (Yes )

sz=gsatH sh=s'h+u=K0(gsat-gw)H+gwH
s'z=(gsat-gw)H s'h=K0s’z=K0(gsat-gw)H
7
 II.1 Stresses in ground
Example 1:
Please plot the distribution of vertical stress (total/effective) and horizontal stress
(total/effective) along the depth for four cases.
Cas-3

g, c, 
H
hw

(assuming g ≈ gsat)

Cas-4

g1, c1, 1
H
hw
h2 g2, c2, 2

(assuming g1 ≈ g1sat)
8
 II.1 Stresses in ground
Example 1:
Please plot the distribution of vertical stress (total/effective) and horizontal stress
(total/effective) along the depth for four cases.
Cas-3 (assuming g ≈ gsat)

g, c,  s'z=sz=g(H-hw) s'h=sh=K0g(H-hw)
H
hw
sz=gsatH sh=s'h+u=s'h+gwhw
s'z=g(H-hw)+(gsat-gw) hw s'h=K0g(H-hw)+K0(gsat-gw) hw

Cas-4 (two layers) (assuming g1 ≈ g1sat)

s z1 = s z1 = g 1 ( H − hw ) , s h1 = s h1 = K 0s z1
g1, c1, 1 s'z1(sz1)
H s z 2 = s z1 + ( g 1 − g w )( hw − h2 ) , s h 2 = K 0s z 2
s'z2(sz2)
hw s z 2 = s z1 + g 1 ( hw − h2 ) , s h 2 = K 0s z2 + g w ( hw − h2 )
h2 g2, c2, 2
s'z3(sz3) s z3 = s z 2 + ( g 2 − g w ) h2 , s h 3 = K 0s z3
s z 3 = s z 2 + g 2 h2 , s h 3 = K 0s z3 + g w h2 9
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
Forms of external surface load

Point load Linear load Triangular load

Circular uniform load Rectangular strip load Triangular strip load

Irregular uniform load

10
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
(Google map:
https://www.google.com/maps/place/Phase+8+(Block+Z),+The+Hong+Kong+Polytechnic+University/@22
.3066481,114.1783823,18z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x340400e80cc5a513:0xf260aecd5ec53016!8m
2!3d22.3066456!4d114.1794793?hl=en&authuser=0)

(Remark: “Point” is a relative concept relating to the land)

Electric line pole Obelisk in Paris IFC (HK)

11
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
Recall
❑ Stress due to a Concentrated Load P
Stresses at any point inside homogeneous, x
elastic, and isotropic mediums due to a r
concentrated point load located at the surface:
 3Pz 3 3P y R
s =
 z 2 R 5 = z
2 52
 2 z 1+ ( r z ) 
2 

  
 A (x,y,z)
3P  zx 2 1 − 2  R 2 − Rz − z 2 x ( 2 R + z )  
2
s x =
z
 5 +  3 − 3  sz
 2  R 3  R ( R + z ) R ( R + z )2  
  
 3P  zy 2 1 − 2  R 2 − Rz − z 2 x ( 2 R + z )  
2
s y =  5 +  3 − 3 2 
 2  R 3  R ( R + z ) R ( R + z )  

 3P  xyz (1 − 2 ) xy ( 2 R + z ) 

 xy =   =  5 − 2
 ( ) 
yx
 2  R 3 R 3
R + z
 2
 =  = − 3Pyz
 yz zy
2 R 5
 2
 =  = − 3Pxz J. V. Boussinesq
 xz 12
2 R 5
zx
(1842-1929, France)
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
Recall
❑ Stress due to a uniform circular load
3P 3 ( q0 rd dr )
s z = 52
 ds z = 52
2 z 2 1+ ( r z )  2 z 2 1+ ( r z ) 
2 2
   

 
clc 2 B 2
2 −3 2
close all  s =
  ds z = q0 1 − 1 + ( B 2 z ) 

clear
z  
 =0 r =0
%%
Matlab code and plot? (only under the center point)
☆
p=1;
nu=0.3;
x=0.1:0.1:10;
z=(0.1:0.1:10)';
% [x,z]=meshgrid(X,Z);
r=x; sz
% R=sqrt(r.^2+z.^2);
%%
for i=1:length(x)
for j=1:length(z)
Much simplified from
r=x(i); this program!
R=sqrt(r^2+z(i)^2);
r_z(j,i)=r/z(j);
I1(j,i)=3/(2*pi)/((1+(r/z(j))^2)^2.5); %r/z(j)
sigz(j,i)=p/z(j)^2*I1(j,i);
end
end 14
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
Recall
❑ Stress due to a uniform circular load
3P 3 ( q0 rd dr )
s z = 52
 ds z = 52
2 z 2 1+ ( r z )  2 z 2 1+ ( r z ) 
2 2
   

 
2 B 2 −3 2

  ds z = q0 1 − 1 + ( B 2 z ) 
2
 s z =
 
=0 r =0

Ir for a Uniformly Loaded Flexible Circular Area

s zr = q0 I r
szr sz
'

with an
eccentricaly from the
cirde center

15
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
Recall
❑ Stress due to a uniform rectangular load
3P 3 ( q0 dxdy )
s z = 52
 ds z = 52
2 z 2 1+ ( r z )  2 z 2 1+ ( r z ) 
2 2
   
L B
 s z =   ds z = q0 I
OGz = q I ( at thecornery
y =0 x =0
.

1  2mn(m 2 + n 2 + 2) −1 2mn m + n + 1
2 2 
90 Ic Co is the center
I=  + tan  o 6zz )
4  (1 + n 2 )(1 + m 2 ) m 2 + n 2 + 1 m 2 + n 2 + 1 − m 2 n 2 
with m = B z , n = L z sz
General case
General case

s z = q0 ( I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 )

s z = q0 I c (A special case: O in the center)

2 m1n1 (m12 + 2n12 + 1) m1 
Ic =  + sin −1 
  (1 + n12 )(n12 + m12 ) m12 + n12 + 1 m12 + n12 1 + n12 

with m1 = L B , n1 = 2 z B 16
z m=B z
n=L z

17
z m=B z
n=L z

18
s z = q0 I c (A special case: O in the center) m1 = L B , n1 = 2 z B

19
 ❑ Stress due to a uniform rectangular load dQ p
Example 2: applying the principle of superposition to calculate the stress at M y
A D
Case-1 x l
M b
z
B C
M
A D

Case-2
z

B C

M
A F
Case-3
M
B E

20
C D
 ❑ Stress due to a uniform rectangular load dQ p
Example 2: applying the principle of superposition to calculate the stress at M y
A G D
Case-1 x l
M
E F b
AEMG+EBHM+MHCF+GMFD z
B H C
M
A G D

Case-2 z
AEMG-BEMH+GMFD-HMFC
B H C
E F
M
A F
Case-3
M
B E ABCM+MDFE

D 21
C
 ❑ Stress due to a uniform rectangular load dQ p
Example 2: applying the principle of superposition to calculate the stress at M y
A E
x l
Case-4 b
M D z
M

B C z
K J
Case-5
A M I H

B C F G

D E
22
 ❑ Stress due to a uniform rectangular load dQ p
Example 2: applying the principle of superposition to calculate the stress at M y
A E
AFME+FBGM+MGCD x l
Case-4 b
F
M D z
M

B G C z
K J
Case-5
A M I H

B C F G

ABCM+KMIJ+MDEI+MCGH-MCIF
D E
23
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)

❑ Approximate 2:1 method

Foundation engineers often use an approximate method to determine the
increase in stress with depth caused by the construction of a foundation.
The method is referred to as the 2:1 method.

q0 BL
s z =
( B + z )( L + z )

z/2 z/2
24
 B L
Example 3 A flexible rectangular area measures 2.5 m×5 m in plan. It supports
a load of 150 kN/m2. q 150 KNlm
0
=

Determine the vertical stress increase due to the load at a depth of

L
6.25 m below the center of the rectangular area.
B
(1) Using general rectangular index method; at corner z 6 25
matcenter
=
.

(2) Using simplified center point index method;

LGz
(3) using 2:1 method
) m= Blz ,
n= Llz
②) M = LB ,
M = 2ZlB

25
 Example 3 A flexible rectangular area measures 2.5 m×5 m in plan. It supports
a load of 150 kN/m2.
Determine the vertical stress increase due to the load at a depth of
6.25 m below the center of the rectangular area.
Solution 2: s = q I m = L B , n = 2 z B
z 0 c 1 1

Solution 1: s z =  q0 I m = B z; n = L z

Solution 3: using 2:1 method q0 BL 150  2.5  5

s z = = = 19.05 kPa
( B + z )( L + z ) ( 2.5 + 6.25)( 5 + 6.25) 26
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
 2mn m 2 + n 2 + 1 
❑ Average vertical stress increase (for a thickness of soil) I=
1

4
2mn(m 2 + n 2 + 2)
 (1 + n 2 )(1 + m 2 ) m 2 + n 2 + 1
+ tan −1 2 
m + n 2 + 1 − m 2 n 2 

s z = q0 I with m = B z , n = L z

1 H
 s av =  ( q0 I ) dz = q0 I a
H 0

I a = f ( m2 , n2 )
m2 = B H
n2 = L H At the comer

27
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)
❑ Average vertical stress increase (within a thickness of soil)
s z = q0 I
1 H2 H 2 I a(H2 ) − H1 I a(H1 )
 s av =  ( q0 I ) dz = q0
H H1 H 2 − H1
I a = f ( m2 , n2 )
m2 = B H
H2-H1=H n2 = L H corner
At the

28
Example 4
Refer to the Figure below. Determine the average stress
increase below the center of the loaded area between z
= 3 m to z = 5 m (that is, between points A and A’).

(only 1/4 of load)

(for whole load)

29
II.1 Stresses in ground (induced by surface loading of different geometries)

❑ Stress increase under an embankment

For this two-dimensional loading condition
(continuous, plane strain), the vertical
stress increase may be expressed as
1  B1 + B2  B1 
s z = q0   ( +  ) −  
  B2  1 2 B2 2 
= q0 I  Try Matlab code and plot?

 B1 + B2 
1 = tan −1   − 2
 z 
sz
(1 & 2 in radians)  = tan −1  B1 
2  
 z 

(Theoretical derivation can be based on combined

stresses in ground under different load forms.)
30
 … “

|
Example 5
An embankment is shown in the figure.
Determine the stress increase under the
m
embankment at points A1 and A2.

q0 = g H = 17.5  7 = 122.5 kN/m 2 (109.03 kPa)

Solution for “stress increase at A1”:

 B1 
 2 = tan −1  
B2 B1  z 
B +B 
1 = tan −1  1 2  −  2
 z 
1  B1 + B2  B1 
I =   (  +  ) −  
  B2  1 2 B2 2 

s = s (1) + s (2) = 2q0 I 

31
Example 5
An embankment is shown in the figure.
Determine the stress increase under the
embankment at points A1 and A2.

q0 = g H = 17.5  7 = 122.5 kN/m 2 (44.76 kPa)

Solution for “stress increase at A2”:

 B1 
B1 B2  2 = tan −1  
 z 
B2 (B1=0) B +B 
1 = tan −1  1 2  −  2
90 =h  z 

1 I =
1  B1 + B2 
  (  +
  B2  1 2 B2 2 
 ) −
B1 
 

s = s (1) + s (2) − s (3)

z=5 m

B2 (B1=0)
32
In summary

Foundation settlement under load can be classified to:

(1) Immediate, or elastic settlement, Se Depending on soils!
(2) Consolidation settlement, Sc primary, secondary

Settlements are due to applied loadings, to estimate which we need to make

clear the stress distribution in ground subjected to loads:
❑ Recall of stress due to a Concentrated Load
❑ Recall of stress due to a uniform circular load
❑ Recall of stress due to a uniform rectangular load
❑ Approximate 2:1 method
❑ Average vertical stress increase (for a thickness of soils)
❑ Stress increase under an embankment

33
 II.2 Settlement based on the theory of elasticity

❑ Elastic settlement of a shallow foundation

Hooke’s law from  1
 x E ( s x − s y − s z )
 =
1D to 3D to 
estimate the strains:  = s  1
  y = ( s y − s x − s z )
E  E
 1
 z E ( s z − s y − s x )
  =


Settlement can be estimated from the strain (perfectly flexible) by Bowles (1987):
1 H
( s z − s y − s x ) dz
H
Se =   z dz = 
0 E 0

Flexible: uniform stress

Rigid: uniform strain 1− 2
Se = qo ( B) Is I f
E
 settlement)
foraverage
E
E O ~
5B
(average of z=0~5B) N60 in mat foundation
Figure 3.16 o ~ 2l3
ft for 34
II.2 Settlement based on the theory of elasticity

❑ Elastic settlement of a shallow foundation (Bowles 1987)

 = factor depending on location for settlement
1− 2
At "center":  = 4, B =
B L
, m = , n =
H Se = qo ( B) I s I f flexible)
2 B ( B / 2) E
L H I f = depth factor (Fox, 1948)
At "corner":  = 1, B = B , m = , n =
B B  Df L
= f , , 
I s = shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934)  B B
1 − 2 Noting: if D f = 0, I f = 1 in all cases
= F1 + F2
1−

1 n
with F1 = ( Ao + A1 ) and F2 = tan −1 ( A2 )
 2
(1 + m2 + 1) m2 + n2
Ao = m ln
m(1 + m2 + n2 + 1)
(m + m2 + 1) 1 + n2
A1 = ln
m + m2 + n2 + 1
m
A2 =
n m2 + n2 + 1 Se ( rigid )  0.93Se ( flexible, center )
35
36
37
 Refer to the Figure and consider a rigid square foundation 2.44 m × 2.44
Example 6 m in plan (Df = 1.22 m) on a layer of normally consolidated sand. A rock
layer is located at z = 10.98 m. The following is an approximation of the
standard penetration number (N60) with z.

Es = pa’N60
pa = 100 kN/m2
’= 10
Given: μs = 0.3 and qo = 167.7 kN/m2. Estimate the elastic settlement
( = s ) below the center of the foundation. Use Eqation

 = factor depending on location for settlement

q
0
(4 × 1 .
22) ×
路
1 - 0
x

1− 2
Se = qo ( B)
At "center":  = 4, B =
B
2
L
, m = , n =
B
H
( B / 2) 的 ≈ 2叫 9
E
Is I f
10 98 =

—
.

L H
At "corner":  = 1, B = B , m = , n =
B B
n = 1 22
.

Depth factor If
I s = shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934)
1 − 2
= F1 + F2
1−
1 n
with F1 = ( Ao + A1 ) and F2 = tan −1 ( A2 )
 2
(1 + m2 + 1) m2 + n2
Ao = m ln
m(1 + m2 + n2 + 1)
(m + m2 + 1) 1 + n2
A1 = ln
m + m2 + n2 + 1
m
A2 = 38
n m2 + n2 + 1
Example 6
Es = pa’N60
pa = 100 kN/m2
’= 10

( = s )

Solution: B = L = 2.44 m
H = 10.98 m < 5B

Calculation of Se below the Center of the Foundation

Df = 1.22 m, μs = 0.3, qo = 167.7 kN/m2

For μs = 0.3, Df/B = 1.22/2.44 = 0.5, B/L = 1, then If = 0.78

39
Example 7 B L
A rigid shallow foundation 1 m × 2 m is shown in
Figure below. Calculate the elastic settlement at
the center of the foundation.

( = s )

 = factor depending on location for settlement

1− 2
At "center":  = 4, B =
B L
, m = , n =
H Se = qo ( B) Is I f
2 B ( B / 2) E
L H
At "corner":  = 1, B = B , m = , n =
B B
Depth factor If
I s = shape factor (Steinbrenner, 1934)
1 − 2
= F1 + F2
1−
1 n
with F1 = ( Ao + A1 ) and F2 = tan −1 ( A2 )
 2
(1 + m2 + 1) m2 + n2
Ao = m ln
m(1 + m2 + n2 + 1)
(m + m2 + 1) 1 + n2
A1 = ln
m + m2 + n2 + 1
m
A2 =
n m2 + n2 + 1 40
Solution to example 7
We are given that B=1 m and L = 2 m. Note that 𝑧ҧ = 5 m = 5𝐵, use average Es

Es =
 Es( i ) z
z

=
(10 ,000 )( 2 ) + ( 8,000 )(1) + (12 ,000 )( 2 )
= 10 ,400 kN m 2
5
For the center of the foundation,
 =4
L 2
m = = =2
B 1
and
H 5
n = = = 10
B 1
   
 2  2

41
From Table, F1=0.641 and F2=0.031. then
1 − 2s
I s = F1 + F2
1 − s
1 − 2  0.3
= 0.641 +  0.031 = 0.659
1 − 0.3
Again, Df/B = 1/1 = 1, L/B = 2, and μs = 0.3. From the table, If = 0.709.
Hence,
1 −  s2
Se( flexible ) = qo ( B ) Is I f
Es
 1   1 − 0.3 
2
= (150 )  4    ( 0.659 )( 0.709 ) = 0.0122 m = 12.2 mm
 2   10 ,400 

Since the foundation is rigid, we obtain

Se( rigid ) = ( 0.93)12.2 mm = 11.39 mm

42
II.2 Settlement based on the theory of elasticity

❑ Improved equation for elastic settlement (Mayne and Poulos 1999)

(only for the case below the center)
1− 2
1 − 2
Se = qo ( B) Is I f Se = qo Be I G I F I E  4 BL  rectangular
E E0 Be = 
 B circular
IG: Influence factor of E with depth (thickness of soil) (equivalent to circular
for same area)
 −0.8 −1
 1 + 0.6 ( E0 ( kBe ) ) 
 flexible
IG =  −1
 1.27 + 0.75 ( E ( kB ) )−0.8  rigid
 0 e


IF: Correction factor of foundation rigidity

−1
   E  2t 

3

I F = +  4.6 + 10  f
  
4 
  E0 + k Be 2  Be  

IE: Correction factor of foundation embedment

−1
 B  Se ( rigid )  0.93Se ( flexible, center )
I E = 1 − 3.5e(1.22 −0.4)  e + 1.6  
 D 
 f  43
 −1
 B 
I E = 1 − 3.5e(1.22 −0.4)  e + 1.6  
 D 
 f 

 −0.8 −1
 1 + 0.6 ( 0 ( e ) )  flexible
E kB
IG =  −1
 1.27 + 0.75 ( E ( kB ) )−0.8  rigid
 0 e


Alternatively for IG

−1
   Ef  2t  
3

I F = +  4.6 + 10    
4   E0 + k Be 2  Be  
 

44
 For a shallow foundation supported by a silty
Example 8 clay,
Length: L = 3.05 m
Width: B = 1.52 m
Depth of foundation: Df = 1.52 m
Thickness of foundation: t =0.305 m
Load per unit area: qo = 239.6 kN/m2
Ef = 15.87 × 106 kN/m2 (to choose rigid formula)
The silty clay soil has the following properties:
H = 3.66 m
μs = 0.3
Solution: Eo = 9660 kN/m2
k = 565.6 kN/m2/m
Estimate the elastic settlement of the
foundation below center.

I G = 0.69
I F = 0.785
I E = 0.908
45
II.2 Settlement based on the theory of elasticity

1− 2 1 − 2
Se = qo ( B) Is I f Se = qo Be I G I F I E
E E0 (Key parameters of soil for design)

✓ Suggestion of E
E =  N 60 pa
by Kulhawy and
Mayne (1990)

✓ Suggested range of Soils E (MN/m2) 

elastic parameters

46
II.2 Settlement based on the theory of elasticity
For a special case for saturated clay (=0.5)

1− 2 qo B
Se = qo ( B) Is I f Se = A1 A2
E E

E =  cu
Correction factor of
foundation shape

V (Suggestion of E by Duncan and Buchignani (1976))

PI = LL -
PL

Correction factor of
foundation embedment

47
In summary

Settlement based on the theory of elasticity:

❑ Settlement of foundation (perfectly flexible, by Bowles 1987)
✓ Location factor (centre or corner) Se ( rigid )  0.93Se ( flexible, center )
✓ Shape factor (L/B)
✓ depth factor (Df/B)
❑ Improved equation for elastic settlement (Mayne and Poulos 1999)
dis
✓ Influence factor of E with depth ✓ Only for center
advantage
✓ Correction factor of foundation rigidity ✓ Between flexible and rigid,
more realistic, but need
✓ Correction factor of foundation embedment
more parameters dis
❑ Key elastic parameters of soil for design
❑ A special case for saturated clay

48
 e
II.3 Consolidation settlement Vertical strain  z =
1 + e0
For homogenuous field:
❑ Recall of one-dimensional consolidation settlement Hc
Sc =   z dz =  z H c
0

e

Solid
Solid

Not constant!

49
 II.3 Consolidation settlement (Explain in detail)

❑ Recall of one-dimensional consolidation settlement

(s c = preconsolidation pressure ) If initial stress s’z0 < s’c
s z  s c − s 0  z
Cs (1 + e0 ) =
 log s 
log (s z )
(Initial stress)
s z0 s c Cs C s  + s z
 z =  log s  = s log z 0
e = e0 s z  s c − s z0 1 + e0 1 + e0 s z0
( z = 0)
Cs (1 + e0 ) Hc C s  + s z
 s p =   z dz =  z H 0 = s H 0 log z 0
(Swelling index) 0 1 + e0 s z0
Cc (1 + e0 ) If initial stress s’z0 = s’c
(Compression index)
e Hc Cc s  + s z
s p =   z dz =  z H 0 = H 0 log z 0
z = 0 1 + e0 s z0
1 + e0  z =  z1 +  z 2
Cs s
 z1 = log c (from s’z0 to s’c)
1 + e0 s z0
C s  + s z
 z 2 = c log z 0 (from s’c to s’z0+s’z)
1 + e0 s c
C s C s  + s z
 s p =  z H 0 = s H 0 log c + c H 0 log z 0 50
1 + e0 s z0 1 + e0 s c
 II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Recall of one-dimensional consolidation settlement

(s c = preconsolidation pressure ) (i) For over-consolidated clay-Area
with s z0 + s z  s c :
s z  s c − s 0
C s  + s z
log (s z )
(Initial stress) (i) Sc ( p ) = s log z 0 H0
s z0 s c 1 + e0 s z0
s z  s c − s z0 (ii) For normally consolidated clay-Area
Cs (1 + e0 ) (iii) with s z0 = s c & s z0 + s z  s c :
(Swelling index)
C s  + s z
Sc ( p ) = c log z 0 H0
Cc (1 + e0 ) 1 + e0 s z0

s c = s z0 log (s z )
(Compression index)
e
z =
1 + e0 s z
Cs (1 + e0 ) (ii)
(iii) From overconsolidated to normally consolidated
with s z0  s c & s z0 + s z  s c : Cc (1 + e0 )
 C s C s  + s z 
Sc ( p ) =  s log c + c log z 0  H0 e
 1 + e0 s 
z0 1 + e0 s 
c  z =
1 + e0 51
 II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Primary consolidation settlement

Consolidation settlement occurs over time in saturated clayey soils subjected to an
increased load. The one-dimensional consolidation settlement can be expressed:
(i) For over-consolidated clay-Area 三 γD
a
with s 0 + s av  s c :
C s  + s av
Sc ( p ) = s log 0 Hc
1 + e0 s 0 n Λ

(ii) For normally consolidated clay-Area

⽚
with s 0 = s c & s 0 + s av
  s c :
C s  + s av (top) V
Sc ( p ) = c log 0 Hc
1 + e0 s0 '

60 v Hz
(middle)
(iii) From overconsolidated to normally consolidated
with s 0  s c & s 0 + s av
  s c : V

points
middde (bottom)
 C s C s  + s av  stress
Sc ( p ) =  s log c + c log 0  Hc iditial  =
s av
1
( s t + 4s m + s b )
 1 + e0 s 0 1 + e0 s c  6
 H 2 I a(H2 ) − H1 I a(H1 ) 
 or s av = q0  52
 H 2 − H1 
 II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Primary consolidation settlement

By intelligent multi-objective EPR

technique for Cc of remolded clays

Cc = 0.1576e0 wL + 0.193
53
❑ Settlement during consolidation
Terzaghi’s theory of 1-D consolidation

Problem to be solved: ue  2 ue

❖ = cv 2 , 0  z  2d , t  0
t z

ue (0, t ) = 0 Karl von Terzaghi

❖ Boundary conditions:
ue (2d , t ) = 0, t  0 (1883-1963)

❖ Initial conditions: ue ( z ,0) = ui ( z ), 0  z  2d

d = maximum flow distance

Two methods for the solution:

❖ Numerical (Finite Difference)
❖ Analytical (Fourier expansion) 54
❑ Settlement during consolidation

Analytical (Fourier expansion)

❖ Exact solution for excess pore water pressure and degree of consolidation:
m =
 2u i  Mz  
ue = 
m=0  M


sin 
d 
 exp(− M Tv )
2

 Time factor:
M= (2m + 1)
2 ct
m =
Tv = v2 (unitless)
2 d
 U =1− 
m=0 M 2
exp( − M 2
Tv )

ue S
(Average degree of consolidation U = 1 − = c (t) )
ui Sc (max)

❖ Approximate solutions:


 2
U U  0.6 Sc (t ) = USc ( p )
Tv =  4
−0.933log(1 − U ) − 0.085 U  0.6

55
II.3 Consolidation settlement
❑ Secondary consolidation settlement
At the end of primary consolidation (i.e., after the complete dissipation of excess
pore water pressure) some settlement is observed that is due to the plastic
adjustment of soil fabrics. This stage of consolidation is called secondary
consolidation.
e  (1 + e0 ) Attention to definitions: C = e  log t
C = = z
 log t log ( t2 t1 ) 
C e = e  ln t
C
 z = log ( t2 t1 ) C =   log t
1 + e0   z

 Sc (s) =  z H c

C  t2 
Sc (s) = H c log  
1 + ep  t1 
∠

void ratioafter primay cousolidation

ep lo ce
= -

For Hong Kong Marine Clays:

C = 0.01~0.003*w (in %)
56
II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Secondary consolidation settlement

Why a clayey soil creeps?

❖ viscous adsorbed water (double layers) on clay particles (Adsorbed water
is NOT free water, and thus NOT free to flow under gravity)
❖ viscous re-arrangement/sliding/deformation of clay particles/ aggregates
❖ viscous deformation of clay aggregates

Sedimentation of pure Kaolinite e1

e2

Zhao (2017)
57
II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Secondary consolidation settlement Possible mechanisms of water

adsorption by clay surfaces

Under
effective
stress

Creep movement !
58
II.3 Consolidation settlement Creep always exists under the effective
❖
stresses (loading), independent of the
excess pore water pressure.
❑ Secondary consolidation settlement
❖ Therefore, creep has nothing to do with
the “primary” consolidation.
❖ Creep exists during and after “primary”
consolidation.
❖ Creep rate depends on stress states:
▪ Creep rate is large in a normally
consolidated state.
▪ Creep rate is small in a over-
consolidated state.

Mersri and Godlewski (1977) :

❑ For C
❖ Overconsolidated clays ≤ 0.1%
❖ Normally consolidated clays = 0.5%~3%
❖ Organic soil ≥ 4%

❑ For C/Cc
❖ Inorganic clays and silts = 0.04±0.01
Mersri and Godlewski (1977)
❖ Organic clays and silts = 0.05±0.01
❖ Peats = 0.075±0.01 59
II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Secondary consolidation settlement

For Hong Kong Marine Clays: C = 0.01~0.003*w (in %) 60

II.3 Consolidation settlement

❑ Secondary consolidation settlement

Intelligent single/multi-objective EPR technique

❖ Predictive performance
❖ Mathematic complicity  I p2 1 1 
ln ( Cα ) =  0.3114 − 0.1229 2 + 0.6455  e − 5.1308
 CI Ip IP
❖ Monotonicity with variables  

C C
(g) l=0.05 and 0.1 (h) l=0.05 and 0.1
R2=0.895
Training Testing R2=0.857

(120 measurements) 61
Example 9
A plan of a foundation 1 m × 2 m. is shown in Figure below. Estimate the
consolidation settlement of the foundation (using the 2:1 method for s)

16.5

eo
Cc

Figure 3.30 Calculation of primary consolidation settlement for a foundation

62
Solution
The clay is normally consolidated. Thus,
Cc H c s o + s av
Sc = log
1 + eo s o
So, at the middle of clay layer
s o = ( 2.5 )(16.5 ) + ( 0.5 )(17.5 − 9.81) + (1.25 )(16 − 9.81)
= 41.25 + 3.85 + 7.74 = 52.84 kN m 2
From Eq.(3.86),
1
 = ( s l + 4s m + s b )
s av
6
Using the 2:1 method,
qo  B  L
s =
(B + z)(L + z)
For the top of the clay layer, z = 2 m, so

s l =
(150 )(1)( 2 ) = 25kN m 2
(1 + 2 )( 2 + 2 )
63
Similarly
s m =
(150 )(1)( 2 )
= 13.45kN m2
(1 + 3.25)( 2 + 3.25 )
and s b =
(150 )(1)( 2 ) = 8.39 kN m2
(1 + 4.5)( 2 + 4.5 )

1
Thus,  =  25 + 4 (13.45 ) + 8.39  = 14.53kN m 2
s av
6

Sc =
( 0.32 )( 2.5 ) log  52.84 + 14.53  = 0.0469 m = 46.90 mm
So  
1 + 0.8  52.84 

(iii) From overconsolidated to normally consolidated

with s 0  s c & s 0 + s av
  s c :
 C s C s  + s av 
Sc ( p ) =  s log c + c log 0  Hc
 1 + e0 s 0 1 + e0 s c 

For a given C, secondary consolidation settlement?

For an OC soil, sc=60kPa, what is Sc ?
What is the immediate settlement for the clay layer, Se ? 64
In summary

❖ “Elastic settlement” is required for both sand and clay layers. For clay, it refers to
immediate settlement without sense of time.
❖ “Primary settlement” and “Secondary settlement” are only required for saturated
clay layer.

65
II.4 Field load test
Plate load test
in the field

66
II.4 Field load test

Plate load test simulates field loading

conditions and predicts settlement
on proposed foundation. Bearing
capacity and modulus of subgrade
reaction.

67
II.4 Field load test

qu(F): bearing capacity of the foundation

❖ For tests in clayey soils
BF qu(P): bearing capacity of the test plate
SF = SP
qu ( F ) = qu ( P ) BP BF: width of the proposed foundation
BP: width of the test plate
❖ For tests in sandy soils
2 (size effect)
BF  2B F 
qu ( F ) = qu ( P ) SF = SP  
BP B
 F + B P  68
II.5 Settlement restriction

❑ Tolerable Settlement of Buildings

Definition of parameters
for differential settlement

(tilt)

(max angular distortion) (relative deflection) (max difference in

total settlement)
(max total settlement)
ST(max) in Hong Kong: (gradient between two successive points)
❖ 25 mm – for important structures
❖ 50 mm – less important
❖ 100 mm for walk road
❖ 200 mm for gardens 69
II.5 Settlement restriction

❑ Tolerable Settlement of Buildings

Skempton and McDonald (1956) proposed the
following limiting values for maximum settlement
and maximum angular distortion, to be used for
building purposes:

Alec W. Skempton (1914-2001)

Polshin and Tokar (1957) suggested the following allowable deflection ratios
for buildings as a function of the ratio of the length to the height of a building:

70
II.5 Settlement restriction

❑ Tolerable Settlement of Buildings

The 1955 Soviet Code of Practice gives the
following allowable values:

Bjerrum (1963) recommended the following limiting angular distortion max

for various structures:

71
Laurits Bjerrum (1918-1973)
II.5 Settlement restriction

❑ Tolerable Settlement of Buildings

The European Committee for Standardization has
also provided limiting values for serviceability and
the maximum accepted foundation movements:

72
In summary
BF
Field load test SF = SP
qu ( F ) = qu ( P ) BP (size effect)
❖ For tests in clayey soils
❖ For tests in sandy soils BF 2
qu ( F ) = qu ( P )  2B F 
BP SF = SP  
B
 F + B P 

Tolerable Settlement of Buildings

Definition of parameters
for differential settlement

(tilt)

(max angular distortion) (relative deflection) (max difference in

total settlement)
(max total settlement)
(gradient between two successive points) 73