1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 01
Introduction to
Geography & Basic
Concepts
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Introduction to Geography & Basic Concepts

Geography:
 The term geography was first coined by a Greek scholar (around 300-200 BC) Eratosthenes.
 The word geography has been derived from two words of the Greek language geo (earth) and graphos (to
describe).
 It means the description of the earth.
 It is the science or study which is devoted to the overall analysis of all features and associated phenomena
like Land, Oceans, Atmosphere, etc.

Weightage of Geography in UPSC:

 Prelims: 8-10 MCQs (Around 20 Marks)
 Mains: 8 Questions (Around 100 Marks)
Sources:
 Current Affairs
 NCERT books from IX to XII
 G. C Leong
 Physical Geography by Savindar Singh
 Indian Geography by Majid Hussain
 Economic and Human Geography by Majid Hussain
 Geography by Khullar
 Locations on Map- Oxford or Orient Black Swan

Geography Syllabus:
General Geography:
 Earth and related concepts like latitude and longitude, Theories of formation of the Universe, Earth, and
Solar system.
 Physical Geography
 Indian Geography
 Economic Geography
 Map-India & World
Geomorphology:
 Interior of Earth and Rocks
 Origin of Continents & Oceans
 Formation of Mountains and Islands
 Formation of Plateaus & Plains
 Earthquakes
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 Volcanisms
 Tsunamis
 Formation of Landforms- Riverine, Coastal, Dessert, Glaciers, Lakes, etc.
Climatology:
 Basics
 Atmosphere- Structure & Composition
 Atmospheric Temperature, Pressure, Pressure Systems
 Lapse Rate & Temperature Inversion
 Water in Atmosphere- Mist, Fog, Clouds, and Precipitation
 Pressure Belts & Winds of the World
 Air Masses, Jet Streams & Fronts
 Cyclones, Thunderstorms & Tornados
 World Climate
Oceanography:
 Introduction and Ocean Relief
 Oceanic Physical Features
 Temperature of Ocean
 Salinity of Oceans
 Ocean Currents
 Coral Reefs
 Marine Resources
Indian Geography:
 India: Extent & Borders
 Physical Features
A. Himalayas
B. Great Plains
C. Peninsular India
D. Island & Coasts
 Drainage Systems
A. Introduction & Indus River System
B. Ganga & Brahmaputra River System
C. Peninsular Rivers
 Soils
A. Introduction
B. Types of Soils
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C. Soil Degradation & Its Conservation

 Forests & Vegetation
 Agriculture
Economic Geography:
 Industries: Types & Location- Worldwide
 Minerals
 Locations
 Energy Resources
 Water Resources & its Management
 Transport & Communication
 Land Resources
 Human Settlements
Geography:
 It is the study of land and its features,
phenomena, processes, and their
distribution with space and time.
 Physical Geography: It is the study of
physical features or environments like
land, ocean reliefs, atmosphere, etc.
 Economic Geography: It is the study of
resources (land, water, industries, energy,
minerals, etc.), their formation, origin,
and distribution.
 Human Geography: It is the study of
humans (tribes), settlements, and their
relationships with the environment.
 Bio Geography: It is part of the
geography dealing with the study of
biological species on land, water, and air.
General Geography - Earth and Related Concepts:
 Earth
 Latitudes and Longitudes
 Time Zones (Local and Standard Time)
 Motions of Earth (Effects of Rotation and Revolution)
Earth:
 It is the third nearest planet to the sun, and its shape is Geoid.
 It is the fifth largest planet in the solar system.
 It is slightly flattened at the poles, which is described as a Geoid (earth-like shape).
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 The earth is neither too hot nor too cold and favourable conditions to
support life are found only on the Earth.
 Its two-thirds surface is covered by water thus it appears blue.
Therefore, it is also called a blue planet.
 Earth rotates on its axis (called the axis of rotation).
 The Equator divides the earth into two equal parts or halves.
 Earth is flattened at poles and bulges from sides due to the centrifugal
force.

 In the solar system, centrifugal and centripetal forces are balancing each other.

Centrifugal Force: It is the apparent outward force on a mass when it is rotated.

Centripetal Force: It is the apparent inward force on a mass when it is rotated.
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Latitude:
 Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface,
measured in degrees from the Centre of the earth. These are
usually measured in degrees.
 It is parallel to the equator; therefore, they are called as Parallels
of latitudes.
 These parallels are in the form of circles with unequal
diameters to study every zone of the earth.
 The largest circle is the Equator (0° latitude) while at the
poles, they shrink to a point (90° N & S).
 There are 181 latitudes in total.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 02
Latitudes & Longitudes
Time Zones of the World
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Latitudes & Longitudes || Time Zones of the World

Important Parallels of Latitudes:
❖ Tropic of Cancer (23 1⁄2° N) in the Northern
Hemisphere.
❖ Tropic of Capricorn (23 1⁄2° S) in the Southern
Hemisphere.
❖ Arctic Circle at 66 1⁄2° in the North of the Equator.
❖ Antarctic Circle at 66 1⁄2° in the South of the Equator.
❖ Equator: The Equator is an imaginary line running on the
globe that divides it into two equal parts.
❖ The northern half of the Earth is the Northern Hemisphere
and the Southern half is the Southern Hemisphere.
❖ Parallels of latitude are drawn at an interval of one
degree. If the earth were a perfect sphere, the length of 1̊
of latitude would be a constant value, i.e., 111 km
everywhere on the earth. But to be precise, the degree of latitude
changes slightly in length from the equator to the Poles.
❖ While at the Equator, it is 110.6 km, at the poles, it is 111.7 km. i.e.,
the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little
longer than at the Equator.

Heat Zones of the Earth:

❖ When sunlight falls upon the earth (energy per unit time per unit
area called insolation), at the Equator, it is perpendicular
(overhead).
❖ At the Tropics, it forms an angle of around 45 degrees, and at Polar
latitudes, it is completely oblique.
➢ At the Equator, there is high insolation.
➢ At the Tropics, there is moderate insolation.
➢ At the Poles, there is low insolation.
[Therefore, due to different intensities of
sunlight and heat, the vegetation and
weather in different regions are different.]
❖ Torrid Zone: Overhead rays are concentrated in
this zone and thus there is high insolation in a
small area.
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➢ The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at

least once a year on all latitudes in
between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.
➢ It, therefore, receives the maximum heat.
➢ The highest temperature on Earth is found
near the Tropical areas.
❖ Temperate Zones: The mid-day sun never
shines overhead on any latitude beyond the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
➢ The angle of the sun’s rays goes on
decreasing towards the poles. They, thus,
have moderate temperatures.
❖ Frigid Zones: Insolation is low and covers a
large area. In this zone heat energy is not
concentrated.
➢ Areas lying between the Arctic Circle
and the North Pole in the Northern
Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and
the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere, are very cold.
➢ It is because, here, the sun does not rise much above the horizon.
➢ Coniferous trees are found in these areas.
➢ Tundra and Taiga type of vegetation is found.

India as a Geographical Unit:

❖ The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states in India.
❖ Gujarat (Jasdan), Rajasthan (Kalinjarh), Madhya Pradesh (Shajapur), Chhattisgarh (Sonhat), Jharkhand
(Lohardaga), West- Bengal (Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) and Mizoram (Champhai).
Countries Passing
Countries
Through
Equator ❖ South America: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil
❖ Africa: Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Uganda, Kenya, Somalia.
❖ Asia: Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati
Prime Meridian ❖ Europe: UK, France, Spain
❖ Africa: Algeria, Mali. Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo
❖ Antarctica
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Tropic of Cancer ❖ North America: Bahamas (Archipelago), Mexico

❖ Africa: Egypt, Libya, Niger, Algeria, Mali, Western Sahara, Mauritania
❖ Asia: Taiwan, China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia
Tropic of Capricon ❖ South America: .Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay
❖ Africa: Namibia. Botswana, South Africa. Mozambique. Madagascar
❖ Australia

Longitude:
❖ It's the angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
It is also measured in degrees.
❖ The longitudes vary from 0° to 180° eastward and westward
of the Prime Meridian. (Also called meridian).
❖ Prime Meridian: In 1884, it was decided to choose as zero
meridian the one which passes through the Royal
Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London
as a Prime Meridian.
❖ The distance between longitudes decreases from the Equator
towards the Poles (It is maximum at the equator).
❖ On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles
that run from pole to pole passing through the equator. Such
lines are also called Meridians.
❖ They have one very important function, they determine local time
in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Time, which is
sometimes referred to as World Time.
❖ The distance between longitudes at the equator is the same as
latitude, roughly 69 miles.
❖ At 45 degrees north or south, the distance between them is about
49 miles (79 km).
❖ The distance between longitudes reaches zero at the poles as the
lines of meridian converge at that point i.e. the degree of
longitude decreases in length from the equator to the pole.
❖ At the Equator the distance between two longitudes is
maximum and at the Poles it is minimum.

Facts about Line of Longitude:

❖ These are also known as meridians that run in a north-south direction.
❖ It helps in measuring the distance east or west of the prime meridian and calculating the local time in
different areas.
❖ These are farthest apart at the Equator and meet at the poles.
❖ These lines cross the Equator at right angles.
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❖ It lies in planes that pass through the Earth’s axis.

❖ These are equal in length and halves of great circles.
❖ The primary unit in which longitude and latitude are given is degrees (°). There are 360° of longitude (180°
East ↔ 180° West) and 180° of latitude (90° North ↔ 90° South). Each degree can be broken into 60 minutes
(’). Each minute can be divided into 60 seconds (”).

Standard Time and Time Zones:

❖ If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference in local time between
one town and the other.
❖ Travelers going from one end of the country to the other would have to keep changing their watches if they
wanted to keep their appointments. This is impractical and very inconvenient.
❖ Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries.
❖ In larger countries such as Canada, U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be inconvenient to have single time
zone. So, these countries have multiple time zones.
❖ Both Canada and the U.S.A. have five time zones —the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific
Time Zones.
❖ The difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five hours. U.S.S.R had
eleven time zones before its disintegration.
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International Date Line:

❖ International Date Line is an imaginary line where the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed.
❖ The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering Strait,
Fiji, Tonga, and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that are cut
through by the meridian.

Why International Date Line is Zig Zag?

❖ Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either side of the dateline.
❖ If the dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island Country or Island group would fall under
different date zones.
❖ Thus, to avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn through where the sea lies and not land. Hence, the
International Date Line is drawn in a zig-zag manner.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):

❖ It is the name for the mean solar time of the
longitude (0°) of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory in England. The meridian at
this longitude is called the Prime Meridian or
Greenwich Meridian.
❖ Rotation of Earth of 360° in one day or 24 hours.
Therefore, 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
❖ Earth rotates from West to East, so every 15° we
go eastward, local time is advanced by 1 hour.
❖ If we go westward, local time is retarded by one
hour.
➢ East of Greenwich → see the sun earlier
→ Gain time (East-Gain-Add).
➢ West of Greenwich → see
sun later → Lose time (West-
Lose-Substract).
❖ India is 5 hrs 30 min ahead of
GMT.
❖ From Greenwich to 180° E →
Gain 12 hours. Similarly, from
Greenwich to 180° W → Lose 12
hours.
❖ Thus, a difference of 24 hours
between the two sides of the 180°
meridian. This is the International
Date Line (IDL).
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❖ Thus, while crossing IDL: East to West → Loses a day; West to East → gains a day
❖ IDL passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
❖ Local time varies from one longitude to another longitude.
❖ In the world, there are 24 time zones.
❖ USSR- 11 Time zone
❖ USA- 4 Time zones (Pacific Time, Mountain Time, Central Time, Eastern Time)

Indian Standard Time:

❖ The local time of places which
are on different meridians is
bound to differ.
❖ In India, for instance, there will
be a difference of about 1 hour
and 45 minutes in the local
times of Dwarka in Gujarat
and Dibrugarh in Assam.
❖ In India, the longitude of 82 1⁄2°
East (82° 30’East) is treated as
the standard meridian. The local
time at this meridian is taken as
the standard time for the whole
country. It is known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
❖ States through which IST passes are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra
Pradesh.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 03
World Time Zones
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World Time Zones

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):
 It is the name for the mean solar time of the longitude (0°) of the Royal Greenwich Observatory in
England. The meridian at this longitude is
called the Prime Meridian or Greenwich
Meridian.
 Rotation of Earth of 360° in one day or 24 hours.
Therefore, 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
 Earth rotates from West to East, so every 15° we
go eastward, local time is advanced by 1 hour.
 If we go westward, local time is retarded by one
hour.
 East of Greenwich → see the sun earlier →
Gain time (East-Gain-Add).
 West of Greenwich → see sun later → Lose time (West-Lose-Substract).
 India is 5 hrs 30 min ahead of GMT.
 From Greenwich to 180° E → Gain 12 hours. Similarly, from Greenwich to 180° W → Lose 12 hours.
 Thus, a difference of 24 hours between the
two sides of the 180° meridian. This is the
International Date Line (IDL).
 Thus, if a traveler is crossing IDL: East to
West → Loses a day; West to East →
gains a day
 IDL passes through the middle of the
Pacific Ocean.
 Local time varies from one longitude to
another longitude.
 In the world, there are 24 time zones.
 USSR- 11 Time zone
 USA- 4 Time zones (Pacific Time, Mountain Time, Central Time, Eastern Time)
Standard Time and Time Zones:
 If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference in local time
between one town and the other.
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 Travelers going from one end of the country to the other

would have to keep changing their watches if they
wanted to keep their appointments. This is impractical
and very inconvenient.
 Most countries adopt their standard time from the
central meridian of their countries.
 In larger countries such as Canada, U.S.A., China, and
U.S.S.R, it would be inconvenient to have single time
zone. So, these countries have multiple time zones.

 Both Canada and the U.S.A. have five time zones —the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific
Time Zones.
 The difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five hours. U.S.S.R had
eleven time zones before its disintegration.
International Date Line:
 International Date Line is an imaginary line where the date changes by exactly one day when it is
crossed.
 The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering Strait,
Fiji, Tonga, and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that are cut
through by the meridian.
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Why International Date Line is Zig Zag?

 Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either side of the dateline.
 If the dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island Country or Island group would fall under
different date zones.
 Thus, to avoid any confusion of date , this line is drawn through where the sea lies and not land. Hence, the
International Date Line is drawn in a zig-zag manner.

Indian Standard Time:

 The local time of places which are on
different meridians is bound to differ.
 In India, for instance, there will be a
difference of about 1 hour and 45
minutes in the local times of Dwarka in
Gujarat and Dibrugarh in Assam.
 In India, the longitude of 82 1⁄2° East (82°
30’East) is treated as the standard
meridian. The local time at this meridian
is taken as the standard time for the whole
country. It is known as the Indian
Standard Time (IST).
 States through which IST passes are Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
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Issues With Indian Standard Time:

 Vast latitudinal extent: Indian mainland extends
between latitudes 8°4’North and 37°6’North and
longitudes 68°7’East and 97°25’East.
 There are nearly two hours difference
between the easternmost and westernmost
parts of the country.
 This can also result in some confusion and
inconvenience for people traveling across
different regions.
 Disruption in circadian rhythm: The North-
eastern States witness early sunrise at around 4:30
am and late sunset due to a single time zone. It
badly affects the lives of local people and
disbalances the biological clock.
 It also increases the alienation of local people of
the North-eastern States from the mainland due to
the wide gap in time.
Need of Two Time Zones:
 It may increase energy efficiency by utilizing daylight time optimally. India can save up to 2.7 billion units
of electricity every year.
 During the colonial period, there were references of separate time zones like - ChaiBagaan time, Bombay
time, Calcutta time, etc., without any inconvenience.
 It will align time with the biological clock of people; this will improve the health of people and increase
productivity & efficiency and will provide a boost to the economy.
 It will reduce the alienation of local people by addressing their needs and issues like road accidents,
women’s safety, etc.
Daylight Saving Time:
 It is the practice of setting the clock forward or
backward by ge nerally one hour during the summer
months of the year to extend the amount of daylight in
the evenings.
 The idea behind DST is to take advantage of the
longer days of summer to save energy, reduce
traffic accidents, and provide more recreational
opportunities in the evenings.
 It is observed in many countries around the world.
 Over 150 years ago, the British introduced the Chai-bagan time (CTZ). For Assam's tea estates, collieries,
and oil industries, it was set one hour earlier than Indian Standard Time (IST).
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Arguments for Shifting Time Zones:

 According to the research of the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, if we shift or change
the IST, it can save around 2.7 billion units of electricity.
 The report of the Planning Commission, in 2006, also supported the idea of adopting different time zones.
 The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research’s National Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL), in its
report (in 2018), also presented the necessity of two time zones.
Challenges with Two Time Zones:
 There may be confusion and lack of coordination in government work.
 Implementation of two time zones requires proper synchronization of railway traffic, which is a
complex and time taking process.
 The level of illiteracy is very high in India so there can be chaos among people of border zones of two time
zones in understanding the mechanism.
 There is a lack of infrastructure and capacity in the existing laboratories to maintain two time zones.
 The dividing line in the form of two time zones in the country can create several political consequences like
separatism, regionalism, etc.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 04
Motions of the
Earth
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Motions of the Earth

Rotation of Earth:
 Earth rotates along its axis from west to east in an anti-clockwise direction
when looked at from the North Pole.
 It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete one rotation.
 Days and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth.
 The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of
illumination.
 Earth rotates on a tilted axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5°
with the normal.
 Earth rotates around its axis from west to east.
 This rotational motion has the following effects:
 Cycle of days and nights
 Coriolis Force which acts on all moving objects on the Earth.
 Seasons (because of the tilted axis), when the earth rotates on an inclined axis and revolves also.
 If the earth is stationary, there will be no winds, no heat distribution, and no life will be there.
 Solar day: Time taken to complete one rotation, i.e. approximately 24 hrs.
 Speed of rotation decreases from the Equator to the poleward.
 The axis of rotation is inclined at an angle of 23.50 resulting in varying lengths of days and nights and
different seasons.

The Position of the Earth and Sun as Shown in Image:

 At the southern tropic- sun rays are received
overhead (nearest to the sun). It receives
maximum insolation. People will feel summer in
this region.
 At the Equator- sun rays are oblique.
 At the Northern tropic- sun rays are more
oblique. Receives relatively low insolation.
People will feel winter in this region. At the
north pole, there is no sunlight.
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The Position of the Earth and Sun as Shown in Image:

 If the sunlight comes from another direction:
 At the southern tropic- sun rays are more oblique.
Receive minimum insolation. People will feel winter.
At the south pole, there is no sunlight.
 At the Equator- sun rays are oblique.
 At the Northern tropic- sun rays are received
overhead (nearest to the sun). Receive maximum
insolation. People will feel summer. Illuminated zone.

What would happen if the Earth did not rotate?

 The portion of the earth facing the sun would always experience day, thus bringing continuous warmth
to the region.
 The other half would remain in darkness and be freezing cold all the time. Life would not have been
possible in such extreme conditions.
 As the earth is in an inclined position around the sun → a year is usually divided into summer, winter,
spring, and autumn seasons.

Revolution:
 The motion of the earth around
the sun in its orbit is called
revolution.
 It takes 365¼ days (one year) to
revolve around the sun.
 Six hours saved every year are
added to make one day (24
hours) over a span of four years.
 This surplus day is added to the month of February. Thus, every fourth year, February is of 29 days
instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap year.
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 Earth revolves around the Sun in an

elliptical orbit.
 Time taken is about 365 days and 6
hours to complete one revolution.
 The extra 6 hours become one extra day
in a leap year after 4 revolutions.
 Earth is closest to the Sun on 3rd
January (147 million km), called as
Perihelion.
 Earth is farthest from the Sun on 4th July (153
million km), called Aphelion.

 Effects of revolution and rotation on an

inclined axis:
 Seasons- summer, winter, autumn, and
spring.
 Length of day and night varies.

When the Earth is Rotating, But Not Inclined:

 If the Earth was not inclined, it would
have a much different climate and
weather patterns than it currently does.
 Without tilt, the amount of sunlight
received by each hemisphere would be
fairly constant, resulting in a more
uniform climate across the planet.
 Earth's axial tilt helps to distribute
solar energy more evenly across the
planet.
 This is because the angle of the sun's rays hitting the Earth's surface changes throughout the year as the
planet orbits the sun.
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 Without this variation, certain areas

of the planet would receive more
solar energy than they could handle,
while others would receive very little.

 Variation of seasons will also not

occur in this case.

Aphelion and Perihelion:

 When Earth is at Perihelion (Earth closest to the Sun).
 Southern hemisphere receives the Sun's
rays. So, there is Summer in the Southern
Hemisphere.
 The Northern Hemisphere has Winters.
 When Earth is at Aphelion (Earth farther from
Sun).
 The Northern Hemisphere receives the
Sun's rays. Therefore, there is Summer in
the Northern Hemisphere.
 Southern hemisphere has Winters.
Solstice:
 During Solstice, the Sun shines directly over one of the tropics.
 Summer Solstice:
 On 21 June → Northern hemisphere tilted
towards Sun. The rays of the sun fall
directly on the Tropic of Cancer → receive
more heat.
 The areas near the poles receive less heat as
the rays of the sun are slanting.
 The North Pole is inclined towards the sun
and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous daylight for about 6 months.
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 Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the
regions north of the Equator.
 The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June.
 Areas in the north of the Arctic Circle see 24 hrs sunlight while areas south of the Antarctic Circle
experience 24hrs night.
 Winter Solstice:
 On 22 December → Tropic of Capricorn
receives direct rays of the sun. A larger
portion of the Southern Hemisphere gets
light.
 Therefore, it is summer in the Southern
Hemisphere with longer days and shorter
nights.
 The reverse happens in the Northern
Hemisphere. This position of the Earth is
called the Winter Solstice.
 Areas south of the Antarctic Circle in 24 hrs. sunlight while areas north of the Arctic Circle in 24
hrs. darkness.
Equinox:
 When the sun shines directly over the Equator – Equal
lengths of day and night at all points on Earth.
 Vernal equinox (spring equinox), 21st March: Spring in the
northern hemisphere.
 Autumn equinox: 23rd September: Autumn in the northern
hemisphere.
 On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall
on the equator.
 At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun,
so the whole Earth experiences equal days and nights. This is called Equinox.

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


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 05
Theories of Formation of
the Universe
 2

Theories of Formation of the Universe

Origin of the Earth:
Theories of Earth Formation: A large number of hypotheses were put forth by different philosophers and
scientists regarding the origin of the earth.
These theories can be broadly categorized into two sections:
 Religious –In 1664, with a literal interpretation of the Bible, Archbishop Usher (1664) in his book “Annals
of the World" computed the time of Earth's creation as 9:00 AM, Oct. 26, 4004 B.C.
 Scientific- Scientific school believes in logic.
 Hot Origin- Solar system & Earth formed from the matter which was initially hot. Initially, the temperature
was hot and slowly it became habitable after cooling.
 Cold Origin- Solar system & Earth formed from matter which was initially cold. After formation, Earth
might have heated up due to radioactive elements or due to intense pressure created due to a load of
outermost layers.
Classification of Concepts of Origin:
 Monoistic Concept - (One Star Hypothesis): According to this hypothesis, the Solar system originated from
one star (only one heavenly body) due to the gradual evolutionary process. The hypothesis of Kant, Laplace,
Roche, and Lockear comes under this category.
 Dualistic Concept- According to the dualistic concept, the Solar system originated from two stars (two
heavenly bodies). The hypothesis of James Jeans, Chamberlain, Molten, Weitzacker’s, and Russell comes under
this category.
 Binary Star Concept- This concept involves more than two heavenly bodies.
 Modern Concept- The Nova Hypothesis of Hoyle and Littleton, The Big Bang Hypothesis, the Cepheid
Hypothesis of A.C. Banerjee, Rossgunn’s rotational and tidal hypothesis, Kuiper’s hypothesis (1949),
Fosenkov’s globule concept, Voitkevich’s protoplanetary, Chondrules concept (1971), Jupiter Sun binary
system hypothesis of E.M. Drobyshevsky are some of the examples of the Modern Concept.
Earlier Theories:
 One of the earlier and more popular arguments was by German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Mathematician
Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as Nebular Hypothesis.
 The hypothesis considered that the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful
sun, which was slowly rotating.
 In 1950, Otto Schmidt in Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany somewhat revised the ‘Nebular
Hypothesis’, though differing in details.
 They considered that the sun was surrounded by a solar nebula containing mostly hydrogen and helium
along with dust.
 The friction and collision of particles led to the formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
formed through the process of accretion.
 However, scientists in later periods took up the problems of the origin of the universe rather than that of
just the earth or the planets.
 3

Gaseous Hypothesis of Kant:

 The German philosopher, Kant, put forward his hypothesis in 1755
claiming that his hypothesis was based on sound principles of Newton’s
first law of gravitation and rotatory motion.
 In this model the stars rotated about the centre of the Galaxy just as the planets
revolved around the centre of the sun. Kant even suggested that the faint
nebulae seen may be composed of individual stars.
 Although Kant considered that the sun's distance from the centre may be great,
he did not estimate this distance and did not estimate the size of this universe.
 Kant's thoughts were not taken as scientific proof but could be considered the
start of the controversies at the heart of the Curtis - Shapley debate.
 Assumptions:
 There was a slowly rotating cloud of Gas & Matter (Nebula).
 It was very cold (0 Kelvin) & consisted of solid & motionless particles.
 Particles after some time began to collide with each other due to Gravitational Attraction.
 Mechanism of Origin:
 Mutual Attraction & Collision: Random motion of particles within Nebula produced heat which helped
in the rising temperature of primordial matter.
 Random Motion of particles: It induces rotary motion. Earlier it was a motionless cloud. After a random
collision, the vast Nebula started spinning around
its own axis.
 Rise in temperature: It produced more random
motion and spinning. In this phase, matter
changed from solid to gas, which led to the
expansion in the size of the Nebula.
 As the heat increased, it resulted in an increase in
size as well. The increase in angular velocity gave
rise to Centrifugal Force.
 Centrifugal force dominates Centripetal force.
This caused the separation of rings, and nine rings
were separated & thrown out.
 There were some irregularities in the rings. One
portion of the ring known as the core (knot) started
contracting first, and ultimately grew as a planet.
 The process repeated for each ring, which helped
in the formation of satellite planets.
 4

Criticism:
 This theory failed to explain the source of the origin of the Primordial Matter.
 It failed to explain the source of energy for the random motion of particles which were motionless. This is a
violation of Newton’s first law of motion.
 Collision among the particles of primordial matter can never generate rotary motion. It requires torque.
 It explained that the increase in the rotary speed of Nebula increased with size. This contradicts the Law of
Angular Momentum.
Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace:
 By French Mathematician-Laplace (1796):
 Elaborate the concepts in the book- “Exposition of World Systems”.
 Assumption:
○ There was a huge & hot gaseous Nebula in space. Thus, he solved the
heat-related criticism of Kant.
○ From the beginning, huge & hot Nebula spinning on its axis.
○ Gradually, the nebula continued to cool (from radiation). Thus, after
losing heat, it contracted, which induced a reduction in size.
 Mechanism of Origin:
○ Initially, huge and hot gaseous rotating Nebula in space.
○ Gradually, it was losing heat from the outer surface due to
rotation.
○ Heat loss resulted in cooling and contraction. It also
decreased in size and volume.
○ Reduced size increased the velocity (Conservation of
Angular Momentum). It increased Centrifugal Force.
Thus, centrifugal force dominates over centripetal force.
○ Outer layer was condensed due to cooling. It couldn’t cope up with the adjacent bottom. This resulted
in separation as rings.
○ Initially one ring separated from Nebula. Thereafter, nine other rings got separated from the original
ring.
○ All the materials of each ring got condensed at a Knot, known as a "hot gaseous agglomeration",
which cooled down to form a Planet.
○ As a result, nine planets were created from nine rings, and the sun was created from the nebula's
remaining center nucleus.
○ Repeated the aforementioned processes and mechanisms, which led to satellites being generated from
planets.
 5

 Criticism:
○ Laplace made the assumption that a hot, whirling nebula existed at first, but he did not specify where
it came from. Also, he made no attempt to explain where the heat and movement in that nebula
originate.
○ He did not clarify the cause of the irregular ring's creation. Also, no explanation was given on
why the irregular ring that broke off from the nebula only produced nine rings.
○ If the sun was the residual nucleus, it must have bulged around its middle part (equator of the
sun). However, the sun's central portion is devoid of this bulge.
○ If the planets were formed from the nebula, they must be in the liquid phase, but liquid can't
rotate like solids.
○ Nebular theory states that all satellites should rotate in the same way as their parent planets, but
Saturn's and Jupiter's satellites rotate in the opposite direction.
○ Great British physicists James Clerk Maxwell and Sir James Jeans proved that the mass in the rings
was insufficient to generate gravitational pull for condensation to form separate planets about a century
after the Laplace hypothesis was first proposed.
○ It violated the Law of Angular Momentum. The Sun possesses 99.9 % of total mass and planets have.
01%, but more than 99% of total Angular Momentum is concentrated in Planets.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 06
Universe & Its Formation
 2

Universe & Its Formation

Planetesimal Hypothesis by Chamberlain & Moulton:

 T.C. Chamberlin, a geologist, in collaboration with Forest Ray Moulton an astronomer,

postulated a hypothesis known as the ‘Planetesimal Hypothesis’.
 According to this hypothesis, the planets originated from Planetesimals.
 The idea of Dualistic Concept gained currency which tried to explain the origin of Earth,
Continents, and Oceans.
 Initially, there was a:
 Proto Sun – Cold, solid, and formed of very small
particles.
 Companion Star - Destined to pass very close to
Sun.
 When Companion Star came close to the Proto Sun, an
infinite number of small and big particles detached
(separated) from the Sun due to the gravitational pull,
which were termed as Planetesimals.
 These Planetesimals were attracted by the proto-Sun and started revolving around the Sun.
 These detached particles (planetesimals) were non-uniform and different in size (small and big).
 The larger particles served as the nucleus and attracted the smaller Planetesimals towards them
(accretion).
 Gradually, the bigger Planetesimals became bigger and formed the present planets.
 Satellites around the planets formed due to repetition of the same process.
 Forces Responsible:
 The main force responsible for the ejection of the small jets & planetesimals was Tidal Force
(Tidal Force is a gravitational effect that stretches a body along the line towards the center of
mass of another body). It acted by the approaching star upon the surface of the sun.
Stages of Evolution of Earth:
 1st Stage - Period of Planetesimal Accession:
 There are two primary sources from which the earth's atmosphere developed:
 3

1. External Evolution:
 The effectiveness of the earth's ability to capture free air molecules increased as it grew in
size. (due to Gravitational force)
 As the earth had already absorbed the majority of the molecules, the supply of air molecules,
which had previously been greater, gradually diminished over time.
2. Internal Evolution:
 Carbon dioxide, water vapour, and nitrogen gases were produced internally. By erupting
from volcanoes and fissures, these gases particles left the earth's interior and are now an
integral part of the atmosphere.
 The volcanic outburst therefore produced oxygen.
 Origin of Heat: There were various sources of heat such as –
 Mutual Collision of planetesimals during the accretion produced heat.
 Intensive Pressure due to increased aggregation of planetesimals also produced heat.
 Chemical reaction was responsible for heat production as well.
 2nd Stage - Period of Dominant Vulcanism:
 During the early stages of the earth's evolution, gradual internal heat accumulation led to the
selective melting (called Magma) of rocks in the planet's outer regions, which sparked
extensive volcanic activity.
 Between the planetesimals, there were enormous fissures. Additionally, the pieces of the earth's
surface were not solidly consolidated.
 Violent volcanic explosions were caused by the volatile materials (Magma) in the earth's
interior escaping, leaving "crater-like hollows" on the surface.
 Evolution of continents & Oceans initiated. Primitive oceans were formed. Water vapour
collected in these Craters and received from numerous lakes got connected and formed Oceans.
 3rd Stage - Actual Geological Period:
 The ancient surface features of the earth's surface were created during the final stage of the
earth's history as a result of dominating tectonic events like dominant vulcanicity, folding and
faulting, submergence and emergence, and dominant tectonic events like dominant vulcanicity.
 Criticism:
 The large amount of heat produced during the ejection of planetesimals from Proto Sun would
have been volatilized (from solid to gaseous phase). It is impossible to condense in the form of
planets.
 4

 No explanation was given for the increase & decrease in the size of planets.
 No explanation was given for the fixed number of planets.
 It doesn’t offer any explanation for the Higher Angular momentum in planets.
 In infinite space in Universe, close encounters are impossible.
Tidal Hypothesis:
 Tidal Hypothesis was given by Sir James Jeans (1919).
 It is one of the modern hypotheses.
 Assumptions:
 Solar system – It formed from the sun and intruding star.
 Sun – The sun was first a large incandescent gaseous mass of the
substance. The sun in the beginning was a stationary body that
rotated on its axis.
 Intruding Star – It was much bigger in size than the primitive sun.
It was moving and destined to come nearer to the primitive sun.
 The intruding star's tidal force (Gravitational Pull) had a significant effect on the primitive
sun's surface.
 Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the distance between two bodies.
 Mechanism of Origin - Evolution of Filament:
 The intruding star was continuously moving
towards the Primitive Sun and exerted
Gravitational pull.
 When it came nearer, Gravitational pull increased
considerably. A cigar-shaped tide was created on
the outer surface of the primitive sun.
 A huge mass of matter in a Cigar shape was ejected
out of the Sun filament.
 Nine Planets were formed due to the cooling and
condensation of the gaseous matter.
 The filament began to cool down. It contracted and
resulted in breaking into several parts. Each piece
was condensed to form a separate planet.
 5

 Filament allowed the bigger planets to form in the Middle (Jupiter & Saturn) & smaller ones
towards their tapering ends.
 The remaining part became the
Sun.
 Gravitational pull by Sun on
newly formed planets helped in
the formation of satellites.
 The bigger planets cooled slowly
and ejected a large amount of
matter.
 This continued and formed a large number of satellites.
 Small Planets were cooled fast. No further ejection of material resulted in the formation of
satellites. Example-Mercury, Venus, and Pluto.
Evidence in Support:
 Shape and Planetary Order - The primitive sun's filament had a cigar-like form. It was narrow at
the ends and thick in the middle.
 Ordering and Arrangement of Satellites - According to this theory, just as the planets were
produced by the condensation of incandescent gaseous matter emitted from the sun, the satellites of
the planets were created by the same process. Thus, the arrangement of satellites around the planets
is essentially identical to the arrangement of planets around the sun in our solar system, with
smaller satellites at the end and larger satellites in the middle.
 Number and Size of Satellites - Bigger planets showed slow cooling and a greater number of
satellites, such as Jupiter & Saturn are having the highest number of satellites. While planets such as
Mercury, Venus & Pluto do not have satellites.
 Rotation, Revolution & Inclination of Planets Axis – The Filament rotated around the sun and
was slightly inclined. Except for Venus and Uranus, all other planets rotate in the same direction.
 6

Criticism:
 According to B. Levin, the universe is infinite in both space and time and because the stars are so
far apart, it is highly unlikely that they will ever come close to one another.
 James Jeans did not provide any information regarding the location or ultimate fate of the
intruding star that triggered a massive tidal eruption on the surface of the early sun.
 As per the calculations (Parisky, Hoyle, Russel), the planets should have been very close to the Sun,
but they are far away (300-500 times the Sun's Diameter).
 It failed to elaborate the process and mechanism of the condensation of the matter ejected from
the primitive sun.
 The planets in our solar system are primarily composed of heavy elements, but the sun's building
blocks, hydrogen, and helium, are lighter in weight and are thought to have originated the planets.
The tidal hypothesis is unconvincing in its attempt to explain such an abnormal scenario.
Supernova Hypothesis:
 In 1946, F. Hoyle, a mathematician from
Cambridge University (U.K.),
proposed his speculative theory, also
known as the "supernova hypothesis." In
his essay titled "Nature of the
Universe," he explained his hypothesis,
which was founded on the "nuclear
physics" principles.
 As per the theory, there were two stars:
 Primitive Sun.
 Companion Star.
 The Companion Star was initially a big
star that later became supernova as a
result of a nuclear reaction.
Mechanism of Formation:
 Energy Emitted by any star in light form
is generated by Nuclear Fusion.
 Stars contain Hydrogen which combines
to form Helium (Heavier) & Energy. The same Nuclear Fusion was happening in Primitive Sun &
Companion Star.
 7

 As time passes, all Hydrogen consumed in Nuclear Reaction & the star collapsed & violently
exploded.
 Enormous Dust formed & started revolution around the sun.
 Gaseous matter coming out of the explosion changed into circular disc-matter which became
building material for future planets.
 Explosion caused high heat of temperature 5 * (10)9 deg C which is sufficient to start nuclear
fusion.
 Intense Heat & Nuclear Fusion became responsible for the formation of Heavy Elements
(presently in Earth.)
 Planets were formed due to condensation of the heavy matter of the disc formed out of Super
Nova.
Evaluation:
 The "supernova hypothesis" of F. Hoyle aids us in resolving three fundamental issues about the
formation of the planet and solar system that have been brought up by critics ever since James
Jeans proposed the "Tidal Hypothesis":
 The issue of the planets and the sun being quite far apart.
 Problems with the planets' angular momentum.
 The issue with planets' compositions containing heavier elements than the sun.
In the following ways:
 Shattered matter out of Supernova was thrown away at great distances.
 A large amount of Angular momentum was given by Violent Explosion.
 Materials became heavier due to intense heat & Pressure.
Big Bang Theory:
 It is also called Expanding Universe Hypothesis.
 This theory was propounded by Georges Lemaitre in the late 1920s.
 Edwin Hubble in 1920 provided evidence that the universe is expanding.
 The expansion of the universe means an increase in space between the galaxies.
 8

 As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart. The Big Bang Theory considers the
following stages in the development of the universe:
 "Tiny ball” (singular atom) which is
unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature,
and infinite density.
 At the Big Bang the "tiny ball" exploded
violently creating a huge expansion.
 It happened 13.7 billion years before the present.
The expansion continues even to the present day.
 Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, the
temperature dropped to 4,500K (Kelvin) and gave
rise to atomic matter. The universe became
transparent.
Evidence of Big Bang Theory:
 Hubble observed the distance between stars in the
universe through a telescope and established a
relationship between the Galactic distances and speed
of movement.
 Wilson and Penzias gave the Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation hypothesis they observed the
leftover big-bang radiation and calculated its
temperature. These radiations were 13.7 billion years
old with temperatures around 2.7 kelvin.
 9

Star Formation:
 The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early universe. These initial density
differences in gravitational forces caused the matter to get drawn together.
 These formed the bases for the development of galaxies. A galaxy contains a large number of stars.
 A galaxy starts to form by the accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called
a Nebula.
 Eventually, the growing nebula develops localized clumps of gas.
 These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to the formation of
stars.
What is the Universe?
 The age of the Universe is about 13.79 billion years old. It comprises of the Galactic Mega clusters
to the tiniest subatomic particles.
 It is the cluster in which there are a number of galaxies present. In those galaxies there are a number
of bodies known as planets, asteroids, comets, etc.
 The Big Bang Theory is the most acceptable for the origin of the Universe. Optical and radio
telescope studies indicate the existence of about 100 billion galaxies in the visible universe.
 It is proved by the evidence that the galaxies are moving apart, and the universe is still expanding.
 The Big Bang is having its effect till now, which is seen in the evidence given by the Hubble
telescope and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.
 Due to this evidence, the Big Bang theory has been proven as the most reliable and acceptable.
 The Wilson experiment in the United States shows evidence of residual radiation from the Big Bang
which occurred 13.7 billion years ago.
 10


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 07
Universe & Its Constituents
 2

Universe & Its Constituents

What is the Universe?
❖ The age of the Universe is about 13.79 billion years old. It comprises of the Galactic Mega clusters to the
tiniest subatomic particles.
❖ It is the cluster in which a number of galaxies are present. In those galaxies, there are a number of bodies
known as planets, asteroids, comets, etc.
❖ The Big Bang Theory is the most acceptable for the origin of the Universe. Optical and radio telescope
studies indicate the existence of about 100 billion galaxies in the visible universe.
❖ It is proved by the evidence that the galaxies are moving apart, and the universe is still expanding.
❖ The Big Bang is having its effect till now, which is seen in the evidence given by the Hubble telescope and
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.
❖ Due to this evidence, the Big Bang theory has been proven as the most reliable and acceptable.
❖ The Wilson experiment in the United States shows evidence of residual radiation from the Big Bang which
occurred 13.7 billion years ago.

Galaxy:
❖ It is a collection of millions or billions of stars and planets that are held
together by gravitational pull.
❖ One galaxy is interacting with other galaxies.
❖ According to the Big Bang theory, the distance between the galaxies has been
increasing. It means that galaxies are moving apart.
❖ Milky Way is one such galaxy in which the Earth lies.
❖ It is called Milky Way because it looks like a river of milky light flowing from
 3

one corner to another of the sky. It is spiral in shape. It is also known as Akash Ganga.
❖ The nearest galaxy to Milky Way is Andromeda. It is a spiral galaxy and approximately 2.5 million light-
years from the Earth.
Stars:
❖ Stars are heavenly bodies that have their own light and other
radiant energy. Whereas the planets do not have light of their own.
❖ The stars are made of extremely hot burning gases.
❖ Stars have a fusion reaction taking place due to which energy is
being released in the form of light energy (that light is emitted in
the form of photons).
❖ The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early
universe.
❖ These initial density differences in gravitational forces caused the
matter to get drawn together.
❖ These formed the bases for development of galaxies. A galaxy
contains a large number of stars.
❖ A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud called nebula.
❖ Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These clumps continue to grow even denser
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars.

What is the life cycle of a Star?

❖ The Stars starts its life as clouds of dust and gas known as
Nebula. It is the hot gaseous matter comprising particles and
gases (hot in nature).
❖ It starts losing heat, and because of the loss of heat, it cools down.
When a system starts cooling down contraction happens, and its
size reduces.
❖ Because of this condensation and reduction in size, the formation
of stars occurs and its very first stage is known as Proto-star.
❖ In other words, a gaseous matter of Nebula further contracts to
make a dense region named Proto-Star.
❖ Proto Star further condenses to a critical stage of mass where
nuclear fusion begins, and the star finally comes into existence.
 4

❖ Inside a star, the hydrogen gas converts into helium. When a small star runs out of hydrogen (in the core)
then it starts fusing hydrogen into helium just outside the core, releasing energy & light and expanding the
star which is known as the Red Giant.
❖ When there is no hydrogen left, the process stops, and the star collapse (because of its own weight and
gravity). Because of the collapse of the star, the dust and the gases come out of the star, and the star gets
converted into a White dwarf.
❖ A white dwarf star becomes dark balls of matter on cooling to make Black Dwarf Star.
❖ White Dwarf Star is a dead star because of the end of fusion reaction and energy production.
❖ When a white dwarf star stops emitting light it will convert into a Black dwarf and this is the life cycle of
small stars.

What happens with the large star?

❖ Large stars contain more amount of hydrogen which converts into helium, so a lot of energy is there.
❖ When it starts consuming its fuel - Hydrogen and Helium (H & He) in the core, it leads to the expansion of
the outer layer of the star outward resulting in an increase in its size which is known as the Red Supergiant.
❖ It becomes heavy and explodes because of its own weight which is known as Supernova. In other words, it
is defined as the explosive death of a star.
❖ The protons and electrons left in the Supernova are forced to combine to produce a very dense Neutron star.
 5

❖ If the mass of a neutron star is significantly high, it will sink further (due to high gravitational force) to
produce a Black hole.
Sun:
❖ It is a star experiencing fusion reactions at a very large scale (hydrogen getting converted into helium).
❖ It is made up of extremely hot gases, particularly Hydrogen (70%), Helium (26.5%), and others (3.5%)
gases.
❖ It is 109 times bigger than the Earth and weighs 2*10
(27) tonnes.
❖ It is 150 million km away from Earth. The sunlight
takes 8 minutes to reach the earth’s surface.
❖ It continuously gives off energy in the form of visible
light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays, radio
waves, and plasma gas.
❖ Due to infrared radiation, the heat of the sun is felt.
❖ The Sun is a giant ball of plasma (electrified gas
field).

What is Plasma?
❖ Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
❖ It is an electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly equal numbers of positively and
negatively charged particles, produced when the atoms in a gas become ionized.
Heat Transfer:
❖ It is the energy that flows between a hot body and a cold body.
❖ This heat transfer mechanism happens in three modes:
➢ Conduction: By the direct contact between two bodies.
➢ Convection: Heat is transferred between a solid body and fluid.
➢ Radiation: Radiating heat without direct contact or medium.

Interior of the Sun:

❖ Solar Flares: The sudden flash of brightness observed near the sun’s surface which is a collection of
magnetic energy including electrons, protons, and nuclei are called solar flares. They are concise particles
and are harmful for satellite communication.
➢ Solar Flares (wind) is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the sun.
 6

➢ These charged particles when get trapped by the earth’s magnetic field while entering the upper
atmosphere result in the auroral (light) display. At the north pole, these lights are known as Arora
Borealis, and at the south pole, these are known as Aroura Australis.
❖ Core: The core of the sun (15 Mn Degrees Celcius) consists of hydrogen atoms which fuse together due to
compression and creates helium. This is called nuclear fusion.
❖ Radiative Zone: Heat transfer zone of the sun.
❖ Convection Zone: It is next to the core of the sun. Here, the temperature drops to 2 million degrees Celcius.
❖ Photosphere: Its temperature is 6,000 degrees Celcius.
❖ The atmosphere of the sun consists of the chromosphere and corona.
❖ Corona: It is seen in a form of spectral lines emitted by iron, calcium, and Nickle ions. The ionization of
these elements increases the temperature of the corona. The high temperature of the corona is due to the
magnetic field of the sun.
Sunspots:
❖ The dark-appearing areas present in the
photosphere from where solar flares originate are
called the sunspots.
❖ They are relatively a region cooler than its
surrounding and have strong magnetic fields.
❖ It appears and disappears after every 11 years.
This period is called the Sunspot Cycle.
❖ The greatest number of Sunspsots in any given
solar cycle is designed as the “solar maximum”
and the lowest number is the “solar minimum”.
❖ It has harmful effects on the Earth's atmosphere.
Solar Storm:
❖ A solar storm is a disturbance on the Sun, which
can emanate outward across the heliosphere,
affecting the entire Solar System, including Earth
and its magnetosphere.
❖ A Geomagnetic Storm is a temporary disturbance
of the Earth’s magnetosphere caused by a solar
wind shockwave and/or cloud of a magnetic field
that interacts with the Earth’s magnetic field.
❖ The geomagnetic storms affect communication,
satellites, navigation, magnetic lines of force,
 7

electrical system, electronic system, magneto perception of birds and animals, etc.
Mapping Practice:
8
 9


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 08
Our Solar System & Interior of
Earth.
 2

Our Solar System & Interior of Earth.

Sunspots:

 The dark-appearing areas present in the photosphere from where solar flares originate are called the
sunspots.
 They are relatively a region cooler than
its surrounding and have strong
magnetic fields.
 It appears and disappears after every 11
years. This period is called the Sunspot
Cycle.
 The greatest number of Sunspots in any
given solar cycle is designed as the
“solar maximum” and the lowest
number is the “solar minimum”.
 It has harmful effects on the Earth's atmosphere.
Solar Storm:
 A solar storm is a disturbance on the Sun, which can emanate outward across the heliosphere,
affecting the entire Solar System,
including Earth and its magnetosphere.
 A Geomagnetic Storm is a temporary
disturbance of the Earth’s
magnetosphere caused by a solar wind
shockwave and/or cloud of a magnetic
field that interacts with the Earth’s
magnetic field.
 The geomagnetic storms affect
communication, satellites, navigation,
magnetic lines of force, electrical
system, electronic system, magneto perception of birds and animals, etc.
 3

Magnetic Storms:
 A period of rapid magnetic field variation is known as magnetic storms.
 They occur when strong gusts of solar winds collide with the magnetosphere of the earth.
 This results in the generation of electric currents in near-earth space. These are known as Ring
currents and they are mostly concentrated over the equator.
 These storms and currents can harm our artificial satellites and long-range radio communication.
 Global positioning systems dependent on satellites and radio communication are also impacted.
Aurora:
 Electrons and ions sometimes
descend from the magnetosphere into
the upper atmosphere and excite the
molecules of nitrogen and oxygen in
the atmosphere. These excited
(ionized) molecules produce light
seen as Auroras.
 Auroras are mostly seen around the
poles because of the highest intensity
of the geomagnetic field.
 The auroras in Earth's Northern Hemisphere are called the Aurora Borealis.
Our Solar System:
 Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies
like asteroids and comets, and a huge quantity of dust grains and gases.
 The Sun is the central star of our solar system.
 There are eight planets in our solar system Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune (My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts!!).
 These planets are divided into:
 Inner/Terrestrial Planets
 Outer/Jovian Planets
 4

1. Inner or Terrestrial Planets:

 These are the planets which have higher densities and a solid rocky surface.
 These are Mercury, Venus,
Earth, and Mars.
 The terrestrial planets were formed
in the close vicinity of the Sun
where it was too warm for gases
on the surface to condense into
solid particles.
 The intense solar wind near the sun
blew off lots of these gases and
dust from the surface of the
terrestrial planets That’s why the
terrestrial planets have a rocky
surface.
2. Outer or Jovian Planets:
 These are the planets which have lower densities.
 These are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
 The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian
planets That’s why the Jovian planets have gaseous surfaces.
 5

Parameters Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

Location Formed in the closed vicinity of At distant location

the parent star (sun), here too
warm for gases to condense to
solid particles.

effect of Solar Winds It blew off lots of gas and dust The solar winds were not all
from the terrestrial planets. Thus, that intense to cause similar
have a rocky surface. removal of gases from the
Jovian planets.

Size The size of these planets is The size of these planets is

smaller as the low gravity could bigger and have thick
not hold escaping gas atmospheres

Density Higher Lower

Asteroid Belt:
 The asteroid belt is a torus-shaped region in the
Solar System, located roughly between the orbits
of the planets Jupiter and Mars.
 It contains a great many solid, irregularly shaped
bodies, of many sizes, but much smaller than
planets, called asteroids or minor planets.
 NASA’s OSIRIS-Rex Mission was launched in
2016 to study the asteroid Bennu.
Kuiper Belt
 It is also known as the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt.
 It is a region of the Solar System that exists
beyond the eight major planets.
 It extends from the orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to
approximately 50 AU from the Sun.
 It is similar to the asteroid belt, in that it contains
many small bodies, all remnants from the Solar
System’s formation.
 Unlike the Asteroid Belt, it is much larger –20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive.
 6

About Some Planets:

Mercury:
 It is the smallest and the nearest planet to the Sun.
 On Mercury, one day is equal to 59 Earth days.
 It is a rocky planet and its atmosphere contains Oxygen, Sodium, Hydrogen, Helium, etc.
 Scientific Missions for exploration are Mariner & Messenger.
 The temperature on this planet is around -430 (Day) & -180 (Night).
Venus:
 It is considered as 'Earth's-twin' because its size and shape are very
much similar to that of the Earth.
 Second closest planet to the sun at a distance of about 108 million
km.
 It is probably the hottest planet (high temperatures of almost 480°
Celsius (900° Fahrenheit) because its atmosphere contains 90-95% of
carbon dioxide with clouds of Sulphuric acid.
 Venus spins backward (retrograde rotation) when compared to the
other planets.
 One day on Venus lasts as long as 243 Earth days.
Mars:
 On Mars one day is equal to 24 hours.
 It is a rocky planet and its Atmosphere contains Carbon Dioxide,
Nitrogen & Argon.
 It is also called as Red Planet because it has Iron as a mineral in the
soil. (Oxidation)
 It has two Moons-Phobos & Deimos.
 Scientific Missions for exploration are Mangalyaan & Perseverance.
Jupiter:
 It is the largest planet in the solar system.
 Its atmosphere contains hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia.
 Jupiter is a gas giant planet and therefore does not have a solid
surface.
 Atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen (H2) and Helium (He).
 Jupiter has around 80 and 95 moons.
 It has a faint ring system that was discovered in 1979 by the Voyager
1 mission.
 7

Saturn:
 It is the second largest planet in the solar system.
 It has around 83 (latest record as per NASA) known
moons.
 It contains a spectacular Rings System- Nine Rings.
 Scientific Missions for exploration are Cassini
Hyugens, and Voyager.
 Its Atmosphere contains Hydrogen & Helium.
 It is a Gas Giant and has no solid surface.
 One day on the planet lasts as long as 10.7 hours.
 Its distance from the sun is around 1.4 Bn Kms.
Uranus:
 One day on the planet lasts around 17 hours approx.
 It is an Ice Giant that contains around 80% Icy fluid
of Ammonia, water & methane.
 It has around 27 Moons.
 Scientific Mission for exploration is Voyager.
 On this planet there is no evidence of Life is present.
Neptune:
 Its distance from the sun is around 4.5 Bn kms.
 One day on the planet lasts as long as 16 hrs.
 It is also called as Sister giant of Uranus.
 Its Atmosphere contains Hydrogen, Helium & Methane.
 It has around six Rings.
 Scientific Mission for exploration is Voyager-2 (The only spacecraft to have gone to Neptune).
Pluto:
 It was discovered in the year 1930.
 International Astronomical Union (I.A.U) demoted its status to Dwarf Planet in 2003.
 Pluto is 0.07 times the mass of other objects.
 It is the second-largest dwarf planet in Solar System.
 It has five moons.
 Its largest moon is named Charon.
 8

Conditions for the Planet (as per IAU):

1. Must be in orbit around the Sun.
2. Must be massive to be a sphere due to Gravitational Force.
3. Must have cleared the neighborhood.

Earth:
 Distance from Sun is around 149 million Km
 147.5 million km at Perihelion - closest to the Sun
 152.2 million km at Aphelion farthest from Sun.
 Shape: Geoid (an oblate spheroid) slightly flattened at the Poles and bulging at the Equator.
 Ratio of Land to Water: 3:7; Northern Hemisphere 2:3: Southern Hemisphere 1:4 (southern
hemisphere has a larger surface area under water).
 Speed of rotation around the axis is maximum at the equator and decreases poleward.
 Earth lies in the Goldilocks Zone where water can exist in a liquid state.
 Goldilocks zone is a zone of balance (neither
too hot nor cold), also called the habitable
zone.
 It is the densest planet in the solar system.
The Moon:
 The moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth.
 Its diameter is only one-quarter that of the Earth
and it is about 3,84,400 km away from the Earth.
 The moon is tidally locked to the earth, meaning
that the moon revolves around the earth in about 27
days which is the same time it takes to complete
one rotation.
 As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the
moon is visible to us on Earth.
 Generally, the formation of the moon as a satellite
of the earth is the outcome of a ‘giant impact’ or
what is described as “The Big Splat”.
 A body of the size of one to three times that of
Mars collided into the Earth sometimes shortly after
the Earth was formed.
 9

 It blasted a large part of the Earth into space.

This portion of blasted material then continued
to orbit the Earth and eventually formed into
the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
Evolution of the Earth:
 It is not possible to know exactly how the Earth
was formed about 4,500 million years ago.
 Around 4.5 billion years ago, the Earth was a
hot body, fluidic and molten. At that time a Big
Splat Event occurred, in which a larger body
known as Theia (similar to the mass of Mars)
hit upon the Earth and its core started merging
with Earth, but its atmosphere came out
(exploded) and mixed with the atmosphere of
the Earth.
 Then a large portion was cut out from the Earth
and became round, which is presently known
as the moon.
 Evidence regarding the earth’s structure
volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves, etc. are
doubtful.
 Earth has concentric layers of crust, mantle,
and core.
 Crust- first part/ layer
 Mantle- the middle layer of the earth
 Core- innermost layer
 The reasons for the generation of heat are the following:
1. Radioactive Material: The presence of radioactive materials inside the earth also aided in the
increase in the temperature. The decay or disintegration of the radioactive materials leads to the
generation of energy in the form of heat.
2. Big Splat Event: Due to the Giant Impact the earth was further heated up. This gave rise to
the process of differentiation, meaning that the earth-forming material got separated into
different layers (depending on densities).
3. Compression and Pressure: The compression and pressure due to the pressure of several
layers in the interior of the earth increased the temperature in the core.
 10

 Due to heating and mixing, several materials like Iron, Nickel, silicates, etc. redistributed into
several layers depending on their densities.
 Starting from the surface to the central parts, the earth has layers like the crust, mantle, outer core,
and inner core.
 From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases.
 Heavy metals like Iron and Nickle moved towards the Core of the Earth.
 Lighter materials (Silicates) moved upwards and formed Mantle and Crust.
 Around 95% of the Earth's material includes Iron, Magnesium, Silicate, and Oxygen.
 Earth is the fifth largest planet in the Solar System.
 It is also called as a Blue Planet because, from outer space, the Earth appears blue because its two-
thirds surface is covered by water.
Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere:
 Initially (approximately 4.5 billion
years ago) when the Earth was
formed it was hot and had a rough
surface. Gases (carbon dioxide, water
vapor, oxides of nitrogen, etc.) were
coming out from the surface of the
earth due to the volcanism inside the
earth’s surface (known as
degassing).
 After 2-3 million years, when the
earth cools down, the atmosphere
forms with carbon dioxide and water
vapor.
 Because of the water vapor, cloud
formed, and rainfall started on the
earth’s surface.
 After which water accumulated on the
surface of the earth and formed oceans.
 After the formation of oceans life
evolved in the form of algae.
 The algae started the process of
photosynthesis by utilizing the carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. During photosynthesis, Oxygen is generated in the atmosphere.
 11

Some Important Terms:

 Meteors: When entering the earth’s
atmosphere.
 Meteoroids: Moving (in the universe) far
away from Earth’s atmosphere.
 Meteorites: When hit the ground on the
earth.
 Comets: These are icy objects which have
icy fluids which can be water or gas
(nitrogen etc.). When these bodies reach
near the sun, their ice melts. These bodies
have tails.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 09
Interior of the
Earth
 2

Interior of the Earth

Sources of Information about the Interior of the Earth:
 3

Direct sources:
 Mines: Mponeng Mines
 Located in South Africa
 Depth: 2.4 miles (3.9 km)
 Deepest gold mine
 We can study the direct effects
like temperature, pressure, soil,
etc.
Volcanic Eruptions:
 It can lead to the formation of rocks and soils.
 We can study physical composition (shape, size,
etc) and chemical composition (elements present
in it).
Integrated Ocean Drilling:
 We send mechanized ships into the deep ocean, to
study pressure, temperature, different layers, etc.
 There are a number of drill stations present which collect ocean
resources and study the interior of the earth.
Minerals on Earth:
 Silicate: Quartz, Feldspar, Ferromagnesian
 Carbonate: Calcite, Limestone, Marbles
 Sulphate: Pyrite, Iron, Sulphate
 Metallic: Iron, Aluminum
Indirect Sources:
1. Temperature and pressure: It changes with the depth. As we
go deep into the earth's crust both the temperature and pressure
increase.
2. Gravity: After studying the gravitational force we get to know
about the solid mass inside the earth.
3. Meteorites:
 When they fall on earth, their outer layer is burnt during their fall due to
extreme friction, and the inner core is exposed.
 The heavy material composition of their cores confirms the similar
composition of the inner core of the earth, as both evolved from the same
star system in the remote past.
 4

4. Seismic Waves: These are the waves that cause releasing

energy. The study of seismic waves provides a complete
picture of the layered interior.
 When energy is released seismic waves are formed.
 These are of two types- Body waves (P and S waves)
and surface waves.
 By studying the properties of different types of waves
like speed in different materials geographers know about
the interior of the earth (layers, density, pressure, and
temperature of earth).
 Seismographs are instruments used to study seismic waves.
 The point where the earthquake starts is called Focus.
 The point above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter.
Types of Seismic Waves:
 Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and
surface waves.
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus
and move in all directions travelling through the body of the Earth.
Hence, the name body waves.
 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new
set of waves called surface waves.
 Surface waves move along the surface. The velocity of waves changes
as they travel through materials with different densities.
Body Waves:
 Body waves flow inside a complete volume and they are two types of
body waves - [ P and S-waves].
 5

Surface Waves:
 The surface waves are the last to report on seismographs.
 These waves are more destructive.
 They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.
 These are also called long-period waves.
 They are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse vibration.
 Generally affect the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depths.

Features of Seismic Waves:

 Velocity of waves changes with density and elasticity (shear strength). If we go down inside the Earth, the
velocity of waves increases due to an increase in density.
 The denser the material, the higher the velocity.
 Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different densities.
 It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the Earth like composition, physical
properties (solid, liquid and gas) etc.
 The waves refract while traveling in different mediums. This gives us information about the material inside
the Earth.

Upper Part of the Earth:

 Jaffery’s in his study of earthquakes in Kulpa Valley (Criatia), observed the seismic waves and
measured the velocity of different waves. (Pg-Sg waves with average velocity 4.5km/s, and average
density 27gms/cm3 )
Middle Part of the Earth:
 Cornard in his study of earthquakes in 1923 measured the average velocity and density of the seismic
waves. (Average velocity 5.5km/s and the average density is 3gm/cm3 )
 6

Lower Part of the Earth:

 As per the studies P and S waves were found in the lower layer.
 Average velocity of waves was 7-8km/s. (Fastest speed/velocity)
 Average density was greater than 6gm/cm3.
 This showed the increase in the density of material and velocity of waves with the increase in the depth
of the earth.

5. Magnetic Field: It tells us the material inside the earth, which

is rotating and experiencing high currents.
 Because of the presence of the magnetic field earth is
protected from solar storms.
 The overall surrounding is known as the magnetosphere.
 As per Lenz law- whenever the current will move in a ring,
magnetic fields emerge. Because of the molten form of the
deepest part of the earth, there is a magnetic field (called
the dynamo effect).
Interior of the Earth:
 The structure of the earth's interior is made up of several
concentric layers.
 These different layers formed due to the redistribution by the
Big Splat Event (origin of the earth).
 Temperature and pressure increase as we go deeper towards the
center of the Earth because of the presence of radioactive
materials.
 Edward Suess in his study observed that the upper-most layer
(Crust) of the earth is made up of sedimentary rocks and
contained minerals like Mica and Feldspar.
 He identified three layers in the interior of the earth on the basis of
different compositions of the elements.
 Broadly three layers can be identified:
 Crust- first part/ layer (SIAL)
 Mantle- the middle layer of the earth (SIMA)
 Core- the innermost layer (NIFE)
 Presently we can practically (actual data) analyze only 8-10 km deep
layer of the earth and beyond that, our analysis is totally based on the
assumptions and studies.
 Crust is divided into two parts i.e., Continental crust and oceanic crust.
 7

 Continental crust (SIAL) and Oceanic crust (SIMA) interact with

each other which leads to the formation of mountains, plateaus, islands,
etc.
 Oceanic crust is thinner in size, and continental crust is thicker.
 Continental crust floats on oceanic crust.
 Mantle is divided into two parts i.e, upper mantle and lower mantle.
 Core is also divided into two parts i.e., outer core and inner core.
 Old theories are less relevant in the present time and as per recent
studies scientists gave details about the interior of the earth.

 Because of the divisions into various layers, there are various discontinuities. It means the change in the
profile, composition, and shape.




 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 10
Interior of Earth (Part 2)
 2

Interior of Earth (Part 2)

Structure of Earth:

Crust:
 The crust is the uppermost solid part and a thin layer of the earth.
 The thickness is variable:
 Oceanic and Continental areas.
 Oceanic crust is thinner (30 km thick) as compared
to the continental crust (50-70 km thick).
 Oceanic crust density is more (3 gm/cc) as
compared to the continental crust (2.7 gm/cc).
 The total crust occupies 0.5-1% volume of the
whole earth.
 The total crust occupies 1% mass of the whole earth.
 The crust is 70 -100 km thick in the Himalayan
region.
 The temperature of the crust increases with depth,
around 200 °C to 400 °C near the mantle-crust
boundary.
 The crust’s outer layer is made up of sedimentary material, and beneath it are acidic crystalline,
igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
 3

 Lighter (felsic) sodium, potassium, aluminum silicates rocks, such as granite, make up the
continental crust.
 On the other hand, the oceanic crust is made up of thick (mafic) iron, magnesium, silicate, and
igneous rocks like basalt.
 Continental Crust:
 It is thicker: mean thickness = 30 km & density = 2.7g/cm3
 Rock Type: Granite
 Minerals- Silica + Aluminum = SIAL
 Oceanic Crust:
 Thinner à mean thickness = 5 km & density = 3g/cm3
 Rock type: Basalt
 Minerals- Silica + Iron + Magnesium = SIMA
 Because of the divisions, there are various discontinuities. It means the change in the profile,
composition, and shape.
 4

Mantle
 It is a layer below the crust.
 The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity (35 km) to a depth of 2,900 km.
 It occupies roughly 83 percent of the Earth’s volume and 67 per cent of the Earth's mass.
 The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.
 Outermost solid part:
 Crust and uppermost layer of the mantle are combinedly called the lithosphere (10 to 200 km).
 The upper portion of the mantle is called the asthenosphere(~400KM). It is in a semi-liquid state.
 Lithosphere floats on the asthenosphere.
 Density:
 Upper Mantle- 2.9-3.3 g/cm3
 Lower Mantle- 3.3-5.7 g/cm3.
 Density of the mantle increases with the depth increases because the seismic waves velocity
increases with the depth increases.
 5

 A convective material circulation occurs in the mantle as a result of the temperature differential
between upper core and mantle.(although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the
silicate material to be sufficiently ductile).
 So, heat is transferred from the upper core to the mantle, and the mantle gets heated up. But the
crust will be on the cooler side and the lower mantle is very hot, so the upper mantle will be cooler
in comparison to the lower mantle.
 Heat gives energy to the molecules in the hot mantle, so molecules run away means expansion of
the hot mantle takes place(Size increases), volume increases.
 Density is inversely proportional to volume, so density of hot mantle decreases.
 Heated molecules expanded and started to move towards the cold mantle.
 Molecules in the cold mantle closed pack, so the cold mantle shrinks and volume decreases and
density increases (Mass is constant).
 Therefore the cold mantle will become heavier than the hot mantle, so the cold mantle moves
towards the hot mantle. It creates a complete circle here.
 This phenomenon is called Convection currents due to differences in temperature.
 The motions of tectonic plates represent the mantle’s convection at the surface.
 The convection currents become the root cause of the formation of volcanoes, islands, and
mountains.
 Seismicity in the mantle should be inhibited by high-pressure circumstances. However, earthquakes
have been detected in subduction zones as far as 670 kilometers below the surface (420 mi).
 The mantle extends from Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
 The material in the upper mantle portion is called magma.
 Once it starts moving toward the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
Core:
 Core-mantle boundary is located at a depth of 2,900 km.
 It is made of NIFE layer [nickel and iron].
 Core lies between 2900 km and 6400 km below the mantle of earth.
 Density of the core is higher than the mantle and varies from 5.5 to 13.6 g/cm3 of earth.
 Highest densities are obtained in core, because of heavy elements present here with high
pressure of superincumbent load.
 Outer layer of core is in molten state and inner layer Solid State (5000 Celsius).
 Volume and mass of the core are 16% and 32% of the total volume and mass.
 The total pressure exerted by the mantle and crust of the earth trying to compress the core.
 6

Temperature Analysis:
 As we go down the temperature increases.
 At every 100 meters the temperature increases by 2-3 degrees Celsius.
 At the depth of 40 km the temperature is around 1000 degree Celsius. Due to molten rocks and
volcanic activity.
 If it has the same rate of rise, the temperature of the core will be 25000 degrees Celsius.
 But, the rate of temperature rise is reduced from crust to core because the maximum amount
of radioactive elements is present in the upper layers.
 The temperature of the core is around 4000-5000 degrees celsius. It's very high due to:
 The disintegration of the radioactive materials.
 Because of the increasing load, the entire gravitational energy which is occurring due to the
increasing load is converted into thermal energy.
 Rocks are bad conductors of heat that's why the heat of the core is not transferred to the surface.

Rate of increment of temperature is unequal in Core:

Depth (in KM) Temperature (Degree Celsius)

1000 km 1100

400 km 1500

700 km 1900

2900 km 3700

5100 km 4500

Pressure Analysis:
 As we go down from crust to core the mass of rocks increases and pressure also increases.
 Even in this high temperature, because of high pressure in the inner core, it does not melt as
pressure increases the melting point or pressure does not allow it to melt, therefore the inner core
is in a solid state.
 As we move upward toward the outer core there is a decrease in the pressure and temperature, thus
it is in a liquid state.
 7

Density Analysis:
 In the crust velocity was around 1-2 km/s. (Minimum density)
 The mantle velocity was around 3-4 km/s. (Moderate density)
 The core velocity was 5-8 km/s. (High density)
 The density is rising because of:
 Closed pack system of earth interior (Minimum Volume)
 Heavy elements are increases with depth
 Rising temperature and pressure.
 The evidence for this density change is seismic waves (P and S waves).
 As we went down the velocity of waves was rising.
 According to the geographers the velocity rises with the rising density.
The Structure of the Earth:
 The continental crust, oceanic crust, and upper mantle are known as the lithosphere. It floats upon
the asthenosphere due to the buoyancy force.
 The lower mantle is known as the Asthenosphere.
8
 9

Chemical Composition of Earth:


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 11
Interior of Earth (Part 03)
and Geomorphism
 2

Interior of Earth (Part 03) and Geomorphism

Earth’s Geomagnetic Field:
❖ Earth has three layers- Crust, Mantle, and Core.
❖ Geomagnetism is the study of the dynamics of the
Earth's magnetic field, which is produced in the
outer core.
❖ The Earth act as a dipole magnet where the
geomagnetic south pole is near the earth's geographic
north and vice versa.
❖ The geomagnetic field is a dynamic field and it
changes with location and time.
❖ Magnetic lines of force created by the bar magnet
(Hypothetical) causing Magnetism to align around
the earth called the Geomagnetic field of Earth.
❖ Earth’s axial tilt (Geographical) is about 23.5
degrees.
❖ Approximately, it is the field of a magnetic dipole presently tilted at an angle of about 11 degrees with
respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the Earth.
❖ The position of the magnetic pole is different from the earth’s geographic poles (difference of alignment).
❖ Since opposite poles attract, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is the south pole of its magnetic field. And
vice-a-versa
❖ Earth's magnetic field moves from the north to south pole of the Earth's magnetic bar.

Theories of Formation of Magnetic Field:

❖ Gilbert's theory: It was the first theory. He said that there is an existence of a real bar magnet inside the earth
and because of it there is a magnetic field.
➢ Criticism: It is impossible to have a solid bar inside the earth (liquid core) because Geographers said that
inside the earth the very high temperature is nearly 5000 degrees Celsius and it will melt the bar magnet.
❖ Rock magnetism: There are many magnetic rocks (randomly
placed) that exist inside the Earth, they cause magnetism of
earth around the Earth.
➢ Criticism: Randomly distributed rocks can’t result in this
large-scale magnetism and rocks will melt inside the deep
earth because of the high temperature in the core of the
earth.
❖ Dynamo effect: It was propounded by Walter. The outer core
of the earth is in a molten state and the inner core is solid.
The Magnetic Field is generated by the motion of molten iron
alloys in the outer core of the Earth.
 3

➢ Differences in pressure, temperature, and composition within the core of the earth cause convection
currents in the molten metal.
➢ The flow of liquid iron generates electric currents and produces magnetic fields. This effect is known as
Dynamo Effect.
➢ A molten outer core inside the earth is rotating and traveling deep inside the earth, a rotating molten mix
contains positive and negative ions in the molten layers.
➢ The Magnetic Field of the Earth is generated by the motion of molten ions in a clockwise direction in
the Earth’s outer core. This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents (electrons movement), which
in turn produce magnetic fields.
➢ This effect is known as Dynamo Effect (As per Right
Hand Thumb Rule).
▪ Right-Hand Thumb Rule explains that the
clockwise rotation of current leads to the magnetic
field moving in the direction of the thumb
(downward).
▪ Rotation of cores is due to the difference between
the density of cores.
▪ Radioactive atoms disintegrate in the core of the
earth and explode in small localized explosions
which exert force in the core and start the movement.
Heavy elements come down and light elements go
up in the core layers in this process.

Geomagnetic Poles:
❖ The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are the
intersections of the Earth's surface and the
axis of a bar magnet hypothetically placed at
the centre of the Earth.
❖ There is such a pole in each hemisphere, and the
poles are called as "the geomagnetic north
pole" and "the geomagnetic south pole",
respectively.
❖ The magnetic poles (the magnetic north pole and
the magnetic south pole) are the points at
which magnetic needles become vertical.
❖ The difference in the position of magnetic poles
and geomagnetic poles is due to the uneven and
complex distribution of the earth's magnetic
field.
 4

❖ Magnetic lines of force come out from the earth at Magnetic North and all Magnetic lines of force are
converged into the Magnetic South.
❖ Why are the Magnetic poles and Geographic Poles separate?
➢ Because magnetic orientation keeps on changing. So, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is the south
pole of its magnetic field. And vice-a-versa.
❖ Earth's magnetic field lines keep on changing with time it is not constant.
❖ Magnetic north pole is not in line with the magnetic
south. The magnetic pole axis is a little bit tilted. This
misaligned axis is because of the molten magnetic field
movement continuously so poles change regularly.
❖ The geomagnetic poles are antipodal points where the
axis of a best-fitting dipole intersects the surface of
Earth.
❖ However the actual magnetic poles of the Earth are not
antipodal; that is, the line on which they lie does not
pass through Earth's center. Because the core of the earth
is in the molten state and the surface is uneven, that is
why the axis will be uneven (not in a straight line).
❖ If the Earth's magnetic field were a perfect dipole, then
the field lines would be vertical to the surface at the
Geomagnetic Poles and would coincide with the North
and South magnetic poles.
❖ However, the approximation is imperfect, and so the Magnetic and Geomagnetic Poles lie some distance apart.
❖ North of the Compass will be pointing towards the south of the magnet, because the north and south attract
each other.

Geomagnetic Reversal:
❖ A geomagnetic reversal is a change
in an Earth's magnetic field or
magnetic lines of force changing its
direction, such that magnetic north
and magnetic south interchange
their positions. This happens in
10,000 years to 2.5 lakh years.
❖ The intensity of the geomagnetic
field is greatest near the poles and
weaker near the Equator.
❖ The earth's magnetic pole in the
northern hemisphere is located on
a peninsula in northern Canada.
 5

❖ Earth's magnetic equator passes through Thumba in South India.

❖ At present, earth's magnetic poles are:
➢ Magnetic South is located in Ellesmere Island, Canada, and Magnetic North is located in Antarctica.

Causes of the Reversal:

❖ Sun spot theory: Solar storms of a high magnitude completely cover the earth and which led to a change in
its polarity. But this theory is not a valid reason.
❖ Comet hit theory: A huge comet came from the universe and hit Earth due to which the core of the Earth
shook and the Earth's magnetic field changed.
❖ Local dipole and heat transfer: A small magnetic field is generated due to localized rotation. It is the most
valid theory.
➢ The localized magnetic fields in small dipoles and heat of the core get transferred to the mantle, which
leads to the change in density of the dipoles locally inside the core.
➢ Density change leads to the movement of parts of the core of the earth and due to which there is a reverse
in the rotation. Some of the rotations are in opposite directions, due to which after 10,000 years to 2.5
lakh years the overall magnetic field gets reversed.
➢ Local small dipoles rotate in the reverse direction because they start to lose the heat and get cold. They
become heavy and fall down on one another dipoles and by hitting each other leads to changing their
direction. So the direction of the core rotation also changed.

Significance Of Geomagnetic Field:

❖ The Geomagnetic field acts as a shield and blocks the harmful solar winds emerging from the sun. The
solar winds consist of charged particles that can severely damage life on the Earth. It may disrupt
communication, navigation and may lead to the failure of grids.
➢ However, some particles manage to enter our planet and are directed by the magnetic field towards the
poles, which produce amazing lights known as Polar Lights or Auroras.
❖ It also helps in navigation by use of a compass.
❖ Magneto-
Perception: Some
animals can use this
magnetic field to
navigate while
migrating over long
distances. This
phenomenon is called
Magneto-Perception.
Example: olive
ridley turtles come
to Odisha coast
every year, etc.
 6

❖ The study of paleo-magnetism provides us with information about the past record of geomagnetism and
the age of rocks on the surface of the planet.
❖ Paleomagnetic studies have also helped in developing the theories of Seafloor spreading and Plate
Tectonics.
❖ Geomagnetic field leads to the formation of the magnetosphere around the Earth.
❖ It can also cause various natural disasters like forest fires (due to heating), tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.

Additional Information:
Magnetosphere
❖ It is a region of space surrounding the Earth (or any
other planet or star) in which charged particles are
affected by the geomagnetic field or magnetic field
of that body.
❖ It traps charged particles from the solar winds and
funnels them into a plasma.
❖ It extends up to 60,000 km on the side facing the Sun
and to a greater extent on the opposite side.
❖ Its boundary is known as Magnetopause, outside
which is a turbulent magnetic region known as
magneto-sheath.
❖ It contains the Van Allen radiation belts containing high-energy charged particles.
❖ The lower belt contains electrons and protons extending from 1000 to 5000 km above the Earth’s equator.
❖ The upper belt has mainly electrons extending from 15000 to 25000 km above the equator.
Magnetic Storms:
❖ A period of rapid magnetic field variation is known as magnetic storms.
❖ They occur when strong gusts of solar winds collide with the magnetosphere of the earth.
❖ This results in the generation of electric currents in
near-earth space. These are known as Ring currents
and they are mostly concentrated over the equator.
❖ These storms and currents can harm our artificial
satellites and long-range radio communication.
❖ Global positioning systems dependent on satellites
and radio communication are also impacted.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 12
Geomorphism,
Earth Movements
 2

Geomorphism, Earth Movements

 Carbon dioxide existed before the oxygen in the earth's atmosphere. In the process of photosynthesis, oxygen
is released into the atmosphere.
 Lava in the process of volcanism exists in the mantle layer.
 Highest density and highest velocity of seismic waves are experienced in the core layer of the earth.
 The oceanic crust has a higher density than the Continental crust.
 At the time of the summer solstice in India, the continuous night is present in the south pole.

Geomorphism:
 The term 'Geo' means earth and 'morphism' means change/formation.
 The formation of different forms of structures on the earth is called Geomorphism.
 For example coasts, mountains, valleys, plateaus, etc.
 It studies the movement of the earth's crust layer movements.
Geomorphic Processes:
 The endogenic and exogenic forces that cause physical stresses and chemical actions on the earth's surface or
materials and change the configuration of the surface of the earth are called geomorphic processes.
 These different relief features can be mountains, valleys, plateaus, etc.
 These processes are caused by geomorphic agents, such as magma, water, wind, sunlight, bacteria,
earthworm, etc.
 The geomorphic forces can be both internal (for example, Magma) and external (for example, Water, waves,
currents).
Forces Responsible for Geomorphism:
1. Heat: Heat is generated due to the decay or disintegration of radioactive elements.
 Magma present inside the Earth is forced itself to come out from the Earth in the form of lava and it
forms a plateau. This process deforms the earth's crust.
2. Temperature and pressure differential: Temperature and pressure differential cause changes in density in
the interior of the earth. Because of density changes heat flow happens. It starts convection currents inside
the earth.
 Convection currents induce magma which comes out on the surface of the earth as lava from
volcanoes.
 Magma contains molten metals, molten rocks, many gases, water vapor, etc,
3. Rotation of Earth: The earth rotates in the direction of west to east and rotates water and air in the same
direction. This force is called the Coriolis force. It affects winds, rainfall, cyclones, mountains, etc. which
help in changing the topography of hills, and deserts on the surface of the earth.
 3

Types of Earth Movements:

 The surface of the Earth is subjected to external forces originating within the Earth's atmosphere and by
internal forces from within the Earth.
 There are two types of forces that are responsible for the earth's movement. They are:
1. Endogenetic/ Endogenic Forces
2. Exogenetic/ Exogenic Forces
 'Endo' means inside and 'genesis' means formation.
 'Exo' means outside and 'genesis' means formation.

 Endogenic forces:
 These forces are responsible for the movements inside the earth.
 They cause the building or construction on the earth.
 It is responsible for the formation of Islands, continents, volcanic mountains, plateaus, etc.
 Types of Endogenic Forces:
 Diastrophic movements: These are very slow, it takes thousands of years. It is present deep within
the earth. It is constructive on the earth and helps in the creation of mountains, plateaus, valleys,
etc.
 Sudden Movements: They occur very quickly and take less time. These are destructive in nature.
For example, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.
 4

 Exogenic forces:
 These forces are responsible for the movements outside the earth.
 They cause the wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of
basins/ depressions on the Earth.
 Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are slow exogenic geomorphic processes.
 It is responsible for the formation of Dry hills from greenery hills.
Diastrophism:
 It includes all the processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth's crust.
 It includes (i) Orogenic processes (ii) Epeirogenic processes:
 Epeirogenic processes:
 Epiro means 'continent' and genic means 'genesis'.
 Involves the uplift or warping of large parts of the earth's
crust.
 It leads to continent-forming processes.
 Forces acting radially (force is along the radius), and
leads to the formation of continents.
 These involve vertical movements, which can be both
upward or downward.
 Upward movement is called upliftment (Example:
Kathiawar coast, Tirunelveli coast, etc.), and downward
movement (Example: Rann of Kachchh, Andaman and Nicobar, western coast, etc.) is the subsidence
or down thrusting of landforms.
 Due to epeirogeny, there may be simple deformation.
 Orogenic processes:
 Oro means 'mountain' and genic means 'genesis'.
 It involves mountain formation through folding and affecting long and
narrow belts of the earth's crust.
 In this process, the crust is severely deformed into folds.
 Types of Orogenic Processes:
 Tangential (tensile) forces are horizontal forces. It is also known as tangential
forces. It works in two opposite directions. It leads to the formation of rift
valleys, faults, and cracks (fissures). Example: Block mountains- Black
forest etc.
 Compressional processes: It is pushing force. It will lead to the formation of
folds. It can lead to up-warping and down-warping. Examples of fold
mountains: the Rockies (North America), Andes(South America), Himalayas,
etc.
 5

Additional Information:
 Shear processes: It is the force acting in a direction that
is parallel to (over the top of) a surface or cross-section
of a body. It leads to the formation of faults (Example:
San Andreas fault).
 Fault: It is a fracture or discontinuity in a volume of
rock across which there has been significant
displacement as a result of rock-mass movements.
 Folding: A fold is an undulating or wave-like structure that forms when rocks or a part of the earth's crust
is folded or deformed by bending under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata or
rock layers.

Sudden Movements:
 These are quick or sudden earth movements.
 There can be divided into two parts:
 Volcanism
 Earthquake
 Volcanism: It is the process of the movement of molten rock (magma) toward the earth's surface. It leads to
the formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms due to the pressure generated by the Magma.
Examples: Volcanic mountain (Mount Vesuvius, Italy), Volcanic Plateau ( Deccan plateau).
 Earthquake: It is a sudden release of energy in the form of waves due to plate interaction, rock slippage,
and human activities (explosion, construction of the reservoir, etc.). These waves' energy shakes the earth's
surface. It is destructive in nature and can lead to the formation of rifts, schisms (cracks/splits) and valley
formation.
Exogenic Movements:
 These are movements above the earth's surface due to exogenetic forces which derive their energy from the
atmosphere.
 6

 These are due to external forces or agents, like rain, winds, glaciers(snow/ice), heat, etc.
 Also biological agents such as Rodents, Termites, Warms, Bacteria, etc.
 These agents or forces can lead to both physical and chemical changes.
 Landslides, soil erosion, rock breaking, and cave formation are examples of exogenic movements.
Denudation:
 All the exogenic geomorphic
processes are covered under the
term, denudation.
 The term 'denude' means to strip off
or to uncover. Hence, denudation
means removing the top layer of the
earth's surface or stripping off the
material cover.
 It includes weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion, and
transportation. These all remove the top layer/cover and change the face and configuration of the earth.
 Weathering is the result of the action of elements of weather and climate over the earth's materials.
Forces Responsible for Exogenic Movements:
 The insolation from the sun is responsible for heat.
 This heating and cooling cause contraction and expansion of the rocks and lead to the formation of cracks
and loose material comes out.
 It will lead to breakage of rock and change the face, size, and configuration of the rock.
 This heat leads to wind movement, rainfall, chemical reactions, biological phenomena, and physical
weathering.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 13
Geomorphism
(Part- 2)
 2

Geomorphism (Part- 2)
Exogenic Forces:
 The forces that take place outside the Earth's surface are called Exogenic Processes.
 Forces responsible for Exogenic movements:
 The insolation from the sun is responsible for heat. This heating and cooling cause contraction and
expansion of the rocks and lead to the
formation of cracks and loose material
comes out. It will lead to breakage of
rock and change the face, size, and
configuration of the rock.
 This heat leads to wind movement,
rainfall, chemical reactions, biological
phenomena, and physical weathering.
Factors affecting the Exogenic processes:
1. Climate: Climate is the sum total of weather conditions over a large area for a long period of time which is
more than thirty years. It includes various agents like seasons, insolation, winds, temperature, and rainfall,
which help in the process of denudation.
2. Rocks type: Different types of rocks offer varying resistances to various geomorphic processes. The faults
and cracks in the rocks result in easy breakage of rocks into small particles. The softness, hardness,
inclination, and orientation of rocks (rock slides) of rocks decide the rate of disintegration of rocks.

Denudation:
 All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under the term, denudation.
 The term 'denude' means to strip off or to uncover. Hence denudation means removing the top layer of
the earth's surface or stripping off the material cover.
 It includes weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion, and transportation. These all remove the top
layer/cover and change the face and configuration of the earth.
 Weathering is the result of the action of elements of weather and climate over the earth's materials.
 Winds, rainfall, flood water, cyclone, and hail storms can be the reasons for denudation.
Types of Denudation Processes:
1. Erosion: Erosion is the process of removal of topsoil from any field by external forces such as rain, wind,
etc. It involves the acquisition and transportation of rock debris.
 A massive rock breaks into smaller fragments or particles through weathering and other agents like,
running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, and waves remove and transport it to other places
depending upon the dynamics.
 3

2. Mass Movements: Mass movements is the movement of the rocks,

boulders, sand, and particles down the slopes.
 It transfers the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the
influence of gravitational force. Example: Landslides,
avalanches, debris flow, etc.
3. Weathering:
 It is the mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition of rocks through the actions of various agents
like weather and climate.
 It is a phenomenon of mechanical disintegration (breaking into small parts) and chemical
decomposition due to physical factors (pressure, temperature) and chemical processes (oxidation,
reduction, hydration) of the earth's relief features and materials.
 In this process there is very little or no motion of materials takes place, therefore it is an in-situ or on-
site process.
 It is conditioned by several complex geological, climatic, topographic, and vegetative factors.
 There are three major types of weathering processes : (i) chemical weathering (chemical reaction) (ii)
physical or mechanical weathering (Temperature and pressure) (iii) biological weathering
processes (due to biological organisms- plants, animals, etc).
a. Physical weathering happens due to the action of temperature and pressure stress (internal
resisting forces). For example, It causes cracks in the rocks.
b. Chemical weathering happens due to the action of chemical reactions such as the action of water
and carbon dioxide on the rocks. It may be in the forms of hydration, solution weathering,
carbonation, oxidation, or reduction.
c. Biological weathering happens due to the action of termites, bacteria, fungi, plants, animals, etc.
Factors Influencing the Weathering:
 Geological Structure:- the structure of rocks, endogenic forces, etc.
 Climate:- Temperature, dry or arid, etc.
 Topography: Land is Plain or hill, etc.
 Natural Vegetation
Significance Of Weathering:
 It is responsible for the formation of soils and erosion and deposition.
 The biodiversity of a region is basically depending on the depth of weathering.
 Weathering also aids mass wasting, erosion, and reduction of relief and changes in landforms.
 The weathering of rocks and deposition helps in the enrichment and concentrations of valuable ores of
iron manganese, and aluminum copper.
 4

Difference between Physical, Chemical, and Biological Weathering:

PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL CHEMICAL

Thermal changes: Repeated Burrowing and wedging by Dissolution; dissolving action of

temperature change, stress develops, organisms like earthworks termites water and various organic acids.
and rocks crack and split. (onion
peeling/ exfoliation)

Frost action: sharp angular Rodents help in exposing the new Hydrolysis; reaction with
fragments of rocks are formed surfaces to chemical attack and assist hydrogen in air or water
in the penetration of moisture and air

Physical Biological Chemical

Pressure release -- Oxidation; Reaction of oxygen

in air or water with minerals in
the rock

Hydraulic action; repeated wetting -- Solution

and drying stress

Hyaloclastite; mechanical -- Hydration

weathering

-- -- Carbonation

Types of Physical Weathering:

Exfoliation: It is the process in which large flat or curved upper sheets of rock gets fractured and detached from
layers of rocks.
 Exfoliation due to Pressure Release:
 The intrusive rocks formed deep beneath the Earth's surface
are under tremendous pressure due to the overlying load of the
above rock.
 The removal of the overlying rock load/material due to
erosion causes vertical pressure release and freeing up of the
bottom rocks (which expands due to pressure release).
 The upper layers of the rock continue to expand and result in
the disintegration of rock masses.
 The fractures in the rocks will develop nearly parallel to the ground surface.
 5

 In the areas the ground surface is curved or arched tends to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock.
 The exfoliation sheets resulting from expansion and pressure release may expand up to hundreds or
even thousands of meters horizontally.
 The large, smooth, and rounded domes formed due to exfoliation are called exfoliation domes.
 The loose materials of the rocks will flow due to wind and water.
 Exfoliation due to Thermal Effect:
 The rocks are subjected to heat in the daytime.
 Various minerals in rocks have their limits of
expansion and contraction and with the rise in
temperature, every mineral expands.
 Because of insolation the top layer of rock heats
up and expands. It exerts pressure on its
surrounding rocks.
 As the temperature falls the rocks cool down and
contract during night.
 The differential heating and expansion &
contraction of surface layers of the rocks lead to the formation of thermal stress. It results in heaving
and fracturing of the rocks.
 In this process the top layer of the rocks breaks down and with time due to winds and rainfall, loose
material of the rocks is removed in the form of mud.
 Due to exfoliation in some rocks such as granites, the surface becomes smooth. The rounded (small or
big) boulders are called tors.
 This process is most effective in dry climates and high elevations where diurnal temperature changes are
very high.
 Exfoliation due to Granular Disintegration:
 This process occurs in the rocks which are composed of different types of coarse-grained minerals.
 The rocks are composed of different types of dark and light-colored minerals.
 Due to heat and temperature, light color minerals rocks absorb less heat and expand less compared to
dark color grains (dark-colored grains as they expand more). This leads to tension and results in the
development of cracks and breakage of rock.
 After some time, the dark-colored minerals rocks separate from the rock. The cracks of the rocks
expanded and lead to the separation of the loose material in the form of sand and small rocks, which are
called granules. This process is called as exfoliation due to the granular disintegration.
 Because of differential disintegration the weathering process takes place.
 This type of weathering takes place in cold regions and locations situated at high altitudes.
 6

 Frost weathering:
 It occurs due to the formation of ice within pores and cracks of
rocks during repeated cycles of freezing during the night and melting
during the daytime.
 The volume of ice is more than the volume of water, so ice expands
and results in the disintegration of the rock.
 This force of ice expansion is very powerful, its resulting expansion
continuously, and with time the small intergranular fractures become
wider and ultimately breaks apart the rock.
 This process is most effective at high elevations in mid-latitudes where freezing and melting are
common. The glacial areas are subject to frost wedging.
 In this process, the rate of freezing is important, rapid freezing of water causes sudden expansion.
 Freeze-Thaw Cycle: It is the continuous expansion (freezing) and contraction (converting into water) of
water inside the rocks is called the freeze-thaw cycle.
 The repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over
time leads to breakdown of rocks into small pieces.
 The process of the splitting of rocks along the joints into
blocks is called block disintegration.
 Freeze wedging is caused by the repeated freeze-thaw cycle
due to which the cracks filled with water and subsequent
freezing and thawing results in disintegration.
 Rock shattering: Continuous severe frost can disintegrate rocks
along weak zones to produce many small angular pieces with
sharp corners and edges through the process of shattering.
 It breakdown the rocks completely. The shattered piles up of
rock fragments are called scree.
 These are generally found at the foot of mountain areas or
along slopes.
 Salt Weathering:
 Salts in the sea rocks have some water in it,
because of insolation water evaporates and
salt gets heated up and expands (due to
thermal action, hydration, and crystallization).
 Several salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium,
potassium, barium, etc. have a property to
expand.
 The rate of expansion of salts depends on
temperature and their thermal properties.
 7

 The expansion of salt leads to disintegration and breaks the rocks.

 Salts in rocks expand due to the thermal expansion causing the splitting of individual grains within
rocks and eventually breaking the rock.
 It is a slow process and occurs in areas with frequent wetting and drying conditions which favors the salt
crystal growth. The high temperature ranges (between 30 and 50 degrees Celsius) in desert areas favor
salt expansion. The materials like sodium chloride and gypsum in desert areas heave up overlying layers
of materials and result in the development of polygonal cracks all over the heaved surface.
 Due to the crystallization of the salt, chalk breaks down most readily, followed by limestone, sandstone,
shale, gneiss, and granite, etc.
Chemical Weathering Processes:
 It is the chemical decomposition of rocks due to the action of
chemical reactions.
 Carbonation, hydration (action of water), oxidation, and reduction
leads to chemical weathering processes through chemical reactions by
oxygen, surface, and/or soil water and other acids.
 Oxidation:
 Oxidation means a reaction of a mineral with oxygen to form
oxides or hydroxides.
 This process occurs in rocks where there is ready access to the atmosphere and oxygenated waters.
 Red soil appears in red color because of the presence of iron oxide.
 The minerals most commonly involved in this process are iron, manganese, sulphur, Aluminium, etc.
 Iron rods and aluminum rods disintegrated and weakened because of the oxidation process. The red
colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown or yellow.
 Sulphur oxide leads to acid rain which leads to a reaction with material and its disintegration. Example:
Taj Mahal etc.
 In the process of oxidation rock breakdown due to the disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen.
 If the oxidised minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is absent, the process of reduction
takes place. Such conditions exist generally in areas where the water table is low (in areas of stagnant or
waterlogged ground).
 Due to the reduction the red colour of iron turns to greenish or bluish-grey.
 These weathering processes are interrelated, hydration, carbonation, and oxidation go hand in hand and
hasten the weathering process.
 Carbonation:
 Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals.
 In this process there is a formation of carbonates and bicarbonates and carbonic acids. It is a
common process helping the breaking down of feldspars and carbonate minerals
 Carbon dioxide from the polluted atmosphere is mixed with the water, forming carbonic acid (acts as a
weak acid).
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 Carbonic acid mixed with the rain leads to acid rain which when falls on the limestone (calcium
carbonate) leads to the formation of sinkholes.
 Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic acid (that forms Calcium
bicarbonate) and are removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in cave formation.
(Example: Karst topography).
 The carbonation process speeds up with a decrease in temperature. The colder water holds more
dissolved carbon dioxide gas. Therefore, this is a very common feature of glacial weathering.
 Hydration: In this process chemical addition of water takes place.
 Several minerals take up water and expand and
cause an increase in the volume of the material or
rock.
 The process of hydration (the chemical addition
of water) involves the rigid attachment of H+
and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a
mineral.
 When water gets on the surface of rock it reacts
with rock or material and forms hydroxides.
 Calcium sulphate on the reaction with the water
turns into gypsum, which is more unstable than
calcium sulphate.
 This process is reversible and its long, continued
repetition causes fatigue in the rocks which may lead to disintegration of the rocks.
Solution Weathering:
 This type of weathering occurs when the solvent is an
acidic solution rather than simple water.
 The plants during the phase of growth expand their roots
inside the landforms which leads to the formation of acid.
 The natural reaction of roots with moisture, temperature,
and pressure forms acid.
 This acid reacts and dissolves rocks, minerals, and sand
around the roots.
Biological Weathering:
 It is the process of the contribution or
removal of minerals and ions from the
rocks and its physical changes due to the
growth or movement of organisms.
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 Lining organisms such as rodents (rats, lizards, gecko), worms, termites, and bacteria remove the material on
the roots of the trees, which help in the exposure of new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the
penetration of rainwater and air.
 Several organisms create favorable conditions for weathering.
 Mosses and lichens create a humid environment, which is favorable for fasting the chemical reaction
(decomposition) and promotes bacterial action.
 Roots of the plants create pressure on the soil and move the soil aside, creating places for water and air
(physical weathering).
 In the absence of oxygen, organisms in groundwater decompose and starts the process of reduction. The
decaying plant and animal matter helps in the production of humic, carbonic, and other acids that enhance
the solubility of some elements.
 Human beings also help by disturbing vegetation, ploughing, and cultivating soils. It helps in mixing and
creating new contacts between air, water, and minerals in the earth's materials.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 14
Rocks and Rock System
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Rocks and Rock System

 Lithosphere layer is also called the Rockosphere because litho means rock.
 Many elements of the earth get together to form compounds, these compounds are called
minerals.
 The aggregates of minerals and non-minerals are called rocks. These are formed due to heat,
temperature, and pressure.
 Rocks are the consolidated form of minerals of a wide variety, that are formed due to heat,
temperature, and pressure.
 These rocks form a major portion of the lithosphere.
 Rocks are home to minerals and many minerals such as gold, silver, iron, calcium, platinum,
copper, silica, silicates, nickel, etc.

Important Minerals:

Minerals Properties

Silicates It has Quartz, Feldspar, and Ferromanganese. It is used in the glass

industry.

Sulphites It has Iron sulphide, Pirate (Iron ore). It has wide applications in the
Iron and steel industries, infrastructure development, etc.

Carbonates They are sensitive to or highly affected by weathering. Example:

Calcite

Metallic Elements It has Iron, Manganese, Aluminium, and Copper. It has wide
applications in the automobile, aircraft, aluminum copper,
refrigeration industries, etc.
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Importance of Rocks:
 Nature of Erosion: Erosion of soil depends upon the structure and composition of the rock. If
the parent rock is hard then it will erode slowly erodes. If the parent rocks are soft rock then it will
erode rapidly.
 Type of Landscape: According to W.M. Davis the landscape of the land is decided by the
dominant rocks in that region.
 Dating age of the Earth: If the rocks are the book of history then the fossils are its pages. The
study of the rocks gives information about the earth such as History, Geology, Life evolution,
Environment, etc.
 Constitute Manuscript of History of Earth: According to Morgan and Woolridge, the rocks
give knowledge about the history of the earth.
Classification of Rocks:
 The study and analysis of rocks is called
Petrology.
 Classification of rocks is done on the basis
of the formation of rocks.
 Rocks are mainly divided into three types:
1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
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Igneous Rocks:
 These are formed due to cooling,
solidification, and crystallization of
magma or lava.
 They are known as primary rocks
because these were the first to
originate during the crust formation of
Earth. Subsequently, other rocks came
such as sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks were formed.
 Also they are known as ‘Parent rocks’
and crystalline rocks.
 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt,
etc. are some examples of igneous rocks.
Characteristics of Igneous Rocks:
 These rocks are very hard and rough and do not allow water to percolate (diffuse inside).
Igneous Rocks elements are strongly bonded together. But the Basalt type of igneous rocks can
allow water percolation because it is soft rock.
 Igneous rocks can be divided into Plutonic and Volcanic rocks, based on the place and time
taken in cooling of molten matter.
 These are granular and crystalline in nature and comprise different sizes and textures of grains.
If the molten material of Magma is cooled suddenly at the surface, it results in small and smooth
grains (small grains). Very slow cooling of magma results in the formation of big-size grains.
 There are no layers in these rocks because these are formed due to cooling, which does not give
layering ( crystallization only takes place).
 Because of no percolation of water these rocks are least affected by weathering. There is no
chemical reaction and weathering takes place. But if the grain size (coarse grains) is big it will be
affected by the chemical weathering (Solution weathering, hydration, and oxidation) because there
is a small space between the small grains of the big grains.
 These rocks do not have any fossils. Because fossils got destroyed due to burning by hot magma.

Classification of Igneous Rocks:

 Igneous rocks classification on the basis of grain size:
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1. Fine Grain: It is formed due to fast cooling. Example: Basalt.

2. Coarse Grain: It is formed due to slow cooling. Example: Granite.
 Igneous rocks classification on the basis of silica
content:
1. Acidic Rocks: It has more than 80% of silicon
dioxide.
2. Basic Rocks: It has 45% to 65% of silicon dioxide.
3. Ultra Basic Rocks: It has less than 40% to 45% of
silicon dioxide.
 Igneous rocks classification on the basis of the cooling
zone: Based on the place and time taken in cooling of the
molten matter.
1. Plutonic Rocks: The cooling of
Magma takes place below the crust
at the depth, known as intrusive
rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks
cooled slowly at great depth within
the crust or mantle are called
Plutonic rocks.
2. Volcanic Rocks: The cooling of
Lava takes place outside the crust,
known as extrusive rocks. These
rocks are dark and dense, seen in the USA (Snake Plateau, Columbia) and the Deccan region
of India.
Magma As Source Of Igneous Rocks:
 The mixture of the molten Rocks, volatiles (gas), and other solids (originating from partial
melting of the lower crust and upper mantle) is called Magma. It leads to the formation of the
Igneous rocks.
 When the molten magma goes down deep within the earth and gets solidified, it is called
Plutonism. The molten magma can also come out on the surface of the earth through volcanic
eruptions.
Plutonic Rocks or Intrusive Rocks:
 The molten matter which does not reach the surface and cools down very slowly at great depths.
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 This slow cooling will result in the formation of big-sized rocks (large grains).
 Granite is the main example of intrusive rocks..
 These rocks appear on the surface only after being uplifted and denuded.
Lava or Volcanic Rocks or Extrusive rocks:
 These are formed by rapid cooling of the lava erupted during volcanic
activities.
 Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a result, such rocks are fine-
grained.
 Basalt is a typical example of this type of rock.
 The Deccan traps in the peninsular region have a basaltic origin.
Plutonic Vs Volcanic Rocks

Plutonic Volcanic rocks

Intrusive rocks Extrusive rocks

Granite Basalt

Slow cooling allows big-sized crystals (large Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a result, such
grains) rocks are fine-grained

Less dense and are lighter in color than basic Denser and Darker in color
rocks

Acid Rocks:
 These are characterized by a high content of silica of more than 80 percent, while the rest is
divided among aluminum, alkalis, magnesium, iron oxide, lime, etc.
 These rocks have a low percentage of heavy minerals like iron and magnesium and normally
contain quartz and feldspar.
 These rocks are hard, compact, robust, highly massive, and highly resistant to weathering.
 These rocks constitute the SIAL portion of the crust of the earth.
 Acidic magma cools fast and it does not flow and spread far away.
Basic Rocks:
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 These rocks have low silica content (about 45% to 65%) and magnesia content is up to 40
percent. Other minerals like iron oxide, lime, aluminum, alkalis, potassium, etc. are also present in
these rocks.
 These rocks have low silica content and cool slowly. Thus it flows and spreads far away to form
the source of the eruption.
 The presence of heavy elements imparts a dark color to these rocks.
 Basalt, gabbro, and dolerite are examples of these rocks.
 These rocks are not very hard and weathered relatively easily.
Acid Vs Basic Rocks:

Acidic rocks Basic rocks

High content of silica (up to 80 percent) and Poor silica content. Magnesia content (40 percent)

Due to the excess of silicon, acidic magma Due to low silica content, the parent material of such
cools fast rocks cools slowly

High Volcanic mountains are formed of this Forms plateaus. Deccan Traps
type of rock. Mt Fuji, Japan

Lesser content of heavier minerals like iron Presence of heavy elements imparts a dark color to
and magnesium and normally contain quartz these rocks.
and feldspar. Hence they are lighter in color

Granite, quartz, feldspar, etc. Basalt, gabbro, dolerite etc..

Add rocks are hard, compact, massive, and Not being very hard, these rocks are weathered
resistant to weathering. relatively easily.

Economic Importance of Igneous Rocks

 The important minerals of great economic value found in igneous rocks such as magnetic iron,
silicon, nickel, copper, lead, zinc, lead, chromite, manganese, gold, diamond, platinum, etc. These
are utilized for infrastructure, manufacturing, electronics, jewelry, and medicines.

 These rocks are used as building materials.

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 Silica is used in iron and steel plants, furnaces, cement industry, etc.
 Granite is used as a building material as they come in beautiful shades.
 When Magma cools down it becomes lava, It is the chief source of metal ores, many of which are
associated with igneous rocks.

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SANKALP 2024
Geography – Mains Question 15

1. What do you understand by the sedimentary rocks? Discuss the types and economic significance of
sedimentary rocks. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

Approach:
 Introduction : You can start by giving a brief about sedimentary rocks.
 Body: You can write various types and economic significance of the sedimentary rocks.
 Conclusion: You can write about the importance of sedimentary rocks.

Answer:
Sedimentary rocks are one of the three main types of rocks, alongside igneous and metamorphic rocks. These
rocks are formed by the accumulation and consolidation of sediment, which is derived from the weathering
and erosion of pre-existing rocks, organic materials, or chemical precipitation from solution.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
 Mechanically Formed Rocks: Clastic Sedimentary Rocks are created when dissolved minerals
recrystallize in a process known as cementation in the gaps between mineral particles. Clastic sedimentary
rocks are sometimes referred to as
mechanically generated sedimentary
rocks because of the mechanical
process. Examples: Sandstone,
Conglomerate, Clay rocks, Shale
rocks, and Loess.
 Chemically Formed Rocks:
Chemical sedimentary rocks, like
limestone, halite, and flint, form
from chemical precipitation. A
chemical precipitate is a chemical
compound—for instance, calcium
carbonate, salt, and silica—that forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates and
leaves the compound behind.
 Organically Formed Rocks: When plant and animal components decompose below, the biological
material is left behind that is crushed and transformed into organic detrital rocks. The sedimentary rock
known as coal was created by compacted plants over millions of years. Ex: Limestone, dolomites.
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Economic Significance of Sedimentary Rocks:

 Construction: These rocks are utilized for building materials. For example Limestones, Sandstone, and
Conglomerates.
 Use in Agriculture: Sedimentary rocks are loose material deposited at a place, these places are highly
fertile in nature. These are used for Agriculture purposes. Gypsum is utilized in the soil to reduce salinity
in the agricultural lands.
 Fossil Fuels: These rocks are a source of energy due to fossils. Examples: Gas, Coal, Crude oil (The
decay of tiny marine organisms yields petroleum).
 Source of Minerals: Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value, but important
minerals such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals, petroleum, and material used
in the cement industry are found. Important minerals like bauxite, manganese, and tin are also derived
from other rocks but are found in gravels and sands which are carried by water.
Sedimentary rocks can also provide important information about the Earth's history, such as the environment
and climate conditions at the time of their formation. sedimentary rocks are repositories of essential natural
resources such as coal, fossil fuels, drinking water, and ores.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 16
Volcanism
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Volcanism
Volcano:
 A vent or opening in the Earth, which is circular or non-
circular in form, through which molten lava, gases, bombs,
pyroclastic debris, water vapour and many heated materials
are ejected out from the heated interior to the surface of Earth
crust is known as Volcano.
 The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows,
pyroclastic debris (fragments of the rocks), volcanic bombs,
ash and dust, and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur
compounds, and minor amounts of chlorine, hydrogen, and
argon.
 The phenomena associated with the movement of hot molten
magma from the interior to the surface of the earth is known
as Volcanism.
 As per A. Holmes a volcano is essentially a fissure or vent, communicating with the interior, from which
flows of lava, fountains of incandescent spray, or explosive gases & ashes are erupted.
 Volcanicity includes all processes and mechanisms related to the origin of Magma. Its “Ascent (rise) in
upward direction” and its appearance over the earth's surface are explained under volcanicity.
 Volcanicity has different mechanisms:
 Endogenic Mechanism: This type of volcanicity includes the formation or origin of hot liquid
magma & gasses in the mantle and crust. It includes the expansion, upward ascent, intrusion,
cooling, and solidification of magma in the form of volcanic landforms (Sill, Dyke, Batholith) below
the crustal surface.
 Exogenic Mechanism: It is the process of appearance of lava, volcanic dust, ash, fragmented materials,
debris, mud smoke, etc in different forms, fissure volcanoes, lava floods, violent explosions hot springs,
geysers, fumaroles, etc.
 A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials are being released or have been released in recent
times.
 The layer below the solid crust is the mantle and has a higher density than that of the crust. The mantle
contains a weaker zone called the asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten rock materials find their
way to the surface.
 The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive
forms.
 The lava that cools on the surface portions assumes different forms. These forms are called extrusive forms.
 There are more than 1500 active Volcanoes in the world.
 Italy’s Stromboli Volcano has been erupting for more than 2500 years.
 The 1883 eruption of Indonesia’s Krakota volcano was so loud that blasts were heard 3000 miles away.
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 Mauna Kea in Hawaii is the tallest Volcano on Earth. The meaning of its name is ‘White Mountain’ as it is
snow-capped. Its height is 4205 meters from Sea Level; however, if it is measured from its oceanic base, it is
higher than Mount Everest (over 10000 meters).
Causes of Volcanoes:
 The differential radioactivity inside the earth's mantle leads to the generation of extreme levels of energy
with high temperatures with different layers of temperature s which leads to the melting of the rocks.
 The molten material starts to move upward and the upper cold layer of the crust pushes this material
downward creating convection cycles.
 Light magma moves upward and hot and molten magma come down in these cycles.
 These convection cycles lead to the accumulation of light hot magma near the crust. Because of this
tensile forces are acted on the crust, it leads to thinning of the crust by the high force of the hot
magma.on crust.
 It tears off the earth's crust and comes out from the earth's crust in the form of lava.
 Volcanoes can be caused along convergent, divergent, and some continental plate boundaries.
 Earth is divided into many different size plates
(lithospheric plates).
 Convection cells lead to the movement of these
tectonic plates (even in between the oceanic plate and
continental plate).
 Subduction of one plate under another in the case of
convergent plate boundary results in the melting of rocks
due to high temperature and pressure which leads to the
flow of magma along the fissures of rocks, gases, and
water vapour. Examples: Mount Sabang volcano
and Semeru volcano (Indonesia), Mount Etna,
Mount Vesuvius, Mount Stromboli (Italy), etc.
 In the case of diverging boundaries, thinning of the
upper crust leads to a reduction in the overlying
pressure of rocks causing a decrease in rock melting
point and formation of magma which rises and erupts
as lava from fissure volcanoes.
 Some continental volcanoes are located away from
plate boundaries due to stressing of plates and the
creation of faults.
Mechanism:
 Volcanic eruptions on the earth are associated with the weaker zones of the earth's surfaces represented by
mountain building at:
 Convergent plate margins
 Fracture zones represented by divergent plate boundaries, and
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 Zone of transform faults represented by conservative plate boundaries

 Mechanism of Volcanism is associated with several interconnected processes:
 Gradual increase in temperature with the rise in depth at 1 degree per 32 meters due to heat generated
from the disintegration of the radioactive elements
deep within the earth.
 Origin of Magma due to lowering of the melting
points caused by reduction in the presence of the
overlying superincumbent load due to fracture
caused by the splitting of the plates and their
movements in the opposite directions.
 Origin of gases and vapour due to heating of water
which reaches underground through percolation of
rainwater and meltwater.
 Then ascent of the magma is forced by the enormous volume of gases and vapour from the thinner layer
of the crust.
 At last, volcanic eruptions occur.
Benefits of Volcanoes:
 Volcanic rocks upon weathering and decomposition can yield very fertile soils.
 The ash and dust are found very fertile for fields and orchards.
 They have a great deal of scenic beauty in the form of geysers, and springs of hot water.
 These geysers and water springs have the potential to be developed as geothermal electricity.
 They add extensive plateaus and volcanic mountains.
 Volcanic activity produces valuable minerals and gases.
Magma:
 Magma is a mixture of molten rocks or semi-molten rock, suspended crystals, molten metallic and
nonmetallic elements, gases (NOx, SOx, Hydrogen, Chlorine, CO2, Argon and Silicon dioxide etc) and
volatiles.
 Magma exits from the earth in the form of lava flows, which also include gases, water vapour, debris,
bombs, tephra, lapilli, ashes, dust etc.
 The abundant elements in earth’s crust and mantle are oxygen and silicon which combine to make Silica i.e .
SiO2. Increasing Silica content in the earth implies a lower temperature, explosive eruption behaviour and
increased viscosity of Magma.
 Hot basaltic magma is an extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid rock located under Earth’s surface.
 This magma can be pushed through holes or cracks in the crust, causing a volcanic eruption. When magma
flows or erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is called lava.
 The high temperatures and pressure of Earth’s crust keep magma in its fluid state.
 There are three basic types of magma: Basaltic, Andesitic, and Rhyolitic, each of which has a different
mineral composition.
 All types of magma have a significant percentage of silicon dioxide.
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 Basaltic magma is high in iron, magnesium, and calcium but low in potassium and sodium, depending upon
the silica, magma type also changes.
 It ranges in temperature from about 1000C to 1200C (1832F to 2192F).
 Andesitic magma has moderate amounts of all the minerals, with a temperature range from about 800
degrees Celcius to 1000 degrees Celsius (1472 degrees Fahrenheit to 1832 degrees Fahrenheit).
 Rhyolitic magma is high in potassium and sodium but low in iron, magnesium, and calcium. It occurs in the
temperature range of about 650 degrees Celsius to 800 degrees Celsius (1202 degrees Fahrenheit to 1472
degrees Fahrenheit).
 Both the temperature and mineral content of magma affect how easily it flows.
 The viscosity (thickness) of the magma that erupts from a volcano affects the shape of the volcano.
 Volcanoes with steep slopes tend to form from very viscous magma, while flatter volcanoes form from
magma that flows easily.
 The composition of magma may change as we move deeper into the earth, due to changes in temperature,
pressure, etc. so it can be different in the crust and mantle.
 It can be crustal magma (Siliceous magma- high silica due to abundance in the crust) and mantle magma
(Mafic magma/ Basaltic magma).
 Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or turn into a pluton.
 The term Tephra is given to all the pieces of volcanic material such as Ash, Plumes, Volcanic Bombs,
Volcanic Blocks, lapilli, etc.
How Magma is formed?
 The initial composition of the magma depends upon the
composition of the source rock and the degree of partial
melting.
 Melting of a mantle source (garnet peridotite ) results in
mafic/basaltic magmas while melting of crustal sources
yields more siliceous magmas.
 Then, the transportation toward the surface or during storage
in the crust can alter the chemical composition of the
magma. This is called magmatic differentiation and includes some processes such as assimilation, mixing,
and fractional crystallization.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 17
Volcanism (Part 02)
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Volcanism (Part 02)

Classification of Volcanoes:

❖ Volcanoes are classified on the basis of the nature of eruption and the form developed at the
surface. Major types of volcanoes are as follows:

Classification of Volcanoes (on the Basis of Composition):

1. Acidic/Andesitic Volcanoes (Composite or Stratovolcano lava):
❖ These are light-coloured, of low density, and
have a high amount of silica, which cools
down fast.
❖ These lavas are highly explosive, and highly
viscous with a high melting point.
❖ There is a fast solidification, it can’t flow
much (low fluidity) and seldom travels far
before solidifying, forming the resultant cone
as a steep slope.
❖ These can be found on destructive boundaries
like ocean-ocean convergent boundaries,
ocean-continent convergent boundaries, etc.
❖ When two plates converge, forming these
volcanoes.
❖ Because of the fast solidification of lava, there
is lump formation. Lumps block the way in
which the vent obstructs (lumps-small stones)
the flow of the out-pouring lava, resulting in
loud explosions, and throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
❖ Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a spine at the crater-like that of Mt. Pelee in
Martinique.
❖ Some of these spines are very resistant and while most of the material of very old volcanoes is
removed by erosion the spine may remain, for example, Puy de Dome. France.
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2. Basic/Basaltic Volcanoes (Shield lava):

❖ These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000°Celsius.
(1,830°Fahrenheit) and are highly fluidic lava.
❖ They are dark-coloured like basalt, rich in iron and
magnesium (high density) but very low in silica
content, so there is slow cooling of lava.
❖ So solidification will be slow and lava will be highly
fluidic for more time.
❖ High fluidity leads to a low deposition rate and
forms gentle sloping.
❖ Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily at the speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.
❖ There is no lump in the way of the lava flow, no blockade.
❖ They flow out of volcanic vents quietly and are not very explosive.
❖ These are quiet volcanoes and can be found on divergent boundaries.
❖ They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify
(Example: Deccan Traps were formed).
❖ The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.
Example: Laki Fissure.

Classification of Volcanoes (on the Basis of Mode of Eruption):

1. Central Eruption Type: These eruptions occur through a central pipe small opening by breaking and
blowing off the crustal surface due to violent and explosive gases accumulated deep within the earth.
The eruption is so rapid that volcanic
materials are ejected thousands of
meters into the sky. They are of the
following types:
A. Hawaiian Type:
❖ It erupts quietly due to less viscous
lavas.
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❖ Rounded blisters of hot glowing mass of lavas

when caught by strong winds glide in the air
like red hairs (Peles hairs Hawaiin goddess).
❖ These are volcanic islands.
❖ When lava flows in residential areas, people
are forced to flee from that place.
❖ Example: Kilauea Volcano of South Hawai.
B. Strombolian Type:
❖ These erupt with moderate intensity.
❖ Fluidic in nature volcanoes.
❖ With lava, other volcanic materials like stones
(pumice, scoria), and bombs are also ejected
up to greater heights in these volcanoes.
❖ There is no lump inside the volcano, so a quiet
eruption with a gentle slope.
❖ Eruptions are rhythmic. Example: Stromboli
volcano of Lipari Island (known as the lighthouse of the Mediterranean)
C. Vulcanian Type:
❖ These erupt with great force and intensity
(highly explosive).
❖ There are some obstructions present, so
explosions will be of great intensity.
❖ Here, Lavas are highly viscous(thick) pasty in
that they are quickly solidified and hardened
between two eruptions and act as a plug.
❖ These plugs obstruct the escape of violent gases
in the next eruption.
❖ Consequently, violent gases break to shatter the
lava plugs into angular fragments and appear in the sky as ash-laden volcanic clouds.
❖ Example: Vulcano of Lipari Island in the Mediterranean Sea.
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D. Peleean Type:
❖ These are the most violent and most explosive.
❖ These ejected lavas are viscous and pasty.
❖ Lava domes are formed over the conduits of
volcanoes.
❖ Every successive eruption has to blow off these
domes and it occurs with greater force intensity and
roaring noise.
❖ Example: Mt Pelee on Martinique island, Antilles.
E. Vesuvius Type:
❖ These are similar to the strombolian and Vulcanian
types.
❖ The difference lies only in the intensity of the
expulsion of lavas and gases.
❖ Volcanic materials are thrown up to greater
heights in the sky.

Classification of volcanoes by Periodicity of Eruption:

❖ These volcanoes are classified as active, dormant,
or extinct.
1. Active Volcanoes:
➢ Active Volcanoes erupt frequently and
constantly eject lavas, ashes, gases, and
fragmental materials.
➢ These are mostly located around the Ring of
Fire.
➢ Mount Stromboli is an active volcano and it
produces so many gas clouds that it is called
the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean.
➢ Mount St Helens is located in Washington
USA.
➢ Mount Etna is located in Sicily (Italy).
 6

2. Dormant Volcanoes:
➢ Dormant Volcanoes are those that are not
extinct but have not erupted in recent history
but may erupt at a future time.
➢ sThere are no indications for future eruptions
but suddenly they erupt very violently.
➢ Example: Visuvious volcano 79 AD
3. Extinct Volcanoes:
➢ Extinct or inactive volcanoes have not erupted
in distant geological pasts (thousand to lakh years ago).
➢ They are called extinct when there are no indications of future eruptions.
➢ In most cases, the crater of the Volcano is filled with water making it a lake Mount Thielsen
2799 meters or 9182 feet is an extinct volcano north of Crater Lake, Oregon that last
erupted about 300000 years ago.
World Distribution of Volcanoes:

❖ Around 2/3 rd of volcanoes are in the Pacific Ocean.

➢ Indonesia: Mount Sabang, Mount Sumeru, Mount Augong
➢ West Indies: St. Vincent, Mount Pelee
➢ West Asia: Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz.
➢ Spain: Mount La Palma
 7

➢ Africa: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru

➢ Mediterranean: Mount Etna, Mount Stromboli, Mount Vesuvius, Mount Lipari.
➢ Iceland: Laki fissure, Hekla
➢ Japan: Mount Fuji, Mount Fukutoku
➢ Philippines: Mount Mayon
➢ Hawaiian Islands: Kilauea
➢ India: Barren Island, Narcondam
➢ Turkey: Mount Ararat
➢ Indian Ocean Region: Reunion Island
❖ World volcanoes are present at tectonic plate plates of the world interacting, it may be converging
or diverging of plates.
❖ As per plate tectonics, there is a close relationship between plate margins and vulcanicity as
most of the world’s active volcanoes are associated with plate boundaries.
❖ Volcanoes are associated with the weaker zones of the earth’s crust, and these are closely
associated with seismic events.
❖ Maximum interaction of plates are present in the Pacific(convergent), Atlantic(divergent) and
Mediterranean(convergent).
❖ Weaker zones are represented by the fold mountain ranges (Andes, Rockies.)
❖ Constructive or Divergent plate margins - 15% of the world’s active volcanoes.
❖ Destructive or Convergent plate margins - 80% of the world’s active volcanoes.

Three Zones:
1. Circum-Pacific zone (Pacific Ring of Fire):

❖ It is a convergent type of interaction of tectonic plates (Ocean-continent and ocean-ocean plates).

Subduction is happening at trenches which leads to volcanism.
❖ Because of the pressure due to subduction, there is the formation of fold mountains (Rockies and
Andes).
❖ In Ocean-continent interaction, there is the formation of volcanoes.
❖ In Ocean-ocean interaction, there is the formation of Islands like Aleutian island, Kuril island,
Philippines, etc.
 8

❖ This zone is responsible for around 75% of the volcanic activity, also called the “ volcanic zones
of the convergent oceanic plate margins”.

❖ It consists of the eastern and western coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean, Islands, Arcs, and festoons
off the east coast of Asia.

❖ It is also called the “Ring Of Fire”.

❖ It begins from Erebus Mount of Antarctica and runs northwards through Andes & Rockies
Mountains To reach Alaska from where it runs towards the eastern Asiatic coast to include the
volcanoes of Island Arcs and festoons (Sakhalin, Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines, etc).

❖ Most of the volcanoes such as the Aleutian & Hawaii Islands are found in the chains here.

❖ Mount Cotopaxi, the highest Volcanic Mountain in the world found here.

❖ Volcanic Eruptions: primarily due to the Collision of American & Pacific Plates.

Ring of Fire:

❖ The Ring of Fire is a long chain of

volcanoes and other tectonically
active structures that surround
the Pacific Ocean.

❖ The chain runs up along the western

coast of South and North America,
crosses over the Aleutian Islands in
Alaska, and runs down the eastern
coast of Asia past New Zealand and
into the northern coast of
Antarctica.

❖ The Ring of Fire is one of the most geologically active areas on Earth and is a site for frequent
earthquakes and powerful volcanic eruptions.

❖ Many of these volcanoes were created through the tectonic process of subduction whereby dense
oceanic plates collide with and slide under lighter continental plates.

❖ In general, foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges, or ring of fire are at shallow
depths.
 9

❖ Whereas along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are
deep-seated ones.
2. Mid-Continental zone:

❖ Also known as the “volcanic zones of convergent continental plate margins.”

❖ It includes the volcanoes of the Alpine Mountain chains, the Mediterranean Sea & volcanoes of
fault zones of East Africa.
❖ Volcanic eruptions occur due to the convergent type of the Eurasian Plates & African and Indian
plates.
❖ This belt doesn’t have the continuity of the volcanic eruptions as several gaps are found along the
Alps and the Himalayas because of compact and thick crust formed due to intense folding activity.
❖ The Indian plate is still subducting, that's
why the heights of the Himalayas are
increasing.
❖ Mediterranean region: Mount Etna, Mount
Vesuvius
❖ Africa: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru,
Mount Virunga.
3. Mid-Atlantic zone:

❖ It includes the volcanoes along the mid-Atlantic ridge which represents the splitting zones of the
plates due to convection cells.
❖ In this divergent type of interaction, two plates diverge in opposite directions from the mid-
oceanic ridge).
❖ These volcanoes mainly of fissure eruptions type occur along the divergent plate margins.
❖ In Iceland, the most active volcanic area is located on the mid-Atlantic ridge.
❖ Examples: Laki Fissure eruption of 1783 A.D and Hekla Volcano-1974.

Active volcanoes- Lesser Antilles, Azores, St Helena.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 18
Volcanism (Part 03)
 2

Volcanism (Part 03)

Hotspot:

❖ These are the hot centers of Magma existing inside

the mantle and below the earth's crust, which are
sources of the magma.

❖ A hot spot is a region within the Earth’s mantle from

which heat rises through the process of convection.

❖ The amount of heat concentrated in abnormally hot

magma is maximum due to convection currents and
high levels of radioactivity.

❖ This heat facilitates the melting of rock (Magma) at

the base of the lithosphere, where the brittle, upper
portion of the mantle meets the Earth’s crust.

❖ This magma often pushes through cracks in the crust

to form volcanoes.

❖ It leads to rupturing of the crust and the

formation of different landforms.

❖ It exists away from the plate boundaries.

❖ These are explained volcanism different

from plate tectonics interaction
volcanism.

❖ The Deccan Plateau is a volcanic

landform formed 66 million years ago.
No volcanism is present there as of now.

❖ Siberian Traps is a volcanic landform

formed 66 million years ago. At present there is no volcanism.

❖ Example: Reunion hotspot, Yellowstone hotspot, Siberia, etc.

❖ Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the
lithospheric plates rather than at the zones of convergence and divergence (plate margins).
 3

❖ The Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot which are situated at the divergent boundary are
exceptions.

❖ Hotspot volcanism explains the so-called anomalous volcanism, the type that occurs far from plate
boundaries, like in Hawaii and Yellowstone, or in excessive amounts along mid-ocean ridges, in
Iceland.

❖ Examples of hotspots include the Hawaiian Hotspot, the Yellowstone Hotspot, and the Reunion
Hotspot.

❖ Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centers in the mantle known as mantle plumes.

❖ Magma is transferred by mantle plumes.

❖ Most of the mantle plumes lie far from tectonic plate boundaries (Example: Hawaiian Hotspot),
while others represent unusually large volume volcanoes near plate boundaries (Example: Iceland
Hotspot).

Mantle Plumes:

❖ Hot spot volcanism is unique

because it does not occur at the
boundaries of Earth’s tectonic
plates, where all other volcanism
occurs.

❖ Instead it occurs at abnormally

hot centers known as Mantle
Plumes.

❖ Mantle plumes are exceptionally

hot areas, they supply hot magma
from the bottom of the mantle to
the top of the mantle and then
cause volcanism.

❖ A mantle plume is the convection of abnormally hot rock (magma) within the Earth’s mantle.

❖ Unlike the larger convection cells in the mantle which change their position over timescales, the
position of the mantle plumes is to be relatively fixed.

❖ It originates from the core-mantle boundary where an abnormally hot plume of rock accumulates.
 4

❖ The mantle plume is shaped like a mushroom head with a

long conduit (tail) connecting the bulbous head to its base.
The head expands in size as the plume.

❖ The plume rises through the Earth’s mantle becoming a

diapir (dome-like intrusion forced into brittle overlying
rocks) in the upper mantle (lower parts of the lithosphere).

❖ It melts the rock at the base of the Lithosphere in layer by

layer (these layers are called volcanic traps).

❖ Due to the pressure in the crust by magma leading to the

formation of lava, they form a number of landforms.

❖ It is away from the plate subduction.

Mantle Plume and Flood Basalt Volcanism:

❖ Mantle plumes have been responsible for extensive

accumulations of flood basalts and crustal cracks
underneath it.

❖ Mantle plumes (a few hundred kilometres in diameter )

rise slowly towards the upside. When a plume head
encounters the base of the lithosphere, it flattens out and
undergoes widespread decompression melting to form
large volumes of basalt magma.

❖ The basaltic magma may then

erupt onto the surface through
a series of fissures giving rise
to large igneous provinces,
such as Iceland (laki fissure
type), Siberian Traps, Deccan
Traps, and Ontong Java Plateau
are extensive regions of
basalts.

❖ These flood basalts create a lot

of pollution.
 5

❖ Very large amounts of volcanic

material in large igneous
provinces can cover huge areas
with lava and volcanic ash,
causing long-lasting climate
change (such as the triggering of
a small ice age).

❖ The Réunion hotspot (produced

by the Deccan Traps (about 66
million years ago) coincides
with the Cretaceous Paleogene
extinction event (also known as
the Cretaceous-Tertiary
extinction) or the fifth and the most recent mass extinction.

❖ Though a meteor impact (Chicxulub Crater) was the cause of the extinction event, volcanic activity
may have caused environmental stresses.

❖ Additionally, the largest flood basalt event (the Siberian Traps and Plateau) occurred around 250
million years ago and coincided with the largest mass extinction in history, the Permian Triassic
extinction event.

Note- A mass extinction event is when species vanish much faster than they are replaced. This is usually
defined as about 75% of the world's species being lost in a 'short' amount of geological time - less than 2.8
million years. Till now five great mass extinctions have changed the face of life on Earth.

Mantle Plumes- Volcanic Hotspots:

❖ The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot

magma to a fixed location in the mantle referred to as a hotspot.

❖ The abnormally high heat of the hotspot facilitates the melting of

rock at the base of the lithosphere.

❖ The melted rock, known as magma, which is at high pressure, often

pushes through cracks in the crust to form hotspot volcanoes
(Example: Mount Mauna Kea).
 6

Hotspot Volcano Chains:

❖ A volcano above a hotspot does not erupt forever.

❖ When the crustal tectonic plate is moving on the mantle

(Asthenosphere), the volcano moves and is eventually cut
off from the hotspot (the plate moves overhead relative
to the fixed plume source).

❖ Without a source of heat, the volcano becomes extinct

and cools.

❖ This cooling causes the rock of the volcano and the

tectonic plate to become denser. Over time, the
dense rock sinks and erodes.

❖ Some volcano formation Islands are visible and

some will not be visible.
 7

❖ A new and active volcano develops over the hotspot creating a

continuous cycle of volcanism and forming a volcanic arc that
parallels crust movement.

❖ The Hawaiian Islands chain in the Pacific Ocean is the best

example.

❖ The islands and seamounts (submarine mountains) exhibit age

progression, with the youngest near present-day Hawaii and the
oldest near the Aleutian Trench.

Mantle Plumes and Divergence:

❖ A hotspot causes some divergence below the crust of the

earth, and because of this high divergence of plates
creates a tensile force (Convection cells) in between
these.

❖ Existence of hotspots, hot magma, and convection

currents in place, there is pressure on the crust (tensile
force).

❖ It leads to thinning of the crust and the formation of rift

valleys.

❖ Example: Afar region hotspot of Africa (Arabian plate,

Somalian plate, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and great
African rift valley).

❖ There is the presence of hotspots also in the Afar region.

Mantle Plumes and Thinning of Continental

Crust:

❖ Active hotspot leads to pressure on the

crust. There is neither eruption nor any
fissure formation.

❖ It causes the upliftment in the crust due to

upward pressure. Example: Ethiopian
highlands (Eastern Africa) etc.
 8

❖ There can be other reasons also like thin crust, low magmatic pressure, strong crust, etc.

❖ In the future if the pressure is more it can also lead to the formation of volcanic mountains.

Hotspot Volcanic Uplifted Landforms:

❖ Volcanic activity at hot spots can create submarine mountains

known as seamounts.

❖ Hot spot seamounts

that reach the surface
of the water can create
entire chains of
islands, such as the US
state of Hawaii
Reunion islands near
Madagascar is also an example of volcanic hotspots.

❖ Hot spots can also develop beneath continents.

❖ The Yellowstone hotspot and Tattapani, Himachal Pradesh (India) have produced a series of
volcanic features that extend in a northeastern direction.

Hot Spring And Geysers:

❖ These are also manifestations of volcanic activity.

❖ They result from the interaction of groundwater with magma or

with solidified but still hot igneous rocks at shallow depths.

❖ A hot spring is different from a geyser in the sense that a hot spring
gives off steam when the water comes near the surface.

❖ The colour in these geysers is due to Cyanobacteria.

A geyser keeps the water boiling underground, which helps create the pressure
that causes the water to rise out of Color Due to the presence of Silica.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 19
Earthquakes
 2

Earthquakes
Hazardous Effects of Volcanism:
❖ High-intensity volcanoes destroy human localities in nearly 3 km to 4 km of area.
❖ Voluminous hot liquid lavas with high speed (around 48 km/ hr) bury human structures, kill people and
animals, destroy agri farms, pastures, plug rivers, and lakes, and burn and destroy forests.
➢ Example: Laki Lava flow in 1783 AD, killed 24 individuals in Iceland, and destroyed 15 agri farms.
❖ Volcanic Materials: An immense quantity of volcanic materials like pyroclastic materials, dust and ashes,
and smoke covers large areas and destroys crops vegetation, and buildings, disrupts and diverts natural
drainage systems, and health hazards.
❖ Loss to human lives: Due to sudden bursting there is no time for humans to evacuate. Example: Mount Pelee
in 1902 destroyed the whole of St Pierre town and killed 28000 inhabitants, Kelut volcano killed 5500 people
in 1919.
❖ Before and after the volcanic eruptions, earthquakes generate destructive Tsunamis which create disastrous
sea waves causing numerous deaths.
➢ Example: 1883 Krakatoa Tsunamis of around 30- 40 Meters in height killed 36000 people in coastal
areas of Java and Sumatra.
❖ Radiation Imbalance: The radiation balance of the earth and atmosphere is changed by volcanic eruptions.
Thus it helps in causing climate change, dust and ashes in the sky cause reduction in the insolation from the
sun to earth.
➢ Example: Krakatoa in 1883 erupted its fragmented materials, dust, and ashes up to 23 km in the sky and
formed a thick veil in the stratosphere, which reduced the solar radiation on earth by 20-30%.

Benefits of Volcanoes:
❖ Volcanic rocks upon weathering and decomposition can yield very fertile soils.
❖ The ash and dust are found very fertile for fields and orchards.
❖ They have a great deal of scenic beauty in the form of geysers, and springs of hot water.
❖ These geysers and water springs have the potential to be developed as geothermal electricity.
❖ They add extensive plateaus and volcanic mountains.
❖ Volcanic activity produces valuable minerals and gases.

Volcanic Landforms:
❖ Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms based on whether magma cools
within the crust or above the crust.
➢ Rocks formed by the cooling of magma within the crust are called Plutonic rocks.
➢ Rocks formed by the cooling of lava above the surface are called Igneous rocks.
➢ In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to refer to all rocks of volcanic origin.
 3

❖ Extrusive Volcanic Landforms: The lava that cools on

the surface portions of the earth assumes different forms.
These forms are called extrusive forms.
➢ Fissure
➢ Shield
➢ Composite
➢ Caldera
➢ Crater
❖ Intrusive Volcanic Landforms: The lava that cools
within the earth's crust assumes different forms. These
forms are called intrusive forms.

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms:

❖ Extrusive landforms are formed from material thrown out during volcanic activity.
❖ The materials thrown out during volcanic activity include lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs,
ash and dust, and gasses such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds, and minor amounts of
chlorine, hydrogen, and argon.
❖ Cinder cones are circular or oval cones made up of small fragments of lava from
a single vent that have been blown up.
Cinder Cones ❖ Cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and
pyroclastics that build up around the vent.
❖ Most cinder cones erupt only once.
❖ Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own
Shield volcanoes ❖ Shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes.
❖ Highly Fluidic
❖ These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt a type of lava that is very fluid when
erupted.
❖ These volcanoes are gentle slope. They become explosive if water gets into the
vent. Otherwise they are not violent.
❖ Volcanoes in Hawaiian Islands are this type.
❖ These volcanoes are characterized by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lava
than basalt.
Composite ❖ Release pyroclastic material
volcanoes ❖ Violent and Explosive. They have large height.
❖ They are found at destructive plate margins.
❖ Examples- Mt Mayo, Phillipines; Mount Fuji Japan; Mt. Cotopaxi
❖ These are most explosive of the Earth's volcanoes.
Caldera ❖ They are usually so explosive that when they erupt, they tend to collapse on
themselves rather than building any tall structure.
❖ The collapsed depressions are called calderas. Ex: Lonar lake in Maharashtra.
 4

❖ These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.

Mid-ocean ridge ❖ There is a system of mid ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that stretches
volcanoes through all the ocean basins.
❖ The central portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
❖ These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
Flood basalt ❖ The Deccan traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra plateau,
province are a much larger flood basalt province.
❖ It is believed that initially the trap formations covered a much larger area than the
present.

Fissure Volcanos:
❖ A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure or eruption fissure, is a
narrow, linear volcanic vent through which lava erupts, usually without
any explosive activity.
❖ The vent is often a few meters wide and may be many kilometres long.
Generally, fissure vents are common in basaltic volcanism.
❖ Example: Laki fissure (Iceland) etc.

Shield Type Volcanic Landforms:

❖ The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous examples.
❖ These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a
type of lava that is very fluid when erupted.
❖ These volcanoes are not steep, but gentle slopes.
❖ They become explosive if somehow water gets
into the vent; otherwise, they are less explosive.
❖ Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Mount
Kilauea, etc.
 5

Composite Type Volcanic Landforms:

❖ They are conical volcanic landforms.
❖ Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and
ashes find their way to the ground.
❖ Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material accumulates in the
vicinity of the vent openings leading to the formation of layers,
and this makes the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
❖ It has great heights and a steep slope.
❖ Example: Mount Stromboli etc.
❖ The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones.
These are often called Strato- volcanoes.
❖ Mount Stromboli 'Lighthouse of the Mediterranean’, Mount Vesuvius, Mount Fuji, etc. are examples.

Crater:
❖ A crater is an inverted cone-shaped vent through which the
magma flows out. When the volcano is not active the crater appears
as a bowl-shaped depression.
❖ Due to their unstable environments, water gets deposited in these
depressions and some crater lakes exist only intermittently.
❖ Caldera lakes, in contrast, can be quite large and long-lasting.

Caldera Lake:
❖ After the eruption of magma has ceased, the crater generally
turns into a lake after some time.
❖ This lake is called a 'caldera'.
❖ Examples: Lonar Lake in Maharashtra
❖ “Lake Toba” (Indonesia) is the largest crater lake in the world.

Intrusive Types:
❖ Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools
within the crust (Plutonic rocks or intrusive igneous
rock).
❖ The intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various
forms.
 6

BATHOLITHS A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust.
They develop in the form of large domes. These are granitic bodies
LACCOLITHS These are large dome shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected
by a pipe-like conduit from below. Ex: Karnataka plateau is spotted with
Domal hills of granite rocks.
LAPOLITH A portion of lava moves in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane.
In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body.
PHACOLITH Rocks found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous
country.
SILL The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill.
DYKES Lava solidifies almost perpendicularly to the ground. Such structures are
called dykes. These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the
development of the Deccan traps.

1. Batholiths
❖ These are large rock masses formed due to the cooling
down and solidification of hot magma inside the
earth.
❖ These landforms appear on the surface only after the
denudation processes which remove the overlying
materials.
❖ Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may
be exposed on the surface after erosion.
❖ These are large granitic bodies.
2. Laccoliths:
❖ These are large dome-shaped intrusive
bodies connected by a pipeline conduit
from below.
❖ These are basically intrusive counterparts
of an exposed dome-like batholith.
❖ The Karnataka plateau is spotted with
dome hills of granite rocks. Most of these,
now exfoliated, are examples of
laccoliths or batholiths.
 7

3. Lopolith:
➢ In the earth's crust when the lava moves
upwards, a portion of the same may tend
to move in a horizontal direction
wherever it finds a weak plane. It may
get rested in different forms.
➢ In case it develops into a saucer shape,
concave to the sky body, it is called
Lapolith.
4. Phacolith:
➢ A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at
times, is found at the base of synclines
or at the top of anticlines in the folded
igneous country.
➢ Such wavy materials have a definite
conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These
volcanic landforms are called Phacoliths.
5. Sills:
➢ These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
➢ The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the
thickness of the material.
➢ The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
6. Dykes:
➢ When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures
developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to
the ground.
➢ It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like
structure. These structures are called dykes.
➢ These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in
the western Maharashtra area. These are considered the
feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the
Deccan traps.
 8

Earthquake:
❖ The shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the
sudden movement of a part of the earth’s crust is called an
earthquake.
❖ It is a form of energy of waves transmitted through the surface layer
of the earth in widening circles from a point of sudden energy release.
It causes seismic waves or earthquake waves that result in shanking
of the ground.
❖ These seismic waves originate in a limited region but vibrations
(Shock waves or seismic waves) spread all over the surface above
the crust.
❖ Destruction of Infrastructure, Loss of lives, firing and collapse of buildings etc. are the main effects of
earthquakes.
❖ About 50,000 large earthquakes to be noticed without the aid of instruments occur annually on Earth.
❖ Approximately 100 of these are of sufficient intensity to produce substantial damage, if their centers are near
areas of habitation.
❖ An instrument ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the surface.
❖ The magnitude is the unit of measurement of an earthquake.

Why does the earth shake?

❖ The release of energy occurs along a
fault. (A fault is a sharp break in the
crustal rocks.) Rocks along a fault tend
to move in opposite directions.
❖ Overlying rock strata press them, and
then the friction locks them together.
However, their tendency to move apart
at some point of time overcomes the
friction.
❖ So, the blocks get deformed, and
eventually, they slide past one another
abruptly.
❖ This causes a release of energy, and the
energy waves travel in all directions.
❖ The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, it is also called as hypocentre
(Focus). It is the place of origin of the earthquake.
❖ The energy waves travel in many directions to reach the surface. The point on the surface which is nearest to
the focus, is called the epicenter. It is the first one to experience the waves. It is a point directly above the
focus. At the epicentre, the maximum damage happens.
 9

Terms Associated with Earthquakes:

❖ Focus: This is the main point or region

inside the crust where the earthquake
originates. It is a point where energy
gets released.
❖ Epicenter: It is a point on the earth's
surface which is vertically above the
focus. The maximum damage caused
in this region by the earthquake.
❖ Plates: These are tectonic plates that
are moving inside the earth, such as
ocean plates and continental plates.

Causes of Earthquakes:
Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one
another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that make up Earth’s
crust.

Plate Tectonics:
❖ These occur in the form of convergent,
divergent and transform boundaries.
❖ In convergent boundaries, there is
subduction of one crust into another one,
which is called the zone of subduction or
Benioff zone.
❖ When plates get subducted, there is the
release of energy in the form of an
Earthquake. Example: Tsunami in
Indian Ocean Region in 2004.
 10

❖ In divergent boundaries, both crusts move apart from each other. It leads to the formation of a zone of
disturbance. It causes the origin of the earthquake.
❖ In the transform boundary, there is no subduction and no volcanic activity. But these boundaries have a
large magnitude of the earthquake.
❖ Example: San Andreas Fault is a transform fault where the Pacific plate and North American plate move
horizontally relative to each other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.

Fault Zones:
❖ Because of the pushing and pulling force on the
rocks, they get pre-stressed. Then the stress of
the rock changes its structure and undergoes
deformation.
❖ The compression force (tensile force) on the
tectonic plate on both sides by other plates
results in shifting of the position of the plate.
❖ This leads to the sudden release of energy
(Seismic waves) and causes vibrations or
earthquakes in that region.
❖ The plane of the rock experiences maximum
stress, and due to the stress the rock breaks down along the plane.
❖ There is a creation of a fault zone along with the plane. The energy released at this point is in the form of
earthquakes.
❖ The release of energy can be the small, intermediate, or large magnitude of earthquakes.

Volcanism:
❖ Earthquakes from volcanism are generally less severe and
more limited in extent than those caused by the fracturing of
the earth’s crust.
❖ Due to the subduction of one plate into another plate along
with convergent boundaries, there is the formation of
volcanism. The subduction creates pressure and resistance
on rocks and causes the release of energy and causes
earthquakes.
❖ At trenches, large-magnitude earthquakes happen.
 11

Rock Slippage:
❖ Sudden slippage of rock along the faults
and fractures in the earth’s crust occurs due
to constant changes in the volume and
density of rocks due to intense
temperature and pressure in the earth’s
interior.
❖ Two rocks are located upon each other, and
because of both top and bottom forces on
the rocks, slippage happens. This leads to a
change in the position of the rock.
❖ Due to the rock slippage, there is a sudden release of energy (Seismic waves) in the form of earthquakes.

Human-Induced Earthquakes:
❖ Human activities like nuclear explosions,
mining actions, and the generation of reservoirs
cause earthquakes.
❖ Nuclear explosions tests cause the release of
energy which results in cracks in the surface. The
rocks get slipped and cause earthquakes.
❖ In mining, due to digging of the surface at
depth, the overlying rocks get slipped and create
faults. The energy gets released in the form of
earthquakes.
❖ Due to the construction of the dams and
reservoirs, the water puts a load on rock and
pressure in the downward direction. It leads to the development of cracks and rock slippage, then the release
of energy in the form of earthquakes.
 12

❖ Examples:
➢ In 1967, the 6.3 magnitude Koynanagar earthquake
occurred near the Koyna Dam reservoir in Maharashtra and
claimed more than 150 lives.
➢ The 2008 Sichuan earthquake, caused approximately
68,000 deaths.
➢ It is believed that the construction and filling of the
Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the earthquake.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 20
Earthquakes (Part-2)
 2

Earthquakes (Part-2)
Classification of Earthquakes (on the Basis of Depth):

❖ Wadati Benioff zone: It is a zone of subduction along

which earthquakes are common, which are produced by
the interaction of a downgoing oceanic crustal plate
against a continental plate

❖ Differential motion along the zone produces numerous

earthquakes.

1. Shallow Focus Earthquakes: The focus is lying at

a depth of 70 km depth and these earthquakes occur
mostly in the crustal regions.

➢ These are more frequent and random. The energy

dissemination is more and leads to large magnitude
(energy will spread in less area and concentrated in a small area leading to more destruction)
earthquakes.

➢ It causes a huge amount of destruction.

➢ Approximately 75-80% of earthquakes are the shallow focus. Example: In the 2015
earthquake in Nepal (depth of focus was 20-30 km).

2. Intermediate Focus Earthquakes: The focus is lying at a depth of 70-300 km. Almost 12-
15% of earthquakes are the intermediate focus.

3. Deep Focus Earthquakes: The focus is lying at a depth of 300-700 km. Around 3-5% of
earthquakes are deep-focus earthquakes.

➢ Due to the large depth, the energy gets distributed and leads to lesser magnitude
earthquakes.

➢ These earthquakes are less destructive in nature.

➢ Example: 1. The Okhotsk Sea (Russia) Earthquake happened at 630 km depth.

➢ 2. Vanuatu Earthquake in 2004 at 700 km depth.

Note: Shallow-focus earthquakes are found within the earth’s outer crustal layer, while deep-focus
earthquakes occur within the deeper subduction zones of the earth.
 3

Seismic Waves And Earthquake Waves:

❖ Seismic waves are related to vibrations over the earth's surface.

❖ Earthquake waves are a form of energy that travels through the layers of the earth and which are
released due to earthquakes, volcanism, landslides and
nuclear explosions.

❖ Seismic waves are the waves through which energy

travels across the crust.

❖ For example, the slipping of land generates seismic

waves and these waves travel in all directions.

❖ Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy

stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually when
masses of rock straining against one another suddenly
fracture and slip'.

Types of Seismic Waves:

❖ Earthquake waves are basically of two types: Body waves and Surface waves.

❖ Body waves are generated due to the

release of energy at the focus and
travel in all directions travelling
through the body of the earth. Hence,
the name body waves.

❖ The body waves interact with the

surface layers rocks, materials, etc
and generate a new set of waves
called surface waves.

❖ These waves move along the surface.

The velocity of waves changes as
they travel through materials with
different densities.

❖ The denser the material, the higher is

the velocity.
 4

❖ Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different
densities.

❖ Body waves travel in large volume and surface waves travel in small volume.

Body Waves:

❖ These flow inside a complete volume of the body.

❖ There are two types of body waves.

➢ They are called P and S-waves.

Primary Waves (P-Waves):

❖ P-waves move faster in the longitudinal

direction and are the first to arrive at
the surface. These are also called
‘primary waves’ (compression waves).

❖ They are faster because they transmit

energy in the medium very easily, so
faster than all other waves.

❖ These are the first to be recorded in

seismographs.

❖ The P-waves are similar to sound waves

in the atmosphere because particle
 5

motion is along the direction of propagation.

❖ These waves are of high frequency.

❖ It generates pressure which causes compression or

tension. And it can lead to density changes.

❖ They can travel in all mediums through gaseous,

liquid, and solid materials.

❖ Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction

of propagation of the wave.

❖ The velocity of P waves in Solids> Liquids>

Gases.

❖ Their velocity depends on the shear strength or

elasticity of the material.

❖ It causes less or least damage in the body.

S-Waves:

❖ S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag in a transversal direction.

❖ These are called secondary waves (sheer waves). Also called as transverse or distortional waves.

❖ Analogous to water ripples or light waves S-waves.

❖ In this, the particle's motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

❖ These waves are high-frequency waves. Travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear
strength) through the solid part of the Earth's crust, mantle.

❖ Transverse waves are like water ripples.

❖ S-waves can travel only through solid materials. This characteristic of the S-waves is quite
important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

❖ Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different directions.

❖ The variations in the direction of waves are inferred with the help of their record on a seismograph.
 6

Surface Waves:

❖ The surface waves are the last to

report on seismographs.

❖ These are moving along the

surface only. These are body
waves.

❖ They are the immediate

neighbourhood of the
epicenter.

❖ These waves are more destructive

because of the large amount of
energy in a small volume.

❖ These have large magnitudes and

low frequencies, so they move
very slowly.
 7

❖ They lose energy slowly compared to

body waves.

❖ They cause the displacement of rocks,

and hence, the collapse of structures
occurs.

❖ Also called long-period waves.

❖ They are low frequency, long

wavelength, and transverse vibration.

❖ Generally affect the surface of the

Earth only and die out at smaller depths.

❖ It has two types of waves:

➢ L-waves:

✓ These waves are fast and

highly destructive.

✓ These are slower than the

body waves.

✓ These travel on the surface

only, thus the energy caused by them is more.
➢ Rayleigh waves:

✓ They are horizontal distortions or shaking types of waves.

✓ They are slow waves.

Importance of Seismic Waves:

These waves are utilized to study:

❖ Interior of Earth: To study the overall composition of the earth (minerals and metals etc), phase
change (Solid and molten), density (by analyzing velocity) and distribution of crust, mantle and
core.

❖ Earthquake: To study magnitude, intensity, causes, and future possibility of earthquakes.

 8

Features of Seismic Waves:

❖ The velocity of waves changes with density, density, composition and elasticity (shear strength). If
we go down inside the Earth, the velocity of waves increases due to an increase in density.

❖ The denser the material, the higher the velocity.

❖ Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different
densities.

❖ It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the Earth like composition,
physical properties (solid, liquid and gas) etc.

❖ The waves refract while travelling in different mediums. This gives us information about the
material inside the Earth.

Propagation of Earthquake Waves:

❖ Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners.

❖ As they move or propagate, they cause

vibration in the body of the rocks through
which they pass.

❖ P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction

of the wave. This exerts pressure on the
material in the direction of propagation.

❖ As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the
material.

❖ The other three waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

❖ The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical
plane.

❖ Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass. Surface waves are
considered to be the most damaging waves.
 9

Emergence of Shadow Zone:

❖ Earthquake waves get recorded in

seismographs located at far-off locations.

❖ However, there exist some specific areas

where the waves are not reported. Such a
zone is called the ‘shadow zone’.

❖ The study of different events reveals that for

each earthquake, there exists an altogether
different shadow zone.

❖ It was observed that seismographs located at

any distance within 105° from the
epicenter, recorded the arrival of both P
and S-waves.

❖ However, the seismographs located beyond 145°

from the epicenter, record the arrival of P-
waves, but not that of S-waves.

❖ Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from the

epicenter was identified as the shadow zone for
both types of waves.

❖ The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-

waves.

❖ The shadow zone of the S-waves is much larger

than that of the P-waves.

❖ The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band

around the Earth between 105° and 145° away from the epicenter.

❖ The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but is also a little over 40 percent of
the Earth's surface.
 10

How do Seismic Waves Help in Defining Earth’s Interior?

❖ The study of seismic waves helps in determining that the mantle is denser than the crust and is a
viscous, semi-molten material.

❖ P-wave velocities change in the outer core

than in the deep mantle while S-waves do not
travel at all in the liquid portion of the outer
core.

❖ Time is recorded for P-waves and S-waves to

travel through the Earth and arrive at a
seismographic station.

❖ As we know that the P waves reach the

seismographs first at a station, the difference
between the time of P waves and S waves is
called S-P Interval.

❖ The S-P interval increases with increasing

distance from the epicentre.

❖ At each station, a circle on a map can be

drawn which has a radius equal to the distance from the epicenter.

Measurement of Earthquakes:
 11

❖ The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock. The
magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale.

❖ The magnitude relates to the energy

released during the earthquake.

❖ The magnitude is expressed in numbers

from 0-10.

❖ Intensity refers to the impact felt in a

locality. So, the intensity scale measures
the effects of an earthquake where it
occurs.

❖ Thus, an earthquake may have different

intensities in different locations which are
measured using the Mercalli Scale Range
of intensity.

❖ The intensity scale is named after

Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The
intensity scale takes into account the
visible damage caused by the event.

❖ The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

❖ An earthquake with a magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30 times the energy than one
with a 6.5 magnitude.

❖ An earthquake of magnitude 3 is the smallest which is normally felt by humans.

❖ In 1934, an earthquake in Bihar recorded a magnitude of 8.4 on the Richter scale

❖ In 1954, Good Friday Earthquake-Alaska, the magnitude of the earthquake was 8.4 - 8.6.

❖ Tsunamis are the most disastrous among natural calamities caused by earthquakes. Though their
occurrence is rare, the havoc they cause is tremendous.

❖ The latest is the Japan Earthquake Tsunami of 2011 which caused the death of more than
15000 individuals
 12

Types of Earthquakes:

❖ Tectonic Earthquakes: These

are generated due to the sliding of
rocks along a fault plane.
Example: 1872 California 1923
Sagami Bay Japan.

❖ Volcanic Earthquakes: These

are confined to areas of active
volcanoes. Example: Etna 1968

❖ Collapse Earthquake: Intense

mining activity, sometimes the
roofs of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors.

❖ Explosion Earthquakes: Ground

shaking may also occur due to the
explosion of chemical or nuclear
devices.

❖ Reservoir-Induced Earthquakes: The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs.
Example: 1936 Hoover Dam Earthquake due to Lake Mead.

World Distribution of Earthquakes:

❖ Seismic centers are closely related to certain zones of the globe; earthquakes are associated with
the weaker and isostatically disturbed areas of the Globe.

❖ Most of the World's earthquakes occur in the following:

1. Zones of young fold mountains.

2. Zones of fracturing and faulting.

3. Junctions of continental and oceanic margins.

4. Zones of active volcanoes.

5. Along different plate boundaries.

 13

Circum Pacific Belt (Convergent Boundary Earthquake):

❖ Around 65% of the total earthquakes in the World are located in this zone.

❖ There are four ideal conditions for earthquakes:

1. Junction of continental and oceanic margins.

2. Zone of young folded mountains

3. Zone of active volcanoes

4. Subduction zone- convergent plate boundary

❖ Western marginal zones of North & South America are isostatically very sensitive because of the
convergent plate boundaries.

❖ The Pacific Plate is being subducted under the American Plate.

❖ It is also a zone of intense volcanic activity. Example: Earthquakes Mexico City 1985
convergent plate boundaries.
 14

Mid-Continental Belt (Divergent Type of Earthquake):

❖ Mediterranean Belt or Alpine

Himalayan Belt- subduction zones of
continental plates.

❖ Around 21% of the total seismic

events of the world occur here.

❖ It includes the Mediterranean Sea,

northern Africa, Eastern Africa, the
Himalayan, and Mount Burmese
Hills.

❖ Himalayan Region- Zone of maximum intensity of seismic tremors because it lies in the
subduction zone of the Asiatic and Indian plates. Example: 1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake, 1999
Chamoli Earthquake etc.

❖ Plane Seismic Region- Zone of moderate intensity. Example: 1934 Earthquake of Bihar, 1950
Earthquake of Assam etc.

❖ Peninsular India- Zone of minimum intensity. Earthquakes in this region are related to active
faults below the Deccan region.

❖ Himalayan Fault Zone- A broad system of interactive faults complex grid of faults extending all
along this colliding zone Earthquake Belt extends:

1. Sulaiman and Kirthar Zones in West

2. Himalayas in North

3. Burmese arc East

Bhuj Earthquake: 26 January 2001

❖ 8.1 Richter scale as per USA

❖ Deaths- 50000 to 1 Lakh

 15

❖ Affected- 50 lahks people

❖ Reasons:

➢ Seafloor spreading of Indian Ocean 5

cm/year.

➢ Gradual northwards movement of the Indian

Plate.

➢ Major reactivated faults below Kutch Region:

➢ First: East-West running fault between

Ahmedabad and Bhuj.

➢ Second: Running North-South direction from Mehsana, Ahmedabad to Baroda.

➢ These subterranean faults intersect each other near Viramgam, Santhalpur and Radhanpur.

Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt (Divergent Type of Earthquake):

❖ It includes all epic centres along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and several islands nearer to the ridge.

❖ It records shallow focus and moderate earthquakes essentially due to the creation of transform faults
fractures due to the splitting of the plates and movement in opposite directions.

❖ Therefore, the spreading of the seafloor and fissure type of volcanic activity causes earthquakes of
moderate intensity.

❖ These are around 8-10% of earthquakes in the world.

Turkey Earthquakes:

❖ The recent earthquake affected Syria,

Jordan and Turkey.

❖ These are all located in the area of the

Anatolian tectonic block.

❖ It was a 7.8 Richter scale earthquake.

 16

❖ In 1939, in this region the Erzincan

earthquake occurred in the Kilkit River
valley. It is highly earthquake-prone
and damages a lot of areas.

➢ The Arabian plate pushed

northward, the Anatolian block
moves westward and the African
plate moves northward.

The movement of these plates created a strike slip and resulted in a very big earthquake.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 21
Distribution of Continents
and Oceans
 2

Distribution of Continents and Oceans

Origin of Continents, Oceans & Mountains:

❖ Oceans: 70.8% of the total Surface area (TSA)

of the Globe.

❖ Continents: 29.2% Of the TSA of the globe

❖ There is a non-uniformity in the distribution of

continents and oceans in both hemispheres.

Distributional Pattern:

1. Dominance: Land in the Northern

Hemisphere (NH)-around 83 % of the total
land area of the globe and Oceans in the
Southern Hemisphere (SH)-around 90.6%
of the total oceanic area of the globe.

2. Triangular shape Continents: The bases

in North and Apices in South- Example-
North & South Americas (Base-Cape horn),
Africa (Base-Cape of good hope). But there
are few exceptions such as Australia &
Antarctica.

3. Triangular shaped Oceans: Indian Ocean-

Base in the South & Apices in the Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea Pacific- Apex-
Aleutian Islands and base in the South.

4. North Pole & South Pole are surrounded

by land and sea areas respectively.

5. Antipodal Arrangement of continents and

oceans, more than 95% of the total land
area is opposite to water bodies. But there
are exceptions such as Patagonia-opposite to North China and New Zealand opposite to Spain
& Portugal.

6. Great Pacific Ocean occupies almost 1/3rd of the total surface area globe.
 3

Tetrahedral Hypothesis (By Lowthian Green):

❖ It is based on the characteristics of a Tetrahedron, a solid body having 4

equal plane surfaces.

❖ According to theory, if the sphere is subjected to uniform pressure on all

sides, it would be transformed into the shape of a Tetrahedron.

1. Initially, Earth was very hot-Cooling began-first the outer part

cooled and it led to the formation of crust & inner part continued
cooling.

2. Consequently, the inner part was subjected

to more contraction due to continued
cooling & reduction in the volume of the
inner part.

❖ Consequently, the upper part collapsed on the

inner part & earth began to assume the shape of
the tetrahedron

❖ As per the theory, oceans represent the surfaces of

the tetrahedron and landmasses represent Apices
& in the case of the earth, apices are not much
sharpened, rather they are flat and convex.

❖ Four oceans (Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific & Indian oceans)

were formed on 4 plane faces of the tetrahedron.

➢ Upper flat face - Arctic Ocean & other 3-Pacific,

Atlantic & Indian Ocean

➢ 3 Vertical Edges - North & South Americas,

Europe & Africa , & Asia.

➢ Lower Point - Antarctica.

❖ Three Apices (tops) are located in the Northern

Hemisphere (Canadian Shield, Baltic Shield & Siberian Shield) & fourth one is in Southern
Hemisphere (Pivot-Antarctic Shield).

❖ Therefore, present continents have grown out of these shields represented by Apices of
Tetrahedron.
 4

Conclusion:
1. Triangular shape- All continents developed along the edges of the tetrahedron taper southwards &
triangular shape of the continents is proved.
2. Antipodal position- The location of the oceans along 4 plane faces and continents along the apices
of the plane faces proves the antipodal position.
3. Land & Water- There is the dominance of land areas in the Northern Hemisphere and Water
areas in the Southern Hemisphere is proven.
4. Poles- The situation of a continuous ring of land around the north polar sea and the location of
the south pole in a land area surrounded by water from all sides.
Criticism:
1. The balance of the earth in the form of a tetrahedron while rotating on an apex cant be
maintained.
2. Earth is rotating so rapidly on its axis that spherical earth cant be converted into a tetrahedron
while contracting on cooling
3. It believed in the permanency of continents and ocean basins while the plate tectonic theory has
validated the concept of continental drift. At present, Greenland is moving, the height of the
Himalayas is also increasing, etc., which shows the drifting of continents.
4. He failed to explain Island formation, volcanism, earthquake, etc.
Continental Drift Theory of Taylor:
❖ In 1908, Frank B. Taylor postulated the concept of
“horizontal displacement of continents”.
❖ To explain the following:
1. The distribution of continents and oceans.
2. Existence of Mountain ranges:
a. North-South extent of Andes & Rockies (In the
South and North America).
b. The east-West extent of the Alps, Himalayas,
Caucasus, etc.
3. The distributional pattern of tertiary folded Mountain
Ranges.
4. South and North America, other continents
5. West–East extent of Alpine ( Alps, Caucasus, Himalayas).
 5

As per the Theory of Taylor:

❖ Initially, in the Cretaceous Period, Pangia got divided into two landmasses-Laurasia &
Gondwana Land near the North Pole
and South Pole respectively.

❖ These both land masses are in a single

water body.

❖ Continents were displaced in two ways,

➢ Equator ward movement,

➢ Westward movement.

❖ The driving force for the displacement

of land masses is the tidal force of the
sun and moon.

Mechanism of Movement:

❖ Laurasia started moving away from the North Pole towards the equatorward in a radial manner.

❖ Sun and moon were applying their gravitational force on these land masses because of tidal force
towards the west.

❖ Continents were moving towards the equator by breaking themselves by tidal forces.

❖ This movement resulted in tensional force near the North Pole causing stretching, splitting, and
rupture in the landmass. Example: Baffin Bay, Labrador Sea & Davis Strait

❖ Gondwanaland, similarly, moved from the South Pole to the Equator causing splitting and
disruption & split into several parts. Example: Great Australian Bight & Ross Sea

❖ Atlantic & Indian Oceans were supposed to have been formed because of the filling of gaps
between drifting continents with water.

❖ Himalayas, Alps, and Caucasus are considered to have been formed during the equatorward
movement of Laurasia & Gondwanaland.

❖ Rockies and Andes (folded mountains) were formed due to the westward movement of land
masses.
 6

Criticism:

❖ External Tidal (Sun) force: If it moves the continent it would have stopped the earth. The mode
of drift has also been erroneous. If the tidal force of the moon was so enormous during the
Cretaceous period that it could displace the landmasses for thousands of km, it might have put a
break on the rotary motion of the earth & rotation of the earth might have stopped within a year.

❖ Large distances: Taylor has described the displacement of the landmasses for thousands of
kilometres whereas only some sort of horizontal movement of the landmasses up to 32-64 km
would have been sufficient. Short distances can also form similar mountains.

❖ External force: As per Arther Holmes, no external force can drift the continents apart and the
responsible force must come from internal force.

Continental Drift Theory:

❖ In 1912, this theory was given by Alfred Wegner, a German

meteorologist.

❖ He was observing the ice age fossils and different climates.

❖ In different continents, there are remains of glaciation. He

wanted to find the reason and evidence for this phenomenon.

❖ He came up with two possibilities:

➢ Either climate has moved

➢ Continents have moved (drifted)

❖ Ultimately he believed more on the second possibility.

❖ Wegner rejected the view of the permanency of continents.

❖ Wegener believed in 3 layers of Earth-SIAL, SIMA & NIFE.

➢ SIAL (Silicon and Aluminum) - Limited to the continental masses alone.

➢ SIMA (Silica, and Magnesium) - Ocean crust represented by its upper part.

➢ Continents or SIALIC masses were assumed to be floated on SIMA without any resistance
offered by SIMA.
 7

Forces Responsible:

1. Towards equator movements of the sialic (continental blocks) were due to the gravitational force
and buoyancy.

2. The westward movement was caused by the Tidal force of the Sun & Moon. As per the theory, the
attraction force of the Sun & Moon dragged the continental crust towards the west.

Buoyancy Force: It is the force that acts in the opposite direction of the weight and keeps the body
over a fluid floating.

❖ This force helps continents to float towards the equator.

Distribution of Continents and Oceans:

❖ Before 225 million years, all the continents first formed a single landmass and a mega ocean
surrounded the same.

❖ The Single large continent was named Pangaea and the mega ocean was called Panthalassa.

❖ Pangaea (SIAL) was floating on the SIMA, it was ruptured/broken due to the Tidal force of the sun
and moon and Gravitational force.

❖ After a few million years, Pangaea began to break. It initially splits into:

➢ Laurasia (north)

➢ Gondwanaland (south).

❖ When two continents ruptured then the water came in between the ruptured space. The sea formed
due to rupture is known as the Tethys Sea.

❖ Evan still, the forces were continuously acting on the landmass.

❖ Subsequently, these two also broke down to form 7 different continents today.

Drifting Mechanism:

❖ Pangea was broken into two parts due to Buoyancy, Gravitational force, and Tidal forces: The
northern part of Laurasia & South Gondwanaland.

❖ Intervening space between these two landmasses was filled up with water and the resultant water
body was called as Tethys Sea.
 8

❖ In the Cretaceous period, Gondwanaland

was disrupted and formed India, Australia,
Madagascar, and Antarctica. North
America broke away from Laurasia and
drifted westwards. South America broke
away from Africa & moved westwards.

❖ Due to the Northwards movement of

India, the Indian Ocean was formed & due
to the west movement of both Americas,
the Atlantic formed in an S-shape due to
the differential rate of drifting of North &
South Americas.

❖ Size of Panthalasa was greatly reduced due

to the movement of continental blocks from
all sides and the remaining portion became
the Pacific Ocean.

Why is India called a subcontinent?

❖ The Indian continent is driven from a

continent (Gondwanaland), and it is formed
from a mix of Eurasian and Indian plates.

Evidence of Continental Drift:

1. Matching of continents (Jig Saw

Fit): The shorelines of Africa and
South America facing each other have
a remarkable and unmistakable match.

➢ Eastern boundary of South

America can fit with the western
boundary of Africa. Similarly,
the Eastern boundary of North
America can fit with the Western
boundary of Europe.
 9

2. Similar Mountain Systems: Similar mountains formed at the edges of continents. Geological
evidence suggests that mountain systems of western and eastern coastal areas of the Atlantic are
similar & Identical.

➢ Example: Appalachians of North East regions of North America are compatible with the
mountain systems of Ireland & Wales.

3. Rock Ages: Rocks of the same ages on

different coasts are the main evidence.

4. Similar Fossil deposits, Vegetation and

Fauna: Similarity in the fossils & vegetation
remains found on the eastern coast of South
America & Western Coast of Africa.

➢ Common fossils of Lystrosaurus

found in Africa, India, and
Antarctica.(refer to the figure below).
Also, similar vegetation and fauna are found in different continents.

5. Geodetic (data related to earth) Evidence: Greenland is drifting toward the west at the rate (last
50 years geography) of 20 cm/year (calculated by the Bathymetric model and satellite images).

6. Glacial Deposits: Evidence of carboniferous glaciation (fossils of glaciation) in Brazil, Falkland,

South Africa, Peninsular India, Australia & Antarctica further proves the unification of landmasses.
At the south pole, Gondwnaland was present before drifting.

Mountain Building:

As per Wegener, Mountains formed during the westwards & equator wards drifting of the continents in
the following manner:

1. Frontal edges of westward drifting continental blocks of North & South Americas were crumpled
(compressive force) & folded against the resistance of the rocks of the sea floor-Formed Rockies &
Andes-western cordilleras.

2. Alpine ranges of Eurasia were folded due to the equator towards movements of Eurasia & Africa
together with Peninsular India.
 10

Origin of Island Arcs:

❖ Wegner has related the process of formation of Island Arcs & festoons (of Eastern Asia, West
Indies & arcs of south Antilles) to the differential rates of continental drift.

❖ When the Asiatic block was moving westwards, the eastern margin of this block couldn’t keep
pace with the westward-moving major landmass, rather lagged behind, which led to the formation
of island arcs-Sakhalin, Kurile, Japan, and the Philippines.

❖ Also some portions of North & South Americas were lagged behind & Island arcs of W Indies &
South Antilles were formed.

Criticism:

❖ Forces: Gravitation, Buoyancy & Tidal forces are not sufficient to drift the continents apart.
Tidal force as invoked by Wegener, for the drift of continents would need to be 10000 Mn times as
powerful as today and it would have stopped earth rotation in a Year.

❖ Jig Saw fit: The concept of Jig Saw Fit can't be revalidated.

❖ Chronological Sequence: Not elaborated on the direction and Chronological Sequence of the
displacements of the continents.

❖ Unanswered Questions: Why did the process of continental drift not start before the Mesozoic
Era? What about volcanism? How did earthquakes form? How volcanism and earthquakes are
present in mountain regions like Andes, Alphines, and the Himalayas? These were unanswered
questions.

Convectional Current Theory (Arthur Holmes

1930)
❖ He was a critic of theories supporting the
external forces.

❖ He believed force is created internally by the

possibility of convection currents operating
in the mantle portion which creates force.
 11

❖ Due to the heat provided by the core,

convection currents travel in an
upward direction.

❖ These currents are also generated due

to radioactive elements causing
thermal differences in the mantle
portion.

❖ These currents put pressure on the

continental crust and lead to the
movement of continental crust.

❖ Convection Currents: Convection is the phenomenon of heat transfer.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 22
Distribution of Continents
and Formation of Mountains
 2

Distribution of Continents and Formation of Mountains

Convectional Current Theory (Arthur Holmes 1930)
 He was a critic of theories supporting external forces.
 He believed force creates internally as a possibility of convection
currents operating in the mantle portion which creates force.
 Due to the heat provided by the core, convection currents travel in an
upward direction.
 These currents are also generated due to
radioactive elements disintegration causing
thermal differences in the mantle portion, creating
convection cells below the crust.
 These currents put pressure on the continental
crust and lead to the movement of continental crust.
 Here, the crustal slabs move with convection
currents.
 Convection Currents: Convection is the
phenomenon of heat transfer.

Theory of Seafloor Spreading:

 In 1960, Prof. Harry Hess analyzed the seafloor spreading of the Pacific from
Mexico to British Columbia.
 Mid-Oceanic Ridges were situated on the rising thermal convection currents
coming up from Mantle.
 Oceanic crusts move in opposite directions from mid-oceanic ridges & thus
there is continuous upwelling of new molten materials along Mid-Oceanic
Ridges.
 Molten lavas cool down and solidify to form a new crust along the trailing ends
of divergent plates
 Therefore, it proves that
 The Sea floor spreads along the Mid Oceanic Ridges.
 Expanding crusts are destroyed along the oceanic trenches.
 3

Sea Floor Spreading Evidence (Hess 1961):

 Volcanic eruptions: These eruptions are common
and they bring huge amounts of lava to the surface
in the area of Mid Oceanic ridges.
 Similar Composition: The rocks on either side of
the crust of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable
similarities like age, chemical composition and
magnetic properties.
 Age of Rocks: The ocean crust rocks (200
million years old) are much younger than the
continental rocks (3200 million years old).
 The oceanic crust was unexpectedly
thinner than the continental crust because
magma heat continuously hit the oceanic
crust.
 Sediments: The sediments on the ocean floor
are unexpectedly very thin.
 The deep trenches have deep-seated
earthquake occurrences while in mid-oceanic
ridges, the quake foci have shallow depths.
 Mid-Oceanic ridge: A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large
depression. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface. Example: Iceland, a part of the mid-relief features of ocean floors Atlantic Ridge.
 Hess argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and
the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side.
 The younger age of the oceanic crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause the
shrinking of the other, the ocean floor thus spreads.
 He further maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest sinks down
at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
 The age of the rocks near the mid-oceanic ridge is younger than the age of rocks away from the ridge.
 Circum Pacific Zone (Ring of Fire), is the zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity.
 The concept of seafloor spreading is utilized as a base for the Plate tectonic theory.
 4

What is Trench?
 These areas are the deepest parts of the
oceans.
 The trenches are relatively steep-sided,
narrow basins.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the
surrounding ocean floor.
 These are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes. That is why they
are very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so
far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19
in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

African Rift Valley:

 It is also an example of seafloor spreading.
 The Afar hotspot and divergent boundary are present
in this region.
 It is believed that due to the pressure in future, this
region will become separate from the African
mainland.

Plate Tectonic Theory

 Plates: Rigid lithospheric slabs or rigid and solid Crustal layers are
called plates.
 Interactions of tectonic plates (motion, subduction, etc.) are called
plate tectonics.
 Plate Tectonics: Mechanism of evolution, movement, and motion
of plates & resultant reactions.
 Plate Tectonic Theory is based on two major concepts
I. Continental Drift.
II. The seafloor is spreading.
 Tectonically the plate margins or boundaries are most important
because all tectonic activities occur along the plate margins. For
example: seismic events, vulcanicity, mountain building, faulting,
etc.
 5

 It is the most recent and widely accepted theory which gives the most satisfactory answers to intricate and
puzzling questions regarding:
 Origin of continents and oceans,
 Formation of mountains,
 Occurrence of earthquakes and
 Eruption of volcanoes.
 In this theory the lithosphere is believed to be
broken into a series of separate plates that move in
response to the convection cells in the upper mantle.
 There are three types of plate boundaries:
1. Constructive- Where two plates diverge
(diverging continents) and continuous upwelling
of molten material & formation of new ocean
crust.
2. Destructive- Where plates come towards one
another (converging boundaries or subduction
zones), collide and one plate goes into the mantle and
is consumed. The heavier plate gets subducted into
destructive plate boundaries (consumption of one
plate).
3. Conservative/Transform- Where plates move past
one another along transform faults without being
subdued or overriding.

Major and Minor Plates of the World:

 6

Types of Plate Boundaries and Movements

Major Plates 1. Antarctic (and the surrounding oceanic) plate
2. North American plate (with the western Atlantic floor separated from the South
American plate along the Caribbean islands)
3. South American plate (with the western Atlantic floor separated from the North
American plate along the Caribbean islands)
4. Pacific plate
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.

Minor Plates 1. Cocos plate

2. Nazca plate
3. Arabian plate
4. Philippine plate
5. Caroline plate
6. Fuji plate
7. Juan De Fuca plate.

Divergent New Crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other.
Boundary Example: Mid-Oceanic Ridges, Rift Valleys

Convergent Crust is destroyed as one plate dives into another. Also called the Subduction Zone.
Boundary 1. Ocean and Continental plate. Example: Andes, Rockies, Atlas Mountain
2. Two oceanic plates. Example: Islands chains of Pacific.
3. Two continental plates. Example: Himalayas

Transform Crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.
Boundary Planes of separation are generally perpendicular to Mid oceanic ridges.
Example: San Andreas Fault, North America

Plate Tectonics: Three Types of Interaction:

Convergent plate boundary
 It is the boundary where the crust is destroyed as one plate dives under another. The location where the
sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
 7

Ocean-Ocean Convergence
 When two oceanic plates converge, the longer (heavier) plate
gets subducted which leads to volcanism and the construction of
new islands (volcanic). Example: Hawaii island in the Atlantic
Ocean.
Continent-Continent Convergence
 There is not much subduction in this type of interaction, hence
there is no volcanic activity.
 The pressure in the upward direction
(upwarping) due to the convergence of plates
leads to the formation of Folded mountains.
 Example: Himalayas etc.
Ocean-Continent Convergence
 When the ocean and continent plate converge
the oceanic plate gets subducted and creates
pressure.
 Because the ocean crust has high density and
the continental crust has low density.
 8

Transform Boundary:
 The crust is neither produced nor destroyed
as the plates slide horizontally past each
other.
 As the eruptions do not take all along the
entire crest at the same time, there is a
differential movement of a portion of the
plate away from the axis of the earth.
 Also, the rotation of the earth has an effect on
the separated blocks of the plate portions.
 There will not be any volcanic activity but there will be earthquakes.

San Andreas Fault:


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 23
Formation of Mountains
(Part 02)
 2

Formation of Mountains (Part 02)

Divergent Plate Boundary:

❖ The places where the plates move away

from each other are called spreading
sites.

❖ The new crust is generated as the plates

pull away from each other.

❖ The best-known example of divergent

boundaries (between two oceanic plates)
is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this, the
American Plate(s) is/are separated from the
Eurasian and African Plates.

❖ When there is a divergence between two

continental plates then there is the formation
of rift valleys. Example: Great African Rift
Valley etc.

❖ After the formation of the rift valley, the

further divergence leads to the formation of a
nascent sea.

❖ On further divergence the mid-oceanic ridge

forms.

Difference Between Upwelling and Upwarping:

❖ Upwarping: Due to the pressure from magma, the sea floor gets thinner. When the slope of the
lithosphere changes it is known as Upwarping.

❖ Upwelling: Further pressure after the Upwarpings leads to the formation of a volcanic vent. When
lava moves to the lithosphere through a vent it is known as upwelling.
 3

Transform Boundary:

❖ The crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.

❖ As the eruptions do not take all

along the entire crest at the same
time, there is a differential
movement of a portion of the plate
away from the axis of the earth.

❖ Also, the rotation of the earth has an

effect on the separated blocks of
the plate portions.

❖ There will not be any volcanic

activity but there will be
earthquakes.

❖ There will be no destruction of the crust. For example: A strike-slip earthquake in Turkey.

❖ Down thrusting of blocks results in the formation of block mountains. Examples: Black Forest
(Germany), Vosges (France).

San Andreas Fault:

 4

Indian Plate:
❖ India was a large island situated off the Australian coast.
The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till
about 225 million years ago.

❖ India is supposed to have started her northward journey about

200 million years ago (Pangaea broke).

❖ About 140 million years ago, the subcontinent was located as

south as 50◦ South latitude.

❖ The Tethys Sea separated the Indian plate and the Eurasian
plate. The Tibetan block was a part of the Asiatic landmass.

❖ India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago

causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas
(the Indian plate and the Eurasian
plate were close to the equator back
then).

❖ It’s thought that India’s coastline was

denser and more firmly attached to the
seabed, which is why Asia’s softer soil
was pushed up rather than the other way
around.

❖ The process is continuing, and the height

of the Himalayas is rising even to this
date.

❖ The northward movement of the Indian

tectonic plate pushing slowly against
the Asiatic plate is evident by the
frequent earthquakes in the region.

❖ During the movement of the Indian

plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major
event that occurred was the outpouring
of lava and the formation of the
Deccan Traps (shield volcano).
 5

❖ The shield volcanism started somewhere around 60 million years ago and continued for a long
period.

❖ When the Indian plate moved over the mantle plume (hotspot volcanism), the Deccan trap formed.

❖ In the Dras–Kohistan there are traces of volcanism.

❖ There are also coal deposits and fossils in the Himalayas.

About the Himalayas and its Formation:

❖ It is the youngest fold mountain.

❖ It is extended an average of 2400 km

West to East (the width decreases) and is
Arc shaped.

❖ It is formed due to Continental-

Continental interaction at Convergent
Boundaries (Indian and Eurasian or
Asiatic Plate).

❖ Protect the Indian sub-continent from

cold, dry, frigid winds from (Russia)
Siberia.

❖ Around 70-65 Million Years Ago-

Tethys Geosyncline was present in place
of the Himalayas-bordering Indian Plate
in the south and the Asiatic Plate in the
North.

❖ Around 60-30 Million Years Ago- the

Indian plate started subducting under
Asiatic Plate.
❖ Around 30-20 Million Years Ago-
Subduction of the Indian plate under Asiatic caused lateral compression due to which sediments of
Tethys geosyncline got squeezed and folded into three parallel chains of Himalayas.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 24
World Mountains
 2

World Mountains
Mountains:

❖ A mountain is any natural elevation of the earth's surface. The mountains may have a small summit and a
broad base. These are the relief features.
❖ It is considerably higher than the surrounding area. Some mountains are even higher than the clouds. As you
go higher, the climate becomes colder.
❖ Mountains may be arranged in a line known
as a range. Many mountain systems consist
of a series of parallel ranges extending over
hundreds of kilometres.
❖ The Himalayas, the Alps and the Andes are
mountain ranges of Asia, Europe and
South America, respectively.

❖ These are the significant relief features of the 2nd order on the earth's surface.

❖ There are three types of mountains on the basis of formation (Tectonic formation) - Fold Mountains,
Block Mountains and Volcanic Mountains.

Fold Mountains:

❖ Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth's tectonic plates are pushed together. At these
colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are warped and folded due to compression forces.

❖ The Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are young fold mountains with rugged relief and high conical peaks.

❖ The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia have rounded features and low elevation.
They are very old, folded mountains.

❖ Example: Himalayas, Andes, Rockies.

 3

Block Mountains:
❖ They are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically. This is the result of Tensile force. The
uplifted blocks are termed as horsts and the lowered blocks are called graben.
❖ The Rhine Valley and the Vosges Mountain in Europe are examples of such mountain systems.
❖ Mauna Kea (Hawaii) in the Pacific
Ocean is an undersea mountain. It is
higher than Mount Everest being
10,205 meters high.
❖ Examples: Vosges, Black Forest
Highlands:
❖ Example: Ethiopian Highlands.
Volcanic Mountains:
❖ They are formed due to volcanic
activity. Mount Kilimanjaro in
Africa and Mount Fujiyama in Japan
are examples of such mountains.
Mountains are very useful.
❖ The mountains are a storehouse of water. Many rivers have their source in the glaciers in the mountains.
Reservoirs are made and the water is harnessed for the use of people. Water from the mountains is also used
for irrigation and the generation of hydro-electricity. The river valleys and terraces are ideal for the cultivation
of crops. Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna.
❖ Example: Mount Stromboli, Mount Aconcagua.
❖ In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers.
Types of Mountains on the Basis of Erosional Formation:
❖ The Aravali range in India is one of the oldest mountain systems in the world. The range has considerably
worn down due to the processes of erosion.
❖ Examples: Aravalis, Vindhyas
On Basis of Period of Formation:
1. Precambrian: 4.5 Billion to 500 million years ago. Example: Laurentian, Algoman Mountain. These are the
oldest mountains
2. Caledonian mountains: 490 to 390 million years ago. Mountains of Scotland, Iceland and Scandinavia,
Aravallis, Mahadeo.
3. Hercynian mountains: 420-430 million years ago. Formed during permo-carboniferous periods. Mt of
Ireland, Vosges, Altai, Baikal Mt.,Tien shan.
4. Alpine mountains: 6.5- 2.5 million years ago. Formed during the tertiary period, the Himalayas, Rockies,
Andes, Atlas, and Pamir knot mountains (Taurus, Zagros, Elburg). These are the youngest mountains.
 4

Miscellaneous Mountains:

1. Mountain Ridge: System of long, narrow, high hills. The slope of one side of the ridge is steep & the other
side is moderate. Example: Shimla Ridge

2. Mountain Range: A system of mountains

and hills having several ridges, peaks and
summits and valleys. It represents a long but
narrow strip of mt & hills. Example:
Himalayas, Dhauladhar Ranges.

3. Mountain Chain: Several parallel long &

narrow mountains of different periods.
Example: Himalayas (1.5 million years of
age, 45 million years of age and 65 million
years of age), Andes.

4. Mountain System: Consists of different

mountain ranges of the same period. Have
similar structure form & extension. Example: Shivalis.

5. Mountain Group: Consists of several unsymmetric patterns of different mountain systems

6. Cordillera: A community of mountains having different ridges, ranges, mountain chains and mountain
systems. Examples: North Ameripromo-carboniferous.

Mountains Types (On the Basis of Height):

❖ Low Mountains: 700 to 1000 Meters
❖ Rough Mountains: 1000 to 1500 Meters
❖ Rugged Mountains: 1500 to 2000 Meters
❖ High Mountains: Above 2000 Meters
 5

On the Basis of Location:

● Inland Mountains: These are completely
surrounded by land. These can be relict
mountains or can be formed through tectonic
processes. Examples: The Himalayas, Vosges and
the Black Forest (Europe), the Kunlun, Tienshan,
Altai mountains of Asia, the Urals of Russia, the
Aravallis, and Satpura.
● Coastal Mountains: These are located near a
coastline. Examples: Rockies, Appalachians, Alpine
Mountain ranges, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats,
Andes.
● Oceanic Mountains: located on continental shelves
& ocean floors. Example: Hawaiian Mountains.

Continental Mountains:
 6

Oceanic mountains:
❖ These are found on continental shelves and ocean floors.
❖ If the height of the mountains is considered from the ocean
floor, Mauna Kea (9140 meters), would be the highest
mountain. It is a dormant volcanic mountain in the Hawaii
hotspot volcanic chain.
On the Basis of Mode of Origin:
❖ Tectonic mountains: Due to tectonic forces-tensile &
compressive coupled by endogenic forces. Further four types:
➢ Folded Mountains: Young folded, mature folded, and old folded.
➢ Block Mountains: Originated by tensile forces leading to the formation of rift valleys.
➢ Dome Mountains: Originated by magmatic intrusions and upwarping of the crustal surfaces.
➢ Accumulation Mountains: Form due to volcanic mountains.
On the Basis of Mode of Origin:
❖ Circum Erosional or Relict mountains: Circum-erosional or Relict or
Residual mountains (Aravallis in India, Urals in Russia) are the remnants of
old fold mountains derived as a result of denudation (strip of covering).
➢ Example: Vindhyachal, Aravallis, Satpuras, Eastern Ghats,
Western Ghats.
➢ Forces both inside and outside the globe can change the form of the
planet's surface.
➢ Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaus which have been
dissected by rivers into hills and valleys.
Origin of Block Mountains:
❖ They are the result of faulting caused by tensile and
compressive forces coming from within the earth.
❖ It represents the upstanding part of the ground between two
faults or on either side of the rift valley.
❖ These are of two types:
➢ Tilted Block Mountains: Having one side steep and
another side gentle slope.
➢ Lifted Block Mountains: Flattened summit of tubular
shape and steep-sided slopes.
 7

1. Fault theory:
❖ They are formed due to the upward movement of the middle block
between two faults. Upthrown block is known as Horst.
❖ They may be formed when side blocks of two faults move downwards
whereas the middle block remains stable at its place.
❖ They can also be formed when the middle block moves downwards. Thus
the side blocks become the horst & block mountains.
2. Erosion Theory:
❖ When a detailed study of the Great Basin Range of the USA took place it was opined that they were not
formed due to faulting and tilting, rather they were formed due to differential erosion.

❖ It was deduced that during the Mesozoic era, these ranges were subjected to intense erosion and
differential erosion led to the formation of the given range.

❖ Criticism: Scientists rejected the theory on the basis of the fact that denudation may modify a mountain
but can't form a full mountain.
 8

European Mountains:
 9

North American Mountains:

South American Mountains:

 10

Asian Mountains:

Australian Mountains:
 11

African Mountains:
 12

Fold Mountain Ranges:

❖ Folded Mountain Ranges are formed by the
folding of crustal rocks by compressive forces
generated by the endogenic forces coming from
within the earth.
❖ It is the highest and most extensive mountain
Range in the world.
❖ Generally found along the margins of the
continents-North-South direction or East-West
direction. Examples: Andes, Alps, Himalayas,
Atlas etc.
❖ These can be young and mature.
❖ They can be old and originated before the
tertiary period and greatly denuded
➢ Old fold mountains Examples: Aravallis, Vindhyachal
➢ New fold mountains Examples: Rockies, Andes, Alps, Himalayas.
➢ Continent-Continent Convergence- Examples: Himalayas, Ural etc.
➢ Ocean-Continental Convergence- Examples: Andes, Rockies etc.
Characteristics of Fold Mountains:
❖ Youngest mountains on Earth's surface.
❖ Formed due to the folding of sedimentary rocks by strong
compressive forces. Marine fossils found denote that sedimentary
rocks were formed due to the deposition and consolidation of
sediments in water bodies.
❖ Sediments found up to greater depth-12000 meters.
❖ Mt extend for a greater length but their widths are far smaller.
Example: Himalayas: Length-2400 kms & Width-400 kms which
means that folded mountain ranges are formed in long, narrow,
& shallow seas, known as Geosynclines
❖ Fold mountains are generally arc-shaped one side concave slope
& other side convex.
❖ Found along the margins of the continents facing oceans. Ex-
Rockies & Andes are found along the western margins of North & South Americas.
❖ Similarly Alpine mountains are located along the southern margins of Europe facing the Mediterranean.
 13

Andes Mountain Ranges:

❖ These are located in South America.
❖ These are formed due to the convergence of Ocean-
Continental plate boundaries.
❖ The Atacama desert is present on its leeward side.
❖ The average alleviation is around 4000 meters.
❖ Longest continental mountain range.
❖ Highest Mt Range outside Asia.
❖ Mt Aconcagua-Highest Peak.
❖ Causes Orographic Precipitation.
❖ Ojos del Salado (6,893 m) (active volcano) on the Chile-
Argentina border is the highest volcano on earth.
❖ In the Amazon forest there are Equatorial rainforests due to
daily precipitation.
Note - Orographic Precipitation: Rain, snow, or other precipitation
occurs when moist air is lifted as it moves over a mountain range.
Rockies:
❖ Rockies are divided into - three parts.
➢ Northern Rockies: Above there are Arctic Rockies (Brooks
range).
➢ Middle Rockies
➢ Southern Rockies
➢ From - British Columbia to New Mexico.
❖ Plays a role in the formation of Chinook winds (Warm winds).
❖ Chinook winds are known as ‘Snow eaters’ because they help in
melting snow and facilitate human activities in the region like
agriculture etc.
❖ Capture moisture-laden winds from the Pacific and Orographic
rainfall in the Windward Region.
❖ The Rain Shadow effect led to the formation of Mojave Desert.
❖ Mt. Elbert is the Highest Peak
❖ These are formed due to the convergence of Ocean-Continental plate boundaries.
 14

Ural:
❖ Runs North to South Through West Russia from
Arctic Coast to the Ural River.
❖ Formed due to Continent-Continent plate
interaction at Convergent Boundary.
❖ Forms a local Boundary between Europe and Russia.
❖ Mughalzhar hills are part of Urals belt in
Kazakhstan.
❖ These form a water divide between the rivers of
Russia and Europe (due to the high slope).
Atlas:
❖ These are located in Africa.
❖ Passes through Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia.
❖ Westerlies from the Atlantic carry moisture into the region but
mountains act as the weather divider between the coastal
grasslands, wetlands and the Sahara Desert.
❖ It Separates the Mediterranean climate from the Sahara Desert
(due to being located on the leeward side of the Atlas mountains,
cold currents, altitude, etc.).
❖ Extends 2400 km approx.
❖ The highest peak is Toubkal (4,165 meters) in southwestern
Morocco.
❖ It also separated the Mediterranean type of climate from the dry
climate.
❖ Reason for the formation is the Ocean-Continent plate interaction. Note: Mediterranean type of climate is
characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. It is located between about 30° and 45° latitude north
and south of the Equator and on the western sides of the continents.
Himalayas:
❖ It is the youngest fold of the mountain chain.
❖ It extends- an average of 2400 km West to East (the width decreases) and is Arc shaped.
❖ It was formed due to Continental-Continental interaction at Convergent Boundaries (Indian and Eurasian
or Asiatic Plates).
❖ It is a barrier for the Indian sub-continent from cold, dry, frigid winds from (Russia) Siberia.
 15

❖ These also regulate rainfall and act as a barrier for Monsoon winds and deflect it, causing rainfall.
❖ It regulates branches of wet winds and causes the distribution of rainfall in India.
❖ It has a role in the formation of the Deserts-
Taklamakan Desert & Gobi Desert.
❖ It is the source of a number of Rivers-Ganga,
Yamuna, Indus, Brahmaputra, Kali, etc.
❖ It has different freshwater glaciers- Gangotri
Glacier, Milam Glacier, Chemayungdung
(Brahmaputra river originates from this), etc.

❖ It has strategic importance also due to the

presence of various passes like Niti Pass,
Mana Pass, etc. (A mountain pass is a
navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge.)
❖ During summers or hot weather when the ice melts, these passes are navigable, this also creates a threat of
attack from the neighboring countries. Thus the melting of glaciers due to climate change also creates a
security threat for India. Therefore conservation measures to protect against the melting of the ice is the need
of the hour.
❖ It promotes tourism and is a place of history (the presence of various monasteries).
❖ The Tibetan plateau plays an important role in the Indian monsoon. It is formed due to the Indian plate's
interaction with the European plate.
Formation of the Himalayas:
❖ These are the youngest fold mountain range
which are extend 2400 kms West to East and is
of Arc shape.
❖ Formed due to Continental interaction at
Convergent Boundary.
❖ Protect the Indian sub-continent from cold, dry,
frigid winds from Siberia.
❖ Acts as a barrier for Monsoon winds-causes
rainfall.
❖ It also plays an important role in the formation
of the Deserts-Taklamakan Desert & Gobi
Desert.
 16

❖ It is the source of the number of Rivers-Ganga, Yamuna, and Kali.

❖ 70-65 Million Years Ago- Tethys Geosyncline was present in place of
the Himalayas-bordering Indian Plate in the south and the Asiatic plate
in the North.
❖ 60-30 Million Years Ago- the Indian plate started subducting under
Asiatic Plate.
❖ 30-20 Million Years Ago- Subduction of the Indian plate under Asiatic
caused lateral compression due to which sediments of Tethys
geosyncline got squeezed and folded into 3 parallel chains of
Himalayas.

Pamir knot:
❖ The word ‘knot’ is meant by the convergence of some of the major mountain ranges of the world.
❖ It is considered as a high plateau that is surrounded by mountains that contain the high grasslands
of the mountains.
❖ Many mountain ranges radiate outwards in different directions from this small area.
❖ The Hindu Kush, the Karakoram Range, the Kunlun Mountains, and the Tian Shan are several
South-Central Asian mountain ranges that seem to be radiating from the area of orogenic uplift
known as Pamir Knot.
❖ It is popularly called the “Roof of the World” because of its position in very high altitudes.

Alps:
❖ These are young fold Mountain Ranges.
❖ It separates Northern France and Germany from the
Mediterranean climate. Due to arc type shape, they separate
the marine west coast climate of Europe from the
Mediterranean areas of France, Italy etc
❖ It is the highest Mountain Range in Europe- 1200 kms from
West to East.
❖ Foehn winds move in the Alps mountains, which influences
more precipitation in South Europe & Eurasia.
❖ Mt Blanc is the highest peak.
➢ The mountain range stretches approximately 750 miles (1,200 kilometres) in a crescent shape across
eight Alpine countries: France, Switzerland, Monaco, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, and
Slovenia.
➢ These are formed due to the interaction of African & Eurasian Plates.
 17

Formation of Alpine Mountains

❖ Alpine Mt of Europe were formed due to the convergence and collision of the European & African Plates.
❖ Collisions of these two continental plates have been very complex and so was the formation of the European
Alpine Mts.
Convection Current Theory:
❖ This theory was given by Arthur Holmes-1928-29.
Major objectives:
➢ To search the mechanism of Mt Building-scientific.
➢ Scientific explanation for the origin of continents and oceans
basins
❖ Orogenic Force: Driving force of mt building-provided by thermal convection currents.
❖ Main source: for convection currents –excessive heat in substratum due to disintegration of radioactive
elements
Basis of the theory:
❖ Earth consists of 3 zones or layers-
A. Granodiorite-upper layer
B. Amphibolite-intermediate layer,
C. Eclogite.-lower
❖ These 3 layers further grouped into 2 zones:
❖ Crust-Upper & middle of the intermediate layer.
❖ Mantle represents the molten part of the lower layers.
❖ Disintegration of the radioactive elements generates heat which causes convection currents.
Mechanism:
❖ Due to temperature difference, rising convective
currents are formed under the Equitorial crust &
Descending Convective currents are formed under the
Polar crust.
❖ Currents generated under the equatorial crust will
move towards the pole, thus the crusts are carried
away with the convection currents.
❖ There are two situations of the rising convection
currents when they reach the lower limit of crustal masses:
 18

1. Crustal mass where two rising currents diverge in opposite directions, is stretched and thinned due to
tension and ultimately crust is ruptured and broken into two blocks which are carried away by lateral
divergent convective currents. Opening between two blocks becomes seas. Divergent convective currents
cause continental drifts.
2. When two lateral convective currents originating under the continental and oceanic crust convergence,
compressive force is generated which causes subsidence in the crustal zones
❖ As per Holmes, the Equatorial crust was stretched and ruptured, due to divergence of rising convective
currents which carried the ruptured crustal blocks towards North & South & Tethys Sea was Formed.-Opening
of Tethys Sea.
❖ Further two sets of Convergent or downward moving currents brought Laurasia & Gondwanaland together &
Tethys sea was compressed and folded into the Alpine Mountain, Closing of Tethys Sea.
Criticism:
1. Whole of the theory depends on factors about which very little is known.
2. The whole mechanism of convective currents depends on the heat generated by radioactive elements in the
substratum but several scientists have raised doubts about the availability of required amount of heat by
radioactive elements.
3. Horizontal flow of thermal convective currents under the continental and oceanic crusts is also a doubtful
phenomenon bcoz of the lack of the required amount of heat to drive these currents.
4. Convective currents originate at a few centers only under the continental and oceanic crusts but the question
arises why are not they originating at all places? If this happens, the horizontal movement of these currents
would not be possible.
5. Metamorphism of Amphibolites into eclogites and resultant downward movement of relatively denser
eclogites is a doubtful phenomenon. Even if we accept the metamorphism of amphibolites into eclogites, the
resultant increase in density from 3 to 3.4 would not be enough.
Plate tectonic theory:
Objective:
❖ Comprehensive theory which offers explanations for relief features and tectonic events-Mountain Building,
Folding & Faulting, Continental Drift, Vulcanicity, and Seismic Events.
❖ It envisages the formation of Mountains due to the collision of plate Boundaries.
Orogenetic Force:
❖ Force to form mountains is provided by the collision of two convergent plates along the destructive plate
boundaries.
❖ Thermal Convective currents originating in the mantle is a competent force for the movement of plates.
 19

Base of Theory:
❖ Plate tectonics-based on two major scientific evidences:
I. Evidence of Paleo-magnetism.
II. Evidence of Seafloor spreading.
❖ There are three types of Plate Boundaries:
1. Constructive or Divergent Plate Boundaries
2. Destructive or Convergent Plate Boundaries
3. Conservative Plate Boundaries
Mechanism of theory:
❖ Mountains are formed due to two convergent plates and are always formed along the destructive plate
boundaries.
❖ Two plates moving together under the impact of thermal convective currents collide against each other and the
plate boundary having relatively denser material is subducted under the other plate boundary of relatively
lighter materials. Subduction zone is the Benioff Zone.
❖ Subduction of the plate boundary causes lateral compressive force which ultimately squeezes and folds the
sediments and materials of margins of plates, thus mt are formed
❖ Subducted part of the plate after reaching a depth of 100 kms or more in the mantle is liquefied and thus
expands in vol and this expansion of molten materials causes a further rise in
Mountains.
Ocean-ocean convergence:
❖ Subduction of oceanic plates of relatively denser materials results in the
formation of a fold mountain range.
❖ Examples: Island Arcs & Festoons formed by Japanese Islands,
Philippines.
❖ Honshu islands-characteristic example of Ocean-Ocean Convergence.
Ocean-Continent Convergence:
❖ Collision of Ocean-Continent convergent plates results in the formation
of the Cordillera type of Fold Mountains. Example-Western Cordillera
of North America
❖ When oceanic plates collide with the continental plates, oceanic plates
being heavier due to denser materials is subducted below the
continental plate boundary.
❖ Andes & Rockies are formed due to the Subduction of the Pacific Ocean plate under the American Continental
Plate.
 20

Continent-Continent Convergence
❖ Two convergent plates composed of the continental crusts collide against
each other-plate with relatively denser material-subducted under the plate
having comparatively lighter materials than the former.
❖ Resultant lateral compression squeezes and folds the sediments deposited
on either side of continental plate margins and thus forms the gigantic fold
mountains. Example: Alps, Himalayas
Highest Mountain Peaks:
 21


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 25
World
Plateaus
 2

World Plateaus
Plateaus:
 Plateaux are the significant relief features of the second order.
 A Plateau is an elevated flat upland. These are flat-topped tabular or rolling lands standing above the
surrounding area.
 It may have one or more sides with steep slopes.
 These originated due to volcanism, plate tectonics and deposition.
 The height of plateaus often varies from a few hundred meters to several thousand meters.
 Plateaus, like mountains, may be young or old.
 Old plateau: Ranchi Plateau
 Young Plateau: Mahabaleshwar
 They cover 33% of the surface area of the earth (land).
 These tabular uplands have relief features of more than 500 feet.
 They can be dissected by rivers and
form valleys. Example: Colorado
Plateau (USA, by Colorado River).
Deccan Plateau, Chota Nagpur
Plateau (North Koel River), etc.
 The Deccan Plateau in India is one of
the oldest Plateaus in the world.
 The East African Plateau in Kenya,
Tanzania, and Uganda and the
Western Plateau of Australia are other
examples.
 Finch Trewartha- ”Tabular uplands
having a relief of more than 500 feet
may be arbitrarily defined as a
Plateau. Example: Ranchi Plateau, Shillong Plateau, Tibetan Plateau, Colorado Plateau, etc.
 Examples: Tibetan Plateau, Colorado Plateau, Bolivian Plateau, Ethiopian Highlands, Katanga Plateau,
Kimberley Plateau, etc.
General Characteristics of Plateaus:
 Large Uplands: These are extensive upland areas characterized by flat and rough top surfaces and steep
side walls that rise above the neighbouring ground surface for at least 300 meters to a few lakh kms.
Examples: Deccan Plateau, Siberian Plateau, etc.
 River streams Cut Through: The rivers, while descending from the Plateau, form long, narrow and deep
valleys (Gorges and Canyons). Example: Major rivers, while descending the Rawa Plateau, meet Ganga and
 3

Yamuna and have entrenched deep valleys, Kevati Gorge by the Mahana River, Odda Gorge by the Odda
River, and Colorado Plateau entrenched by the Colorado River.
 Vary in places: They vary from one place to another. Example: Tibetan Plateau is surrounded by hills
and mountains on both sides, Piedmont Plateau in the USA is surrounded by hills and mountains on one side
and bordered by plains and coastal areas on another side.
 Register Variations in Features: Plateaus also register wide variations from the standpoint of superficial
materials (composition variation):
 Some have thick covers of Basaltic Lavas. Example: Deccan Plateau.
 Some are entirely composed of sedimentary rocks. Examples: Rewa Plateau, Bhandar Plateau, Rohtas
Plateau, etc.
 Some are so dissected by the network of streams that they are segmented into numerous parts. Example.
Peatlands of Ranchi Palamau uplands are dissected by the North Koel River and its tributaries.
 Very extensive in aerial context (may range from 5 lakh sq. km - 30 lakh sq. km)- Deccan Plateau, Siberian
Plateau.
 Flat and Rolling top surfaces - The slope of the side walls is very steep but the top surfaces, except for minor
relief, are more or less flat. Example: Ranchi Plateau, abruptly rises from Damodar Valley.
 The plateau surface is also dotted with hill ranges and river valleys. Example: The Tibetan Plateau is
surrounded by hills and mountains on both sides, Piedmont Plateau- one side surrounded by mountains and
another by a plain, etc.
 Inter-montane Plateaus are plateaus which are surrounded by mountains.
Importance of Plateaus:
 Mineral Resources: Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral deposits.
 Kimberley Plateau in Western Australia source of diamonds.
 Katanga Plateau in Africa source of Copper, Tin, and Gold
 Bolivia Plateau in South America is a source of Lead and Tin
 Chota Nagpur Plateau in India source of Coal, Manganese.
 Deccan Plateau in India source of Manganese.
 Energy: These are sources of many energy resources.
 Hydroelectricity is available from dams to rivers Godavari, Krishna of Deccan and Mahabaleshwar
Plateau and Angel Falls in Venezuela.
 In the Plateau areas, there may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a great height. In India, the
Hundru Falls in the Chota Nagpur Plateau on the river Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in
Karnataka are examples of such waterfalls.
 Agriculture: Black soil in the Deccan Plateau is helpful for the cotton crop. The Loess Plateau in China is
formed by deposition and is useful for agriculture.
 Tourism: Many Plateaus have scenic spots and are of great attraction for tourists. Colorado Plateau in
America, Deccan Plateau (Ajanta and Ellora caves), and Meghalaya Plateau (Cherrapunji).
 4

 Climate: The Tibet Plateau is the highest Plateau in the world with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 meters above
the Mean Sea Level. It plays a role in rainfall from the Indian Monsoon. Likewise, the Meghalaya and
Karnataka Plateau play an important role in rainfall.
 Fossil Fuels: We can get coal in the Appalachian Plateau, USA, Coal in Kamti Coal fields of Maharashtra
(Deccan Plateau) and Shield region in Canada.
Origin and Evolution of Plateaus:
Plateaus originated in a number of ways, which are as follows:
1. Thermal Formation: Magma in the interior of the earth generates
pressure on the crust, creating unwrapping due to upwarping of some
portion of an extensive landmass by a few 100s Meters. Example:
Western Patlands of Ranchi Palamau, Massif Central in France and
Ethiopian Highlands.
2. Crustal Shortening: Crustal thickening at
convergent boundaries leads to the
formation of these plateaus. Example:
Tibetan Plateau
3. Volcanic Eruptions: These are formed
due to the pressure of mantle plume magma
forms cracks in the crust of the earth's
surface. Lava came out from these cracks
and then created a layer-by-layer form of
plateaus. Example: Deccan traps and
Siberian traps.
4. Deposition: These are formed due to the
deposition of thick covers of Basaltic lavas.
Example: Columbian Plateau, Mahabaleshwar
Plateau, Iceland and Loess Plateau of China
(upwarping and deposition both). Thick deposits
of loose materials by wind sometimes form
Plateaus. Example: Loess Plateau of China.
5. Upwarping: These are formed due to upwarping
of some portion of an extensive landmass by a
few 100s Meters. Example: Western Patlands of
Ranchi Palamau, Potwar Plateau, Pakistan
(upwarping and deposition both).
6. Fold Mountain Formation: If less folding
occurs, it leads to the formation of Plateaus.
Sometimes, adjoining areas of the mountains
are not folded but are raised during the process
 5

of mountain building. Such unfolded but upwarped regions become Plateaus. Example: Cumberland
Plateau, west of Appalachian Mountains.
Classification of Plateaus:
On the Basis of Origin:
1. Glacial Plateau: Plateau and mountains modified and transformed by the
glacial actions, Mountains are lowered in height and their sharp reliefs are
rounded. Example: Chibber Garhwal Plateau, Marg of Kashmir, etc.
2. Fluvial Plateau: It was formed due to the continuous deposits of fluvial
sediments brought by the rivers and the sediments are consolidated and stratified
into sedimentary rocks of great thickness.
 These sediments are raised upwards, due to earth movements, relative to
the surrounding areas and an upland plateau with an extensive flat surface
is formed. Example: Extensive Kaimur Plateau consisting of Panna
Plateau, Bhandar Plateau, Rohtas Plateau, etc.
3. Aeolian Plateau: It was formed due to the deposition of fine sediments brought
down by the winds.
 The enormous volumes of sediments are consolidated in due course of time
and a Plateau is formed. Example: Potwar Plateau of Pakistan, Loess
Plateau of China.
4. Tectonic Plateau: It is the most extensive, highest & complex plateau that
originated through the endogenetic forces coming from deep within the earth.
 These plateaux are formed by the horizontal and vertical movements
caused by endogenetic forces called Diastrophic plateaus. Example:
Meghalaya Plateau, etc.
5. Dome-Shaped Plateau: These are formed when the landmass is uplifted in
such a manner that the middle portion is upwarped and the sides are rounded.
 These are generally formed due to endogenetic forces, mainly during
volcanic activities. Chotanagpur plateau is a typical example .
 Ozark Plateau, USA- it was formed due to the upliftment of the ground
surface caused by the Appalachian Mountain Building during the
Permian Period.
6. Continental Plateaux: It is very extensive plateaux and are generally
away from the mountainous areas but are surrounded by the Coastal Plains.
 The Deccan Plateau is a typical example. Arabian Plateau, Australian
Plateau, and South African Plateau are other examples.
7. Volcanic Plateau: These are formed due to the accumulation of thick
layers of Basaltic Lava.
 These are formed over an area of 7,74,000 km2 in peninsular India due to the accumulation of an
enormous volume of basaltic lavas that erupted during the Cretaceous period.
 6

 Example: Columbia Plateau, USA is the best example of a lava plateau.

 It is an Intermontane Plateau because it is surrounded by mountains on three sides. Columbia River and
its tributaries have dissected the Plateau to a great extent.
 Other examples are the Deccan Plateau, Siberian Plateau, etc.
8. Piedmont Plateaus: Plateau formed at the foothill zone of the extensive mountains is called the Piedmont
Plateau.
 They are surrounded by mountains on one side and plains
or coast on another. Example: Patagonian Plateau.
 The side of the Plateau facing the plains is a steep slope
and thus forms an escarpment.
 The Appalachian Piedmont Plateau abruptly terminated
into the Atlantic coastal plains.
 A sudden break in the slope along the junction of the
Piedmont and coastal plains make a sudden decrease in
the channel gradients of Atlantic-bound rivers, and rivers entering the Atlantic make stupendous
waterfalls.
9. Deposition Plateau: These are formed due to the deposition of sediments. Example: Loess deposits of China,
etc.

On the Basis of Geographical Setting:

 7

1. Intermontane Plateau: These are surrounded by

mountains. Tibetan Plateau, Bolivian Plateau,
Peru Plateau, Columbian Plateau, etc.
2. Piedmont Plateau: These are located at one side
of the mountain and the other side with the coast.
Appalachian Piedmont, Patagonian Plateau, etc.
3. Continental Plateau: These are located inside the
continents. Deccan Plateau, Ranchi Plateau,
Shillong Plateau, Columbian Plateau etc.
4. Coastal Plateau: These are located at the coastal
regions. Coromandel coastal upland of India.
Classification of Plateaus:
On the Basis of Climate:
1. Uneven and Dry Plateau: These are also known as uneven plateaus. The Arabian Plateau is an example
of a dry Plateau.
2. Humid Plateau: Due to the Funnel effect in Shillong Plateau, there is a high amount of rainfall. Example:
Shillong Plateau.
3. Ice-Capped Plateau: Example: Greenland Plateau, etc.
On the Basis of Shape and Size:
1. Dome-Shaped Plateau: Chotanagpur
Plateau, Ozark Plateau in USA, etc.
2. Dissected Plateau: Colorado Plateau, etc.
3. Stepped Plateau: Kaimur Plateau, Panna
Plateau, Bhander Plateau, etc
4. Flat-Topped Plateau: Rewa Plateau,
Tibetan Plateau, Bhander Plateau, etc.
5. Rejuvenated Pineplain Plateau:
Missouri Plateau, Patlands of Ranchi etc.
On the Basis of Stages of Erosion:
1. Young Plateau: In these erosion is not started. Mahabaleshwar, Khandala upland, Colorado Plateau.
2. Mature Plateau: In these heavy erosions taking place. Ranchi Plateau, Hazaribagh Plateau, Appalachian
Plateau, etc.
3. Rejuvenated Plateau: These are formed after erosion took place. Missouri Plateau, etc.
 8

Major Plateaus of the World:

Tibetan Plateau:
 It is the highest Plateau in the world. Its average height is 5000 meters.
 Most extensive Plateau as it covers an area of 8 lakh sq miles.
 It is surrounded by Kunlun Mountain in the North, the Himalayas in the
South, Kunlun Himalayas in the West, and the Chinese Mountains in the
East.
 There are several enclosed salt lakes here.
 It is the source of various rivers- Indus, Brahmaputra, Mekong,
Salween, Yellow, and Yangtze Rivers.
 The plains formed from the deposits of these rivers are known as
Granaries of the World.
 It has an important role in the development of the monsoon in India.
Mexican Plateau:
 The entire Plateau is covered with playa lakes,
valleys, low hills, and salt lakes.
 Southern part is characterized by several
volcanic mountains.
 Tectonically, the Plateau is very much
sensitive and unstable.
 It is surrounded by the Sierra Madre
Occidental Range.
Columbian Plateau:
 River Columbia and its tributary Snake meet in this Plateau.
 It is bordered by the Cascade Range and the
Rocky Mountains and divided by the
Columbia River.
 This Plateau has been formed due to volcanic
eruptions with a consequent coating of basalt
lava (Flood Basalt Plateau).
 The Columbia Plateau is located in parts of
Washington, Oregon, and the Idaho States of the U.S.A.
Colorado Plateau:
 The Colorado Plateau includes Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico.
 It is divided by the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon.
 9

 It is the largest Plateau in America, and it covers an area of 337,000 sq km

and its highest elevation is about 2,450 meters above sea level.
 This Plateau is an example of the Intermontane Plateau. Mesas and buttes
are found here at many places.
 The Plateau is known for the groundwater which is under positive pressure
and causes the emergence of springs called Artesian wells.
Siberian Plateau:
 The Plateau occupies a great part of central Siberia between the
Yenisei and Lena rivers.
 It is located in the Siberian Platform and extends over an area of
3,500,000 km2 , between the Yenisei in the west and the Central
Yakutian Lowland in the east.
 To the South, it is bound by the Altai Mountains, Salair Ridge,
Kuznetsk Alatau, the Eastern and Western Sayan Mountains,
and other mountains of Tuva, as well as the North Baikal Highlands
and Baikal Mountains.
 To the North of the plateau lie the North Siberian Lowland and to
the East, the Plateau gives way to the Central Yakutian Lowland and
the Lena Plateau.
 The surface of the Central Siberian Plateau is characterized by the
alternation of wide plateaus and ridges, some of the latter are sharply
jagged.
 The Central Siberian Plateau covers one-third of Siberia.
 The Himalayas protects from the cold Siberian winds which flow through this region.
 10

Deccan Plateau:
 Large Plateau which forms most of the southern part of India.
 It is bordered by the Western and Eastern Ghats.
 Volcanic Deccan Traps- Largest volcanic feature on Earth, Made of
multiple basalt layers or lava flows, covers 5,00,000 sq km.
 It is known for containing some unique fossils.
 It is rich in minerals. Primary mineral ores found in this region are mica
and iron ore, diamonds, gold and other metals in the Golconda region.
 Major rivers here are the Godavari and Krishna which are a source of
Hydroelectricity.
 Tourist sites here are Ajanta and Ellora Caves.
 Black Soil is found here which is suitable for Cotton and Sugarcane
cultivation.
Kimberley Plateau:
 It lies in the north-western part of Australia.
 This Plateau is made of volcanic
eruptions.
 Many minerals like iron, gold, lead, zinc,
silver and diamond are found here.
Patagonian Plateau:
 Patagonia refers to a geographical region
that encompasses the southern end of
South America, governed by Argentina and
Chile.
 It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms)
lying in the southern part of Argentina.
 It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
 It is an important region for sheep rearing.
 11

World Plateaus:




 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 26
Introduction to
Climatology-Atmosphere
and it’s Constituents.
 2

Introduction to Climatology-Atmosphere and it’s Constituents.

Climatology:
❖ Climatology is the study of climate and how it changes over time. It is the study of the changes in weather
and climate and the underlying causes of the changes.
❖ Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of
time (10-100 years).
❖ Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time (short time).
❖ The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity
and precipitation.
❖ This science helps people better understand the atmospheric conditions that cause weather patterns and
temperature changes over time.
❖ The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the
south and the southeast.
❖ Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in climatic conditions
within the country.
❖ Seasons in the change in weather in around 3 to 6 months. It is a mid-term phenomenon.
Atmosphere:
❖ Our planet Earth is enveloped by a deep blanket of gases extending several thousands of kilometres above its
surface.
❖ This gaseous cover of the earth is known as the atmosphere.
❖ It is the thick layer of the gases and consists of dust particles,
water vapour etc.
❖ Like land (lithosphere) and water (hydrosphere), the
atmosphere is an integral part of the earth.
❖ Compared to the earth’s radius, the atmosphere appears to be
only a very thin layer of gases.
➢ However, because of the force of gravity, it is
inseparable from the Earth.
❖ The density of the atmosphere varies with height. It is
maximum at the sea level and decreases rapidly as we go up.
❖ The atmosphere exerts pressure on the Earth. Some areas
experience high pressure while some have low pressure.
❖ The air is an integral part of the earth’s mass and 99 per cent
of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to the height
of 32 km from the earth’s surface.
❖ The air is colourless and odourless and can be felt only when it blows as wind.
❖ The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles.
❖ The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere.
 3

Atmospheric Pressure:
❖ The air exerts pressure on the earth’s surface by virtue of its
weight. This pressure is called atmospheric pressure.
❖ Atmospheric pressure is the most important climatic element.
❖ The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square
centimeter.
❖ As the height increases, the pressure keeps on decreasing.
❖ At Mount Everest, when people reach the height the nose starts
bleeding due to low atmospheric pressure in the bloodstream.
(Note: Pressure is force per unit area, and the atmospheric
pressure is around 1.0132 bar per unit area. The Bar is the unit
of Pressure. )
Origin of the Atmosphere:
❖ The atmosphere is nowadays thought to have been created at the
time the Earth was being formed.
❖ When the earth was formed around 4.5 to 5 billion years ago, it
had initially very high temperatures.
❖ Due to its slow cooling, the Hydrogen and Helium gas was
stripped out (removal of the primordial atmosphere). It
happened around 5-10 billion years ago due to the
blowing of solar winds.
❖ After this, degassing happened due to volcanic
eruptions and cooling down.
❖ The gases created an umbrella around the earth,
which consist of a number of gases (Carbon
dioxide, methane, etc.), particles (dust, ash, soot,
etc.), and water vapour.
❖ The water vapour started condensing around the
hygroscopic nuclei.
❖ Clouds form when the invisible water vapour in
the air condenses into visible water droplets or ice
crystals.
➢ For this to happen, the parcel of air must be saturated, i.e. unable to hold all the water it contains in vapour
form, so it starts to condense into a liquid or solid form.
❖ It leads to precipitation (rainfall) and the filling up of depressions on the earth from rainwater.
❖ The collection of rainwater helps in the formation of oceans. And in oceans, life formation happened.
❖ Due to insolation, there is a biochemical reaction in the ocean with the help of energy provided by the sunlight.
It led to the generation of algae and thus, the evolution of life on Earth.
 4

❖ The algae and other organisms started performing

photosynthesis and absorbed carbon dioxide and
released oxygen into the atmosphere.
❖ The atmosphere got modified due to the process of
photosynthesis around 2.5 billion years ago.
Role of Earth’s Atmosphere:
1. Important Gases: The atmosphere contains various
gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc.
➢ Plants require carbon dioxide to survive while
animals and many other organisms need oxygen for
their survival.
➢ The atmosphere supplies these life-giving gases.
➢ All life forms need a particular range of temperature
and a specific range of frequencies of solar radiation to carry out their biophysical processes.
2. Regulates Solar Radiation: The atmosphere absorbs certain frequencies and lets through some other
frequencies of solar radiation. In other words, the atmosphere regulates the entry of solar radiation.
Approximately 50 per cent of the radiation from insolation reaches the earth's proximity.
3. Greenhouse Gas Effect: The atmosphere also keeps the temperature over the earth’s surface within
certain limits. In the absence of the
atmosphere, extremes of temperature
would exist between day and night over the
earth’s surface. It allows short waves from
the sun to pass through and traps the long
waves which increase the temperature on
the earth’s surface. This helps in managing
the heat budget.
(Note: A heat budget is a perfect balance
between incoming heat (short wave radiation)
absorbed by the earth and outgoing heat (long
wave radiation) escaping it in the form of
radiation. If the incoming heat and the outgoing
heat are not balanced, then Earth would be
getting either too warmer or cooler.)
4. Protection from UV rays: Harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation would find its way through if the atmosphere (ozone in the stratosphere to be
specific) were absent.
5. Protection from Extra-terrestrial Objects: The atmosphere also takes care of extra-terrestrial objects like
meteors which get burnt up while passing through the atmosphere (mesosphere to be precise) due to friction.
 5

6. Weather is another important phenomenon that dictates the direction of a number of natural and man-
made processes like plant growth, agriculture, soil formation, human settlements, etc.
Sun- Source of Energy:
❖ The energy from the sun is a key driver
behind various phenomena like winds,
rain, ocean currents, denudation etc.
❖ There are four types of radiation that are
emitted from the sun. These are as
follows:
1. Short-wave radiation
2. Long wave radiation
3. Visible rays
4. Infrared waves
Composition of the Atmosphere:
❖ The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In addition,
it contains ‘aerosols’.
➢ An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or
liquid droplets, in the air or another gas.
➢ Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic.
▪ Examples of natural aerosols are fog, dust,
forest exudates, and geyser steam.
▪ Examples of anthropogenic aerosols are
haze, particulate air pollutants, and smoke.
❖ If the suspended particles, water vapour, and other variable gases were
excluded from the atmosphere, then the dry air is very stable all over the
earth up to an altitude of about 80 kilometres.
❖ The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in
such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height
of 120 km.
❖ Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km
from the surface of the earth.
❖ Nitrogen and oxygen make up nearly 99% of the clean, dry air.
❖ The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1% of the
atmosphere.
❖ Besides these gases, large quantities of water vapour and dust particles are also
present in the atmosphere.
❖ These solid and liquid particles are of great climatic significance.
 6

❖ There are various permanent gases

(Helium, Hydrogen etc.) and
variable gases (water vapour,
carbon dioxide etc.) in the
atmosphere.
❖ At polar regions, the water vapour
is lowest (around 0.1-0.2%) and at
equatorial latitudes, it is highest
(around 4%).
❖ With an increase in height, the
composition of gases varies due to
the effect of solar rays and
gravitational force.
Nitrogen:
❖ Nitrogen accounts for 78% of total atmospheric volume.
❖ It is a relatively inert gas (does not react) and is an important
constituent of all organic compounds.
❖ The main function of nitrogen is to control combustion by
diluting oxygen.
❖ Plants need Nitrogen for their survival but they cannot take it
directly from the air.
❖ Bacteria (Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas etc), that live in the soil
and roots of some plants, take nitrogen from the air and change
its form so that plants can use it.
❖ It is a permanent gas, i.e, its proportion neither increases nor
decreases.
Oxygen:
❖ Oxygen, although constituting only 21% of the total volume of the atmosphere, is the most important
component among gases.
❖ All living organisms inhale oxygen.
❖ Besides, oxygen can combine with other elements to form important compounds, such as oxides.
❖ Also, combustion (burning) is not possible without oxygen.
Carbon Dioxide:
❖ It is the third important gas. It constitutes only about 0.03% of the dry air and is a product of combustion.
❖ Green plants, through photosynthesis, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it to
manufacture food and keep other bio-physical processes going.
❖ Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is considered to be of great climatic significance.
❖ Carbon dioxide is considered to be a very important factor in the heat energy budget.
 7

❖ It acts as a blanket in the atmosphere,

which traps the heat and produces the
greenhouse gas effect.
❖ It is a variable gas, and the percentage of
carbon dioxide is changing.
❖ With the increased burning of fossil fuels
– oil, coal and natural gas – the carbon
dioxide percentage in the atmosphere has
been increasing at an alarming rate.
❖ More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
means more heat absorption.
❖ It could significantly raise the temperature
at lower levels of the atmosphere thus
inducing drastic climatic changes.
Note: The greenhouse effect is the way in
which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of
as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them.
Ozone:
❖ Ozone is another important gas in the atmosphere, which is
actually a type of oxygen molecule consisting of three, instead of
two, atoms.
❖ It forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and
is unevenly distributed.
❖ It is between 20 km and 25 km altitude that the greatest
concentrations of ozone are found. It is formed at higher
altitudes and transported downwards.
❖ Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the sun reaching the surface of the earth.
❖ Other gases found in almost negligible quantities in the
atmosphere are argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon,
krypton, methane, etc.
❖ Ozone can be “good” or “bad” for health and the
environment, depending on where it’s found in the
atmosphere.
❖ Stratospheric ozone is “good” because it protects living
things from ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
❖ Ground-level ozone is considered “bad” because it can
trigger a variety of health problems, particularly for
children, the elderly, and people of all ages who have lung
diseases such as asthma.
 8

Ozone Hole:
❖ The ozone hole is not technically a
“hole” where no ozone is present, but
is actually a region of exceptionally
depleted ozone in the stratosphere over
the Antarctic that happens at the
beginning of spring (August–October)
in the Southern Hemisphere.
❖ Satellite instruments provide us with
daily images of ozone over the
Antarctic region. The ozone hole
image below shows the very low
values centered over Antarctica on 4
October 2004.
❖ From the historical records, we know
that total column ozone values of less
than 220 Dobson Units were not observed prior to 1979.
❖ From an aircraft field mission over Antarctica, we also know that a total column ozone level of less than 220
Dobson Units is a result of catalyzed ozone loss from chlorine and bromine compounds. For these reasons, we
use 220 Dobson Units as the boundary of the region representing ozone loss.
Montreal Protocol:
❖ The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral
environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals
referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
❖ When released into the atmosphere, those chemicals damage the stratospheric ozone layer, the Earth’s
protective shield that protects humans and the environment from harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
❖ Adopted on 16 September 1987, the Protocol is to date one of the rare treaties to achieve universal
ratification.
❖ The Montreal Protocol phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise
manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries (referred to as “Article 5
countries”).
❖ Under this treaty, all parties have specific responsibilities related to the phase-out of the different groups of
ODS, control of ODS trade, annual reporting of data, national licensing systems to control ODS imports and
exports, and other matters.
❖ Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities, but most importantly,
both groups of countries have binding, time-targeted and measurable commitments.
 9

Water Vapour:
❖ Water Vapour is one of the most variable gaseous substances present in the atmosphere – constituting
between 0.02% and 4% of the total volume (in cold dry and humid tropical climates respectively).
❖ Around 90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth.
❖ Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays a significant role in the insulating action of the atmosphere.
❖ It absorbs not only the long-wave terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat emitted by the earth during the night)
but also a part of the incoming solar radiation.
❖ It is the source of precipitation and clouds. On condensation, it releases latent heat of condensation -the
ultimate driving force behind all storms.
❖ The moisture–carrying capacity of air is directly proportional to the air temperature.
❖ The water-vapour content of the atmosphere varies from place to place and from time to time because the
humidity capacity of air is determined by its temperature.
❖ At 30 °C (86 °F), for example, a volume of air can contain up to 4 per cent water vapour. At -40 °C (-40 °F),
however, it can hold no more than 0.2 per cent.
❖ When a volume of air at a given temperature holds the maximum amount of water vapour, the air is said to be
saturated.
❖ Relative humidity is the water-vapour content of the air relative to its content at saturation. Saturated air, for
example, has a relative humidity of 100 per cent, and near the Earth, the relative humidity very rarely falls
below 30 per cent.
Solid Particles:
❖ The Solid Particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles (from weathered rocks and also derived
from volcanic ash), pollen grains, small organisms, soot, and ocean salts; the upper layers of the atmosphere
may even have fragments of meteors which got burnt up in the atmosphere. These solid particles perform the
function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the radiation.
❖ The solid particles are, consequently, responsible for the orange and red colours at sunset and sunrise and for
the length of dawn (the first appearance of light in the sky before sunrise) and twilight (the soft glowing light
from the sky when the sun is below the horizon, caused by the reflection of the sun's rays by the atmosphere.
Dusk: the darker stage of twilight.).
❖ The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust particles.
❖ Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic (i.e., readily absorbing moisture from the air) in character, and as
such, act as nuclei of condensation.
❖ Thus, dust particles are an important contributory factor in the formation of clouds, fog and hailstones.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 27
Atmosphere and Its Layers
 2

Atmosphere and Its Layers

Composition of the Atmosphere:

❖ The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In addition, it contains ‘aerosols’.
➢ An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid
particles or liquid droplets, in the air or
another gas.
➢ Aerosols can be natural or
anthropogenic.
✓ Examples of natural aerosols are
fog, dust, forest exudates, and
geyser steam.
✓ Examples of anthropogenic
aerosols are haze, particulate air
pollutants, and smoke.
❖ If the suspended particles, water vapour, and
other variable gases were excluded from the
atmosphere, then the dry air is very stable all over the earth up to an altitude of
about 80 kilometres.
❖ The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a
way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
❖ Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the
surface of the earth.
❖ Nitrogen and oxygen make up nearly 99% of the clean, dry air.
❖ The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute about 1% of the
atmosphere.
❖ Besides these gases, large quantities of water vapour and dust particles are also
present in the atmosphere.
❖ These solid and liquid particles are of great climatic significance.
❖ There are various permanent gases (Helium, Hydrogen etc.) and variable gases
(water vapour, carbon dioxide etc.) in the atmosphere.
❖ At polar regions, the water vapour is lowest (around 0.1-0.2%) and at equatorial
latitudes, it is highest (around 4%).
❖ With an increase in height, the composition of gases varies due to the effect of solar rays and gravitational
force.
 3

Nitrogen:
❖ Nitrogen accounts for 78% of total
atmospheric volume.
❖ It is a relatively inert gas (does not react)
and is an important constituent of all organic
compounds.
❖ The main function of nitrogen is to control
combustion by diluting oxygen.
❖ It also controls combustion.
❖ Plants need Nitrogen for their survival but they cannot take it directly from
the air.
❖ Bacteria (Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas etc), that live in the soil and roots of some plants, take nitrogen from
the air and change its form so that plants can use it.
❖ It is a permanent gas, i.e, its proportion neither increases nor decreases.
Oxygen:
❖ Oxygen, although constituting only 21% of the total volume of the atmosphere, is the most important
component among gases.
❖ It helps in respiration, all living organisms
inhale oxygen.
❖ Besides, oxygen can combine with other
elements to form important compounds, such
as oxides.
❖ Also, combustion (burning) is not possible
without oxygen.
❖ Initially, when the earth was formed, oxygen was
not available it was formed by the organisms
later on.
❖ It also helps in the formation of fats, carbohydrates etc. which provides energy to cells and tissues in the
body.
❖ In the atmosphere, oxygen is present upto 120 km of height. Above this height, the UV rays destroy oxygen
by disintegrating oxygen molecules and forming nascent oxygen molecules.
 4

Carbon Dioxide:
❖ It is the third important gas. It constitutes only about 0.03% of
the dry air and is a product of combustion.
❖ Green plants, through photosynthesis, absorb carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere and use it to manufacture food and keep
other bio-physical processes going.
❖ Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is considered
to be of great climatic significance.
❖ Carbon dioxide is considered to be a very important factor in the
heat energy budget.
❖ It acts as a blanket in the atmosphere, which traps the heat and produces the greenhouse gas effect.
❖ It is a variable gas, and the percentage of carbon dioxide is changing.
❖ It acts as a shield that allows short-wave radiation and traps long-wave or terrestrial radiation. It leads to the
heating of the atmosphere which is called the greenhouse gas effect.
❖ With the increased burning of fossil fuels – oil, coal and natural gas – the carbon dioxide percentage in the
atmosphere has been increasing at an alarming rate.
❖ More carbon dioxide in the atmosphere means more heat absorption.
❖ It could significantly raise the temperature at lower levels of the atmosphere thus inducing drastic climatic
change and global warming.
Note: The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.”
These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it
would be without them.
Ozone:
❖ Ozone is another important gas in the atmosphere, which is actually a
type of oxygen molecule consisting of three (triatomic form of oxygen),
instead of two, atoms.
❖ It forms less than 0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is
unevenly distributed.
❖ It has a blue colour and is pungent in smell.
❖ It is between 20 km and 25 km altitude that the greatest
concentrations of ozone are found. It is formed at higher altitudes and
transported downwards.
❖ Ozone plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet
radiation from the sun reaching the surface of the earth.
 5

❖ Other gases found in almost negligible quantities in the

atmosphere are argon, neon, helium, hydrogen, xenon,
krypton, methane, etc.
❖ At high altitudes (80-100km) oxygen gets destroyed. When a
free oxygen atom is combined with oxygen it leads to the
formation of ozone.
❖ There is a continuous process of the formation and
disintegration of ozone. It is highly unstable.
❖ Ozone can be “good” or “bad” for health and the
environment, depending on where it’s found in the
atmosphere.
❖ Stratospheric ozone is “good” because it protects living things from ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
❖ Ground-level ozone is considered “bad” because it can trigger a variety of health problems, particularly for
children, the elderly, and people of all ages who have lung diseases such as asthma.

Ozone Hole:
❖ The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no ozone is present but is actually a region of exceptionally
depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the
Antarctic that happens at the beginning of
spring (August–October) in the Southern
Hemisphere.
❖ Satellite instruments provide us with daily
images of ozone over the Antarctic region. The
ozone hole image below shows the very low
values centred over Antarctica on 4 October
2004.
❖ From the historical records, we know that total
column ozone values of less than 220 Dobson
Units were not observed prior to 1979.
❖ From an aircraft field mission over Antarctica,
we also know that a total column ozone level
of less than 220 Dobson Units is a result of catalyzed ozone loss from chlorine and bromine compounds. For
these reasons, we use 220 Dobson Units as the boundary of the region representing ozone loss.

Montreal Protocol:
❖ The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral
environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made chemicals
referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
 6

❖ When released into the atmosphere, those chemicals damage the stratospheric ozone layer, the Earth’s
protective shield that protects humans and the environment from harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
❖ Adopted on 16 September 1987, the Protocol is to date one of the rare treaties to achieve universal
ratification.
❖ The Montreal Protocol phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise
manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries (referred to as “Article 5
countries”).
❖ Under this treaty, all parties have specific responsibilities related to the phase-out of the different groups of
ODS, control of ODS trade, annual reporting of data, national licensing systems to control ODS imports
and exports, and other matters.
❖ Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities, but most importantly,
both groups of countries have binding, time-targeted and measurable commitments.

Water Vapour:
❖ Water Vapour (water in gaseous form) is one of the most variable gaseous substances present in the
atmosphere – constituting between 0.02% (poles) and 5% (equator) of the total volume (in cold dry and
humid tropical climates respectively).
❖ It originates from the soil, plants, water bodies etc. through evaporation.
❖ Around 90% of moisture content in the atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth.
❖ Like carbon dioxide, water vapour plays
a significant role in the insulating action
of the atmosphere.
❖ It absorbs not only the long-wave
terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat
emitted by the earth during the night)
but also a part of the incoming solar
radiation.
❖ It is the source of precipitation and
clouds. On condensation, it releases
latent heat of condensation -the
ultimate driving force behind all storms.
❖ The moisture–carrying capacity of air is directly proportional to the air temperature.
❖ The water-vapour content of the atmosphere varies from place to place and from time to time because the
humidity capacity of air is determined by its temperature.
❖ At 30 °C (86 °F), for example, a volume of air can contain up to 4 per cent water vapour. At -40 °C (-40 °F),
however, it can hold no more than 0.2 per cent.
 7

❖ When a volume of air at a given

temperature holds the maximum
amount of water vapour, the air
is said to be saturated.
❖ The relative humidity is the
water-vapour content of the air
relative to its content at
saturation. Saturated air, for
example, has a relative humidity
of 100 per cent, and near the
Earth, the relative humidity very
rarely falls below 30 per cent.

Solid Particles:
❖ The Solid Particles present in the atmosphere consist of sand particles (from weathered rocks and also derived
from volcanic ash), pollen grains, small organisms, soot, and ocean salts; the upper layers of the atmosphere
may even have fragments of meteors which got burnt up in the atmosphere. These solid particles perform the
function of absorbing, reflecting and scattering the radiation.
❖ The solid particles are, consequently, responsible for the orange and red colours at sunset and sunrise and for
the length of dawn (the first appearance of light in the sky before sunrise) and twilight (the soft glowing light
from the sky when the sun is below the horizon, caused by the reflection of the sun's rays by the atmosphere.
Dusk: the darker stage of twilight.).
❖ The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust particles.
❖ Some of the dust particles are hygroscopic (i.e., readily absorbing moisture from the air) in character, and as
such, act as nuclei of condensation.
❖ Thus, dust particles are an important contributory factor in the formation of clouds, fog and hailstones.

Structure of the Atmosphere:

❖ Its height is around 16000-29000 km. but the most important
part of the atmosphere that is studied is around 800km.
❖ Upto 5.5km of height it consists of various gases, water-
vapour and solid particles.
❖ The atmosphere can be studied as a layered entity as each
layer has its own peculiar characteristics.
❖ These layers are systematically discussed below.

Troposphere:
❖ The word troposphere originates from the Greek word
‘Tropos’, which means mixing or turbulence. Therefore it is a zone of mixing of gases and turbulence due to
vertical winds, which leads to the formation of cyclones and other weather phenomena.
 8

❖ It is the atmospheric layer between the earth’s surface and an

altitude of upto 6-8 km at the Poles and 16-18 km at the
Equator.
❖ Around 75% of the gaseous mass is concentrated in this
layer.
❖ The thickness of the troposphere is greater at the equator
because the heated air rises to greater heights (due to direct
insolation at the equator). Due to the earth's rotation, there is also
centrifugal force acting at the equator which lifts the air
outwards (at the poles, there is less centrifugal effect).
❖ The troposphere ends with the Tropopause. It acts as a
boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. This
layer is marked by constant temperatures. It is also known as a
cold spot and in this region mixing get stops.
❖ As one goes upwards, the temperature in this layer, falls at the
rate of 6.5°C per kilometre (normal lapse rate), and reaches -
45°C at the Poles and -80°C over the Equator at Tropopause (greater fall in temperature above the equator
because of the greater thickness of troposphere – 18 km).
❖ The fall in temperature is called the ‘lapse rate’. (more about this in future posts).
❖ The troposphere is marked by temperature inversion, turbulence, and eddies.
❖ It is also the most significant zone meteorologically in the entire atmosphere (Almost all the weather
phenomena like rainfall, fog, hailstorm, etc. are confined to this layer). It is the theatre for the weather because
all cyclones, anticyclones, storms, and precipitation occur here, as all water vapors and solid particles lie within
this.
❖ It is also called the convective region (vertical winds) since all convection stops at Tropopause. The amount
of water vapor or moisture decreases with the increasing height of the troposphere.
❖ Around 99% water vapour is present in this layer.
❖ The troposphere is influenced by seasons and jet streams.
❖ The maximum concentration of greenhouse gases is in this region, which helps in managing the heat budget
(Greenhouse gas effect).
❖ Helicopters, birds, gas balloons, etc. fly in this region. All forms of life are present in this layer due to
favourable weather conditions.
Stratosphere:
❖ It lies beyond the troposphere, up to an altitude of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
 9

❖ The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance but then rises to reach a level of 0°C at 50
km altitude.
➢ This rise is due to the presence of ozone in this layer
(harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone).
❖ This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather
phenomena, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes.
There is no/little resistance from air.
❖ So, aeroplanes fly in the lower stratosphere, sometimes in the
upper troposphere where the weather is calm.
❖ Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.
❖ Due to the absence of vertical winds, material reaching this
layer stay for a longer time.
❖ There is low temperature and less moisture in the air.
Ozonosphere:
❖ It lies at an altitude between 30 km and 60 km from the earth’s
surface and spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere.
❖ Because of the presence of ozone molecules, this layer reflects harmful ultraviolet radiation.
❖ The ozonosphere is also called the chemosphere because a lot of chemical activity goes on here.
❖ The temperature, here, rises at a rate of 5°C per kilometer.
❖ Due to the absence of vertical wind movement, the pollutants like chlorine, bromine, CFCs (Chloro-fluoro
carbons), etc. stay for longer periods of time in this layer.
➢ These pollutants are responsible for damaging the ozone layer.
❖ The polar stratospheric clouds form near the
tropopause (due to the presence of water vapour at lower
heights in polar regions) and carry various gases like
Chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine, etc.
➢ Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play important
roles in stratospheric ozone depletion during
winter and spring at high latitudes (e.g., the
Antarctic ozone hole).
➢ These particles also provide sites for heterogeneous
reactions that convert stable chlorine reservoir
species to radicals that destroy ozone catalytically.
❖ The ozone is converted into oxygen and free chlorine
molecules which again starts the cyclic reaction process.
 10

Mesosphere:
❖ This is an intermediate layer beyond the ozone layer and
continues up to an altitude of 80 km from the earth’s
surface.
❖ The temperature in this layer falls gradually to -100°C
at 80 km altitude.
❖ It has a significant density (not higher than the
troposphere) which destroys meteorites (burn up in
this layer upon entering) entering the earth’s surface
from space.
❖ This layer is difficult to study as very little knowledge
is available. Sounding Rockets are being used for
studying this layer.
❖ Polar Mesospheric Clouds are found here, which are strange because they create no weather phenomenon.
❖ There are no reasons for heating in this layer so this is the coldest layer.
Thermosphere:
❖ In the thermosphere, the temperature rises very rapidly with
increasing height.
❖ The ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-
400 km.
❖ This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by
this layer.
❖ The layer has extremely low pressure.
❖ The temperature increases as the height increases in the
thermosphere. This layer has a maximum temperature.
(Though the temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely rarified – gas molecules are
spaced hundreds of kilometres apart. Hence, a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel
the heat)
❖ It absorbs the maximum amount of insolation.
❖ Due to an increase in the temperature, this layer keeps on expanding and hence there is
maximum friction.
 11

❖ The International Space Station and satellites orbit in

this layer.
❖ Auroras are observed in the lower parts of this layer.
➢ Electrons come in contact with X-rays and UV rays
and get energized. The electrons, thus, shift to the
higher orbit after getting energy.
➢ To get back to their initial state from the energized
state, these electrons release energy in the form of
light. This phenomenon helps in forming Auroras.
Ionosphere:
❖ This layer is located between 80 km and 400 km and is
an electrically charged layer.
❖ This layer is characterized by the ionization of atoms.
❖ It is a part of the thermosphere.
❖ The concentration of ions here is more due to X-rays
and UV rays from sunlight.
❖ Because of the electric charge, radio waves transmitted
from the earth are reflected, absorbed and bent back to the
earth by this layer.
❖ Temperature again starts increasing with height because of
radiation from the sun.
❖ Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections cause severe
disruptions in radio communication because it changes the
density of the ions.

Exosphere:
❖ This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of about 400
km.
❖ The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature gradually increases through the layer.
❖ Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.
❖ The temperature gradually increases through the layer. (As it is exposed to direct sunlight)
❖ This layer coincides with outer space.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 28
Atmosphere-Temperature
Distribution
 2

Atmosphere-Temperature Distribution

Stratosphere:
❖ It lies beyond the troposphere, up to an altitude of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
❖ The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance but then rises to reach a level of 0°C at
50 km altitude.
➢ This rise is due to the presence of ozone in this layer (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by
ozone).
❖ This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomena, making conditions most ideal
for flying aeroplanes. There is no/little resistance or turbulence from the air.
❖ Air is very thin in this layer (less density) and there is low atmospheric pressure.
❖ So, aeroplanes fly in the lower stratosphere, sometimes in the upper troposphere where the weather is
calm.
❖ Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.
❖ Due to the absence of vertical winds, material reaching this layer stay for a longer time.
❖ There is low temperature and less moisture in the air.
❖ The level of oxygen also decreases when the height is increased. There is bleeding of the blood of trackers
or the person who climbs mountains due to the pressure difference both inside and outside the body.
Ozonosphere:
❖ It lies at an altitude between 30 km and
60 km from the earth’s surface and
spans the stratosphere and lower
mesosphere.
❖ Because of the presence of ozone
molecules, this layer reflects harmful
ultraviolet radiation.
❖ The ozonosphere is also called the
chemosphere because a lot of chemical
activity goes on here.
❖ The temperature, here, rises at a rate
of 5°C per kilometer.
❖ Due to the absence of vertical wind
movement, the pollutants (Halogens)
like chlorine, bromine, CFCs (Chloro-
fluoro carbons), etc. stay for longer
periods of time in this layer.
➢ These pollutants are responsible
for damaging the ozone layer.
 3

❖ The polar stratospheric clouds form near

the tropopause (due to the presence of
water vapour at lower heights in polar
regions) and carry various gases like
Chlorine, Bromine, Fluorine, etc.
➢ Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs)
play important roles in stratospheric
ozone depletion during winter and
spring at high latitudes (e.g., the
Antarctic ozone hole).
➢ These particles also provide sites for heterogeneous reactions that convert stable chlorine reservoir
species to radicals that destroy ozone catalytically.
❖ The ozone is converted into oxygen and free chlorine molecules which again starts the cyclic reaction
process.
Ozone Hole:
❖ The ozone hole is not technically a “hole” where no ozone is present, but is actually a region of exceptionally
depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the Antarctic that happens at the beginning of spring (August–
October) in the Southern Hemisphere.
❖ Satellite instruments provide us with daily images of ozone over the Antarctic region. The ozone hole image
below shows the very low values centred over Antarctica on 4 October 2004.
❖ From the historical records, we know that total column ozone values of less than 220 Dobson Units were
not observed prior to 1979.
❖ From an aircraft field mission over Antarctica we also know that a total column ozone level of less than 220
Dobson Units is a result of catalyzed ozone loss from chlorine and bromine compounds. For these reasons,
we use 220 Dobson Units as the boundary of the region representing ozone loss.

Montreal Protocol:
❖ The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral
environmental agreement that regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100 man-made
chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
❖ When released into the atmosphere, those chemicals damage the stratospheric ozone layer, the Earth’s
protective shield that protects humans and the environment from harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation
from the sun.
❖ Adopted on 16 September 1987, the Protocol is to date one of the rare treaties to achieve universal
ratification.
❖ The Montreal Protocol phases down the consumption and production of the different ODS in a step-wise
manner, with different timetables for developed and developing countries (referred to as “Article 5
countries”).
❖ The Kigali Agreement is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol, which is signed by countries to phase
out Ozone Depleting Substances.
 4

Mesosphere:
❖ This is an intermediate layer beyond the
ozone layer and continues up to an altitude
of 80 km from the earth’s surface.
❖ The temperature in this layer falls gradually
to -100°C at 80 km altitude.
❖ It has a significant density (not higher than
the troposphere) which destroys meteorites
(burn up in this layer upon entering) entering
the earth’s surface from space.
❖ This layer is difficult to study as very little
knowledge is available. Sounding Rockets
are being used for studying this layer.
❖ Polar Mesospheric Clouds are found here,
which are strange because they create no
weather phenomenon.
❖ There are no reasons for heating in this layer
so this is the coldest layer.
Thermosphere:
❖ In the thermosphere, the temperature ris es very rapidly with increasing height.
❖ Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km.
❖ This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back
to the earth by this layer.
❖ The layer has extremely low pressure.
❖ The temperature increases as the height
increases in the thermosphere. This layer
has a maximum temperature. (Though the
temperature is high, the atmosphere is
extremely rarified – gas molecules are spaced
hundreds of kilometres apart. Hence, a person
or an object in this layer doesn’t feel the heat)
❖ It absorbs the maximum amount of
insolation.
❖ Due to an increase in the temperature, this
layer keeps on expanding and hence there is
maximum friction.
❖ The International Space Station and
satellites orbit in this layer.
❖ Auroras are observed in the lower parts of
this layer.
 5

➢ Electrons come in contact with

X-rays and UV rays and get
energized. The electrons, thus,
shift to the higher orbit after
getting energy.
➢ To get back to their initial state
from the energized state, these
electrons release energy in the
form of light. This phenomenon
helps in forming Auroras.
Ionosphere:
❖ This layer is located between 80 km and 400 km
and is an electrically charged layer.
❖ This layer is characterized by the ionization of
atoms.
❖ It is a part of the thermosphere.
❖ The concentration of ions here is more due to X-
rays and UV rays from sunlight.
❖ Because of the electric charge, radio waves
transmitted from the earth are reflected, absorbed
and bent back to the earth by this layer.
❖ Temperature again starts increasing with height
because of radiation from the sun.
❖ Solar Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections cause
severe disruptions in radio communication
because it changes the density of the ions.
Exosphere:
❖ This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of about
400 km.
❖ The air is extremely rarefied and the temperature gradually increases through the layer.
❖ Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.
❖ Temperature gradually increases through the layer. (As it is exposed to direct sunlight)
❖ This layer coincides with outer space.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 29
World Temperature
Distribution
 2

World Temperature Distribution

Sun as the Source of Energy:

❖ Sun is the ultimate source of energy.

❖ The differential heat received from the sun by different regions on Earth is the ultimate reason
behind all climatic phenomena.

❖ Understanding the patterns of distribution of temperature in different seasons is important for

understanding various climatic features like wind systems, pressure systems, precipitation, etc.

Insolation:

❖ Earth intercepts only one in two billion parts of

solar radiation. This intercepted radiation is
called Insolation, i.e., it is the proportion of
Solar energy received or intercepted by the
earth.

❖ It is energy per unit of time and per unit area

falling at a place. It varies from the tropics to
the poles.

❖ The insolation is more at the equator and less at the poles.

❖ Some heat within the core and mantle is transferred to the surface and ocean bottoms through
volcanoes, springs, and geysers.

❖ The Earth receives short-wave radiation from the Sun and reflects back long-wave radiation
(infrared radiation) while cooling.

❖ The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the waves.

 3

The Electromagnetic Spectrum:

Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy:

❖ Heat is a form of energy that raises the temperature of a body.
❖ Heat transfer is the process of transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold
body.
 4

❖ This process happens naturally.

❖ The heat energy from solar radiation is received by the earth through three mechanisms:
➢ Radiation: Radiation is the
transfer of heat from one body
to another without actual
contact or movement. It is
possible in relatively emptier
space, for instance, from the
sun to the Earth through space.
The maximum mode of heat transfer in a body is through this mechanism.
➢ Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of heat through matter
by molecular activity. Heat transfer in iron and other metals
is by conduction. Generally, denser materials like water are
good conductors and a lighter medium like air is a bad
conductor of heat.
➢ Convection: It is the transfer of heat energy by the actual
transfer of matter or substance from one place to another.
(Heat transfer by convection cycles in the atmosphere as well
as oceans).
 5

Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution:

1. Inclination of the Sun’s Rays: The Angle
of Incidence or the Inclination of the
Sun’s Rays.
2. Duration of Sunshine: The amount of
heat received depends on the duration
of day or night; clear sky or overcast,
summer or winter, etc.
➢ The sun rays are vertically
overhead at the tropics, thus,
these areas receive more
sunshine.
➢ Angle of inclination is
perpendicular (high) to the
tropics and low at the poles.
3. Transparency of Atmosphere: The
atmosphere contains gases and solid
particles which have an impact on the
transparency. Aerosols (smoke, soot),
dust, water vapour, clouds, etc. affect
transparency.
➢ Greenhouse gases trap long-
wave radiation in the
atmosphere and cause an
increase in the temperature.
➢ If the wavelength (X) of the
radiation is more than the
radius of the obstructing
particle (such as a gas), then a
scattering of radiation takes
place. Example: Orange colour
sun, etc
 6

➢ If the wavelength is less than the obstructing

particle (such as a dust particle), then total reflection
takes place.
➢ Absorption of solar radiation takes place if the
obstructing particles happen to be water vapour, ozone
molecules, carbon dioxide molecules, or clouds.
➢ Most of the light received by the Earth is in the form
of scattered light.
4. Land-Sea Differential: Albedo of land is much greater

than the albedo of oceans and water

bodies. Example: Snow-covered areas
reflect up to 70%-90% of insolation.
➢ Average penetration of sunlight
is more in water, up to 20
meters, than in land – where it is
up to one meter only. Therefore,
the land cools or becomes hot
more rapidly compared to the
oceans.
➢ In oceans, a continuous convection cycle
helps in heat exchange between layers
keeping diurnal and annual temperature
ranges low.
➢ The specific heat of water is 2.5 times
higher than landmass, therefore water takes
longer to get heated up and to cool down.
➢ Land also absorbs the heat, however, it
cannot reflect it like waterbodies.
➢ Ocean currents transfer heat and distribute it to
other areas whereas land is stationary and there is
no transfer of heat.
➢ Thus, in the coastal areas, the temperature is
neither high nor low whereas, in continental areas,
the temperature varies to a large extent.
Note: Specific heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree.
 7

5. Prevailing Winds: Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. They also help in the
exchange of heat between land and
water bodies.
➢ There are two types of winds-
planetary winds (easterly and
westerlies) and local winds
(Chinook, Fohen, etc.).
➢ The oceanic winds have the
capacity to take the moderating
influence of the sea to coastal
areas which is reflected in cool summers
and mild winters. This effect is pronounced
only on the windward side (the side facing
the ocean).
➢ The leeward side or the interiors do not get
the moderating effect of the sea, and
therefore experience extremes of
temperature.
6. Aspects of Slope: The direction of the slope and
its angle control the amount of solar
radiation received locally.
➢ Slopes more exposed to the sun
receive more solar radiation than
those away from the sun’s direct
rays.
➢ Slopes that receive direct sun rays
are dry due to loss of moisture
through excess evaporation.
7. Ocean Currents: Ocean currents influence the temperature of adjacent land areas considerably.
Warm currents transport heat from the equator to the poles. The cold currents transport cold
water from the poles to the equator.
 8

8. Altitude: With the increase in height, the pressure falls, the

effect of greenhouse gases decreases, and hence temperature
decreases (applicable only to the troposphere).
➢ The normal lapse rate is roughly 1⁰ C for every 165
meters of ascent.
8. Earth’s Distance from the Sun: During its revolution
around the Sun, the Earth is farthest from the sun
(152 million km on 4th July). This position of the
earth is called aphelion.
➢ On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the
sun (147 million km). This position is called
perihelion. Therefore, the annual insolation
received by the earth on the 3rd of January is
slightly more than the amount received on
the 4th of July.
➢ However, the effect of this variation in the
solar output is masked by other factors like
the distribution of land and sea and the
atmospheric circulation.
➢ Hence, this variation in the solar output does not have
a great effect on daily weather changes on the surface
of the earth.
9. Latitudinal Heat Balance: The amount of insolation
received varies from one latitude to another.
➢ Regions within the equator and 40° North and 40°
South latitudes receive abundant sunlight and thus,
more heat is gained than lost. Hence, they are energy
surplus regions.
➢ Regions beyond 40° North and South latitudes lose
more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence, they are energy deficit regions (This is
because of slant sunlight and high albedo of polar regions).
 9

➢ Going by this logic, the tropics

should have been getting
progressively hotter and the poles
getting progressively colder and
the planet would have been
inhospitable except for a few
regions near mid-latitudes. But, in
reality, this does not happen.
➢ The atmosphere (planetary
winds) and the oceans (ocean
currents) transfer excess heat from the tropics (energy surplus region) towards the poles
(energy deficit regions) making up for heat loss at higher latitudes.
➢ Most of the heat transfer takes place across the mid-latitudes (30° to 50°) and hence, much
of the stormy weather is associated with this region.
➢ Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of
the higher latitudes maintains an
overall balance over the earth’s
surface.
Heat Budget:
❖ The earth receives a certain amount of
Insolation (short-wave radiation) and gives
back heat into space by terrestrial radiation
(long-wave radiation).
❖ Through this give and take the earth maintains
a constant temperature.
❖ The earth receives a certain
amount of Insolation (short
waves) and gives back heat into
space by terrestrial radiation
(longwave radiation).
❖ Through this give and take, or the
heat budget, the earth maintains
a constant temperature.
 10

The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution:

❖ Isotherm: It is an imaginary line
joining places having equal
temperatures.
❖ The horizontal or latitudinal
distribution of temperature is
shown with the help of a map with
isotherms.
❖ Effects of altitude is not considered
while drawing an isotherm. All the
temperatures are reduced to sea
levels.
General Characteristics of Isotherms:
❖ Generally follow the parallels of
latitude: Isotherms have a close
correspondence with the latitude
parallels mainly because the same
amount of insolation is received by all
the points located on the same latitude.
❖ Sudden bends at ocean–continent
boundaries: Due to differential heating
of land and water, temperatures above
the oceans and land masses vary even on the same latitude. (we have seen how land-sea
differential affects temperature distribution)
❖ Narrow spacing between isotherms indicates a rapid change in temperature (high thermal
gradient).
❖ Wide spacing between isotherms indicates a small or slow change in temperatures (low thermal
gradient).
❖ The highest temperatures occur over the tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation). The lowest
temperatures occur in polar and subpolar regions in continents due to the effect of continentality.
❖ Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are highest in the interiors of continents due to the
effect of continentality (in continental interiors there will be no moderating effect of oceans).
 11

❖ Diurnal and annual range of temperatures are least in oceans. [High specific heat of water and
mixing of water keep the temperature range low].
❖ Low-temperature gradients are observed over the tropics (because the sun is almost overhead the
entire year) and high-temperature gradients over the middle and higher latitudes (the sun’s
apparent path varies significantly from season to season).
❖ Temperature gradients are more closely spaced over the eastern margins of continents. (This is
because of warm ocean currents)
➢ Temperature gradients are more on the western margins of continents. (This is because of
cold ocean currents).
➢ The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea
contrast. Because of the predominance of land over water in the north, the northern
hemisphere is warmer.
➢ The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies generally to the north of the geographical equator.
➢ While passing through an area with warm ocean currents, the isotherms show a poleward
shift. (Example: North Atlantic Drift and Gulf Stream combined with westerlies in
Northern Atlantic; Kurishino Current and North Pacific current combined with westerlies in
Northern Pacific).
Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For instance, the Rockies and the
Andes stop the oceanic influence from going inwards into North and South America.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 30
Pressure Distribution
Across World.
 2

Pressure Distribution Across World.

General Characteristics of Isotherms:
❖ Generally follow the parallels of latitude: Isotherms have a close correspondence with the
latitude parallels mainly because the same amount of insolation is received by all the points
located on the same latitude.
❖ Sudden bends at ocean–continent boundaries: Due to differential heating of land and water,
temperatures above the oceans and land masses vary even on the same latitude. (we have seen how
land-sea differential affects temperature distribution)
❖ Narrow spacing between isotherms indicates a
rapid change in temperature (high thermal
gradient).
❖ Wide spacing between isotherms indicates a
small or slow change in temperatures (low
thermal gradient).
❖ The highest temperatures occur over the
tropics and sub-tropics (high insolation). The
lowest temperatures occur in polar and subpolar regions in continents due to the effect of
continentality.
❖ Diurnal and annual range of
temperatures are highest in the
interiors of continents due to the effect
of continentality (in continental interiors
there will be no moderating effect of
oceans).
❖ Diurnal and annual range of temperatures
are least in oceans. [High specific heat of water and mixing of water keep the temperature range
low].
❖ Low temperature gradients are observed over the tropics (because the sun is almost overhead the
entire year) and high-temperature gradients over the middle and higher latitudes (the sun’s
apparent path varies significantly from season to season).
❖ Temperature gradients are more closely spaced over the eastern margins of continents. (This is
because of warm ocean currents)
 3

➢ Temperature gradients are more on the western margins of continents. (This is because of
cold ocean currents).
➢ The isotherms are irregular over the northern hemisphere due to an enhanced land-sea
contrast. Because of the predominance of land over water in the north, the northern
hemisphere is warmer.
➢ The thermal equator (ITCZ) lies
generally to the north of the
geographical equator.
➢ While passing through an area with
warm ocean currents, the isotherms
show a poleward shift. (Example:
North Atlantic Drift and Gulf
Stream combined with westerlies
in Northern Atlantic; Kurishino
Current and North Pacific current combined with westerlies in Northern Pacific).
➢ Mountains also affect the horizontal distribution of temperature. For instance, the Rockies
and the Andes stop the oceanic influence from going inwards into North and South America.

Seasonal Temperature Distribution:

❖ The global distribution of temperature can well be
understood by studying the temperature distribution in
January and July.
❖ The temperature distribution is generally shown with
the help of isotherms.
❖ In general, the effect of the latitude on temperature is
well pronounced as the isotherms are generally parallel
to the latitude. The deviation from this general trend is
more pronounced in January than in July, especially in
the Northern Hemisphere.
❖ In the Northern Hemisphere, the land surface area is much larger than in the southern
hemisphere. Hence, the effects of landmass and ocean currents are well-pronounced.
 4

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – January

❖ During January, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern
hemisphere.
❖ The western margins of continents are warmer than their eastern counterparts, since the
Westerlies are able to carry high temperatures into the landmasses.
❖ The temperature gradient is close to the eastern margins of continents. The isotherms exhibit a
more regular behavior in the southern hemisphere.

In the Northern Hemisphere:

❖ The isotherms deviate to the north
over the ocean and to the south over
the continent. This can be seen in the
North Atlantic Ocean.
❖ The presence of warm ocean
currents, Gulf Stream and North
Atlantic drift, make the Northern
Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms show a poleward shift indicating that the oceans are
warmer and are able to carry high temperatures poleward.
❖ An equator-ward bend of the isotherms over the northern continents shows that the
landmasses are over-cooled and that polar cold winds are able to penetrate southwards, even in the
interiors. It is much more pronounced in the Siberian plain.
❖ Lowest temperatures are recorded over northern Siberia and Greenland.

In the Southern Hemisphere:

❖ The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms are
more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the
northern hemisphere.
❖ The high-temperature belt runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30°S latitude.
❖ The thermal equator lies to the south of the geographical equator (because the Intertropical
Convergence Zone or ITCZ has shifted southwards with the apparent southward movement of the
sun).
 5

Seasonal Temperature Distribution – July:

● During July, it is summer in the
northern hemisphere and winter in
the southern hemisphere. The
isothermal behavior is the opposite of
what it is in January.
● In July, the isotherms generally run
parallel to the latitudes. The
equatorial oceans record warmer
temperatures, more than 27°C. Over
the land, more than 30°C is noticed in the subtropical continental region of Asia, along the 30° N
latitude.

In the Northern Hemisphere:

❖ The highest range of temperature is more than
60° C over the north-eastern part of the Eurasian
continent. This is due to continentality. The least
range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S
and 15° N.
❖ Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of
the isotherms indicates that the landmasses are
overheated and the hot tropical winds are able to go far into the northern interiors.
❖ The isotherms over the northern oceans show an equatorward shift indicating that the oceans are
cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors. The lowest temperatures
are experienced over Greenland.
❖ The highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, west Asia, north-west India, arid
southeastern USA. The temperature gradient is irregular and follows a zig-zag path over the
northern hemisphere.

In the Southern Hemisphere:

❖ The gradient becomes regular over the southern hemisphere but shows a slight bend towards the
equator at the edges of continents.
❖ Thermal equator now lies to the north of the geographical equator.
 6

General Temperature Distribution:

High temperatures:
❖ High temperatures occurred in a tropical region. It is due to the high insolation and the resultant
increase and temperature of the region.
❖ Lowest temperatures occur in the polar region. It is due to the lowest insolation.
❖ Range of temperature. It is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature. The
maximum range of temperature occurs in the continental area. When the continents are heated they
get overheated and when the continents are cool they are overcooked. The range of temperature is
minimum in the oceanic region.
❖ Diurnal range of temperature means the difference between the temperature of day and night.
Temperature gradient:
❖ Temperature gradient is low in the Tropic region.
As the sun's rays are overhead in the region. Almost
the same temperature(High Temperature) has occurred
and the change in temperature is very less.
❖ The temperature gradient is high in the Middle
latitude and Higher latitude.As the sun rays fall
obliquely in the region,due to this the temperature
difference is visible.

Northern and Southern Hemisphere:

❖ Northern Hemisphere:
➢ It is dominated by the land.
➢ Isotherms are irregular due to the
presence of more land and the non-
uniform presence of ocean and
land.
❖ Southern Hemisphere:
➢ It is dominated by the ocean.
➢ Isotherms are regular due to the
presence of the oceans and the uniform presence of the ocean.
 7

Shifting of Isotherms:
❖ During Summer:
❖ During the summer the Northern
Hemisphere is heated.
❖ From ocean to continent isotherm
shifts towards poleward because
continents are overheated.
❖ From the Continent to Ocean Isotherms
shift toward the equatorward. It is due
to the ocean heating up slowly as compared to the land.
❖ During Winter:
➢ During the winter the Northern
Hemisphere is cooled and the
Southern Hemisphere is heated.
➢ From ocean to continent
isotherm shifts towards
equatorward because
continents are overheated.
➢ From the Continent to Ocean
Isotherms shift toward the Poleward.It is due to the ocean heating up slowly as compared to
the land.

Seasonal Temperature:

Summer Season
❖ During the summer season the Northern Hemisphere experiences heating.
❖ During the summer season the Southern Hemisphere experiences cooling.
❖ During the summer the temperature of the ocean at equator is 27 degree celcius.
❖ During the summer the temperature of the equatorial land is 30 degree celcius.
❖ During the summer in the Northern Hemisphere the temperature of North America is less and
that of Eurasia(Europe and Asia) is highest (Temperature is greater than 60 degree celsius.)due
to the effect of continentality.
 8

In Northern Hemisphere:

During summer the:

❖ In the Northern Oceans (It heats
slowly)the isotherms shift
equatorward.
❖ In the Northern Continent(It gets
overheated) the isotherms shift
poleward.
❖ Because the heat will penetrate more over
the continent than the ocean.

Pressure Distribution:
❖ Air: It is an admixture of various glasses,
solids, aerosols and water vapors.
❖ Air Pressure or Atmospheric pressure: It
is the weight of air per unit area covered.
❖ Units: Square CentiMeter, Square Meter or
Square Inches(Psi).
❖ P(atm): 1.0132 Bar=1013.2 Millibars=14.7 Pounds/Sq.Inch
❖ Air Pressure is Measured by Aneroid Barometer, Barograph, and
Fortin Barometer.
❖ Reduction rate of pressure is 34Mb
at every 300 Meter.
❖ There is a complex relationship
between density, temperature and
pressure. As height increases the
temperature, density and pressure also
decrease.
❖ Wind flows from high pressure to low
temperature.
❖ Pressure gradient force is equal to
gravity force due to the weight of air.
 9

❖ Pressure difference between two points generates wind.

❖ Pressure Gradient: It is the rate of the change of the pressure with the distance between two
points.
❖ Isobars: The imagery lines or curves joining the points/places/regions of equal/same pressure.

Pressure Systems:

High-Pressure System:
❖ A high-pressure system has higher pressure at its center
than the areas around it.
❖ Winds blow away from high pressure. Swirling in the
opposite direction from a low-pressure system, the
winds of a high-pressure system rotate clockwise north
of the equator and counterclockwise south of the
equator.
❖ This is called anticyclonic flow. Air from higher in
the atmosphere sinks down to fill the space left as air
is blown outward.
❖ On a weather map, you may notice a blue H,
denoting the location of a high-pressure system. They
are oftentimes associated with clear blue skies.
❖ It is anticyclonic in nature.
❖ Divergence of air mass occurs.
❖ In which stable conditions occur.

Low-Pressure System:

❖ A low-pressure system has lower pressure at its

center than the areas around it.

❖ Winds blow towards the low pressure, and the air

rises in the atmosphere where they meet.
 10

❖ As the air rises, the water vapor within it

condenses, forming clouds and often
precipitation. Because of Earth’s spin and the
Coriolis effect, winds of a low-pressure system
swirl counterclockwise north of the equator
and clockwise south of the equator. This is
called cyclonic flow. On weather maps, a low-
pressure system is labelled with red L.
❖ Low-pressure systems "suck" air into them
because nature wants everything to have equal
pressure. By doing this, they generally create winds
and undesirable weather.
❖ It is cyclonic in nature.
❖ Convergence of air mass occurs.
❖ In which unstable conditions occur.

Convergence and Divergence:

❖ Generally, over a low pressure area the air will
converge and rise. Over high pressure areas, the air
will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
❖ Convergence and divergence, in meteorology, the
accumulation or drawing apart of air, as well as the
rate at which each takes place. The terms are
usually used to refer specifically to the horizontal
inflow (convergence) or outflow (divergence) of
air.
❖ Convergence: The convergence of horizontal
winds causes air to rise. It causes cyclonic
conditions which create an unstable
atmosphere(cloud, rain, thunderstorm, cyclone).
❖ Divergence of horizontal winds causes downward
movement of the air (subsidence). It causes
anticyclonic conditions which create a stable
atmosphere.
 11

Atmospheric scientists use math equations to describe how pressure, temperature, density, and volume
are related to each other. They call these equations the Ideal Gas Law.

where
p,V and T are the pressure, volume and temperature respectively; n is the amount of substance; and R is
the ideal gas constant.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 31
Distribution of Pressure
Belts Across the World.
 2

Distribution of Pressure Belts Across the World.

Air Pressure:
❖ Air is made up of a number of mixed gases.
❖ Since air has mass, it also has weight.
❖ It exerts pressure on the earth’s surface which varies from place to place and from time to time.
❖ The pressure of air at a given place is defined as a force exerted in all directions by virtue of the weight of all
the air above it.
❖ The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is
called atmospheric pressure.
❖ Pressure is a force. The atmospheric pressure is
expressed in various units. A new unit known as the
millibar ( mb) was adopted to express atmospheric
pressure by meteorological stations in 1914.
❖ A normal atmospheric pressure equivalent to 14-7 lb.
per square inch in weight or a reading of 29-9 inches of
mercury in the column is 1013.2 millibars.

Pressure Systems:
❖ Air expands when heated and gets compressed when
cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure.
❖ The differences in atmospheric pressure cause the movement of air from high pressure to low
pressure, setting the air in motion.
❖ Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air
will rise or sink.
❖ Air in horizontal motion is wind.
❖ The wind redistributes the heat and moisture
across latitudes, thereby, maintaining a constant
temperature for the planet as a whole.
❖ The vertical rising of moist air forms clouds and
brings precipitation.
❖ Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air
will rise or sink.
 3

Measurement of Air Pressure:

❖ Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time.
❖ It is measured by means of an instrument called a
barometer. It was invented by the scientist Galileo and his
assistant Torricelli in 1643.
❖ Fortin barometer Barometers are also used to measure
ambient or atmospheric pressure.
❖ The ordinary mercury barometer consists of a long glass
tube, sealed at the upper and open at the lower end. The
lower end is inverted in a bowl of mercury, whose surface
is exposed to the air.
❖ Variations in the atmospheric pressure on the mercury
surface are balanced by the column of mercury in the glass
tube.
➢ Mercury (Hg) has been chosen because it is the heaviest liquid known.
❖ The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb). [One millibar is equal to the
force of one gram on a square centimetre.]
❖ A pressure of 1000 millibars is equal to the weight of 1053 kilograms per square centimetre.
❖ In other words, it will be equal to the weight of a column of mercury 75 cm high.
❖ The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76 centimetres (1013. 25 millibars).
❖ On maps places of equal pressure are joined by lines called isobars.

Vertical Variation of Pressure:

❖ In the lower atmosphere (troposphere), pressure decreases
rapidly with height.
❖ The length of the troposphere is somewhere around 10 Km
from the surface of the earth.
❖ It is cold at the top of the troposphere, that’s why nearly all
of the water vapour, clouds, and dust particles in the
atmosphere are found in the troposphere.
❖ With an increase in temperature, the pressure decreases
and vice-versa. Thus, pressure and temperature are
inversely proportional.
❖ In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with
height.
❖ At the height of Mt. Everest, the air pressure is about two-
thirds less than what it is at sea level.
❖ The decrease in pressure with altitude, however, is not constant.
 4

❖ Since the factors controlling air density–temperature, amount of water vapour, and gravity are variable, there
is no simple relationship between altitude and pressure.
❖ In general, the atmospheric pressure decreases on average at the rate of about 34 millibars every 300 meters
of height.
❖ The vertical pressure gradient
force is much larger than that
of the horizontal pressure
gradient.
❖ But, it is generally balanced by
a nearly equal but opposite
gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience strong upward winds.
❖ Due to gravity, the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure. Since air pressure is
proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in either temperature or density will
cause a corresponding change in pressure.
❖ The pressure decreases with height.
❖ At any elevation, it varies from place to place and its variation is the primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind
which moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas.
❖ A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather, while a falling pressure indicates unstable and cloudy
weather.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure:

❖ Pressure gradient is the difference between the high-pressure and low-pressure zone.
❖ The force which pushes the wind from one place to another place is called pressure gradient force.
❖ Small differences in pressure are
highly significant in terms of the
wind direction and velocity.
❖ Horizontal distribution of pressure
is studied by drawing isobars at
constant levels.
❖ Isobars are lines connecting places
having equal pressure.
❖ In order to eliminate the effect of
altitude on pressure, it is measured
at any station after being reduced
to sea level for purposes of
comparison.
❖ The spacing of isobars expresses
the rate and direction of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure gradient.
 5

❖ Close spacing of isobars indicates a steep or strong pressure gradient, while wide spacing suggests a
weak gradient.
❖ The pressure gradient may, thus, be defined as the decrease in pressure per unit distance in the direction in
which the pressure decreases most rapidly.
❖ There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’.
❖ During summers, there is low pressure in the Tibetan region and High pressure in the Indian Oceans which
leads to the formation of South-west monsoon winds.
❖ At the low-pressure zone, winds rise and high-pressure winds descend.
❖ In July month, the insolation is maximum at the Tropic of Cancer, and due to heat, there is a low-
pressure zone in this area.
❖ At low-pressure zones, there is the vertical upward movement of winds (Ascending) and at high pressures,
these ascending winds move downward (descending).
❖ In the southern hemisphere, the isobars are in a straight line, due to the absence of landmass (continents)
and less obstruction.

Atmospheric Circulation:
❖ It is the set of winds system that flows around the earth.
❖ It is responsible for heat transport from the equator to the poles and various weather phenomena like
rain, cloud, storms etc.
❖ It also transports moisture from oceans to
the land which results in the origin of
monsoons, cyclones etc.

Pressure Belts:
The seven pressure belts are:
1. Equatorial Low,
2. The two Sub-tropical Highs,
3. The two Sub-polar Lows,
4. The Polar highs.
❖ Except for the equatorial low, all others form matching pairs in
the northern and southern hemispheres.

Factors Affecting Atmospheric Pressure:

❖ Thermal Factor (differential heating of the latitude).
❖ Dynamic Factor (like Coriolis Force and Transfer of Angular
Momentum from the equator to the pole).
❖ The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the
Coriolis force.
 6

❖ Thus, the horizontal winds near the earth's surface respond to the combined effect of three forces – the
pressure gradient force, the frictional force, and the Coriolis force.
❖ In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.

Coriolis Force:
❖ The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the
direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis force
after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
❖ It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
❖ The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.

❖ The Coriolis force is directly proportional to

the angle of latitude.
❖ It is maximum at the poles and is absent at
the equator.
❖ The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the
pressure gradient force.
❖ The pressure gradient force is perpendicular
to an isobar.
❖ The higher the pressure gradient force, the more

is the velocity of the wind and the larger

is the deflection in the direction of the
wind.
❖ As a result of these two forces operating
perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas the wind blows around it.
❖ At the equator, the Coriolis force is
zero and the wind blows
perpendicular to the isobars.
❖ The low pressure gets filled instead of
getting intensified.
❖ That is the reason why tropical cyclones
are not formed near the equator.
❖ It affects only the direction, not the speed of the winds.
❖ It only acts on the objects in motion. Ex. flowing wind etc.
 7

Pressure Gradient Force:

❖ The difference in atmospheric pressure
produces a force.
❖ The rate of change of pressure with
respect to distance is the pressure
gradient.
❖ It helps the winds to move from high-
pressure to low-pressure zones.
❖ The pressure gradient is strong where the
isobars are close to each other and weak
where the isobars are apart.

Frictional Force:
❖ It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends upto an
elevation of 1-3 km. It acts in the opposite direction of the wind.
❖ Over the sea surface, the friction is minimal and is maximum at land.

Gravitational Force:
❖ The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.
❖ But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not
experience strong upward winds.
❖ Due to gravity, the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure. Since air pressure is
proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a change in either temperature or density will
cause a corresponding change in pressure.

Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure Centers:

❖ Low-pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the
lowest pressure in the centre.
❖ High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the
highest pressure in the centre.

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure:

❖ The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1034
gm per square cm at sea level.
❖ This amount of pressure is exerted by the
atmosphere at sea level on all animals,
plants, rocks, etc.
❖ Near the equator the sea level pressure is
low and the area is known as the
equatorial low.
 8

❖ Along 30° North and 30°South are found the high-

pressure areas known as the subtropical highs.
❖ Further pole wards along 60°North and 60°South,
the low-pressure belts are termed as the subpolar
lows.
❖ Near the poles, the pressure is high and it is known
as the polar high.
❖ These pressure belts are not permanent in nature.
❖ They oscillate with the apparent movement of the
sun.
In the northern hemisphere, in winter, they move southwards and in the summer, northwards.


PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 32
Pressure Belts-Part-2
 2

Pressure Belts-Part-2
Pressure and Wind:
❖ The velocity and direction of the wind
are the net results of the wind-
generating forces.
❖ The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2-
3 km above the surface, are free from
the frictional effect of the surface and
are controlled mainly by the pressure
gradient and the Coriolis force.
❖ When isobars are straight and when
there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows
parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
❖ The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high, it is called anti-cyclonic
circulation.
❖ The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in different hemispheres.
❖ The wind circulation at the earth’s surface around low and high on many occasions is closely related to the
wind circulation at a higher level.
❖ Generally, over low pressure areas, the air will converge and rise.
❖ Over high pressure areas, the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
➢ Apart from convergence, some eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause
the rising of air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Pressure Belts of World:
 3

1. Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’:

❖ It lies between 10° North and 10° South latitudes.
❖ Its width may vary between 5° North and 5° South and 20° North and
20° South.
❖ This belt happens to be a zone of convergence of trade winds from two
hemispheres from sub-tropical high-pressure belts.
❖ This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air
movements.
❖ The position of the belt varies with the
apparent movement of the Sun.
Formation:
❖ As this region lies along the equator, it
receives the highest amount of insolation.
❖ Due to intense heating, the air gets
warmed up and rises over the equatorial
region (convection).
❖ Whenever there is vertically upward
movement of air, the region at the surface
will be at low pressure.
❖ Thus, the belt along the equator is called the equatorial low pressure belt.

Climate:
❖ This belt is also known as Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) because the
North-East and South-East trade winds
flowing from Sub-tropical High-Pressure
Belts converge here in the equatorial belt of
low atmospheric pressure.
❖ It forms calm and light surface winds and
a strong upward air movement.
 4

❖ Thus, in spite of the calm and

light winds, the Doldrums are
characterized by stormy and
turbulent weather, having
thunderstorms·, heavy rains,
and squalls.
❖ There is the formation of a
cumulonimbus cloud.
❖ This is a high instability zone
due to the formation of
cyclones, etc.
❖ Since these regions are devoid of wind, they are avoided by sailing ships.
2. Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes:
❖ The sub-tropical highs extend from near the tropics to about 35° North and South.

Formation:
❖ After saturation (complete
loss of moisture) at the ITCZ,
the air moving away from
the equatorial low pressure
belt in the upper
troposphere becomes dry
and cold.
❖ This dry and cold wind
subsides at 30° North and
South.
 5

❖ The existence of these pressure belts is due

to the fact that the uprising air of the
equatorial region is deflected towards the
poles due to the Earth’s rotation.
❖ So, the high pressure along this belt is due
to the subsidence of air coming from the
equatorial region which descends after
becoming heavy.
❖ The high pressure is also due to the blocking
effect of air at upper levels because of the
Coriolis force.

Climate:
❖ The subsiding air is warm and dry, therefore, most of the deserts
are present along this belt, in both hemispheres.
❖ A calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds is created in
this high pressure belt.
❖ The descending air currents feed the winds blowing towards
adjoining low pressure belts.
❖ This belt is frequently invaded by tropical and extra-tropical
disturbances.
Horse Latitudes:
❖ The corresponding latitudes
of the sub-tropical high-
pressure belt are called horse
latitudes.
❖ In the early days, the sailing
vessels with a cargo of horses
found it difficult to sail
under the calm conditions
of this high-pressure belt.
 6

❖ They used to throw horses into the sea when fodder ran out. Hence the name horse latitudes.

3. Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt:

❖ It extends along 60° latitudes (55 -65
degrees) in both the latitudes.
❖ These belts are not thermally induced;
instead the winds coming from the sub-
tropics and polar regions converge in
this belt and rise upward.
❖ Owing to low temperatures in these
latitudes, the sub polar low pressure belts
are not very well pronounced year long.
❖ On long-term mean climatic maps, the sub-
polar low-pressure belts of the northern
hemisphere are grouped into two centers of
atmospheric activity: the Iceland low and
the Aleutian depression (Aleutian low).
❖ Such belts in the southern hemisphere
surround the periphery of Antarctica and
are not as well differentiated.
 7

❖ In the Southern
Hemisphere, this low-
pressure belt is more
pronounced due to the vast
presence of the ocean and
is also referred to as the
Sub-Antartic Low.
Formation:
❖ These are dynamically
produced due to Coriolis
Force produced by the
rotation of the earth on its
axis.
❖ Ascent of air as a result of the convergence of westerlies and polar easterlies.
❖ Sub polar low-pressure belts are mainly encountered above oceans.
Seasonal Behavior:
❖ During winter, because of a
high contrast between land
and sea, this belt is broken
into two distinct low centers
– one in the vicinity of the
Aleutian Islands and the other
between Iceland and
Greenland.
❖ During summer, a lesser
contrast results in a more
developed and regular belt.
Climate:
❖ The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet streams which encircle the
earth at 60 degrees latitudes and
are focused in these low-
pressure areas.
❖ Due to a great contrast between
the temperatures of the winds
from subtropical and polar
source regions, extratropical
cyclonic storms or lows’
(temperate cyclones or frontal
cyclones) are produced in this region.
 8

4. Polar High-Pressure Belt:

❖ The polar highs are small in area and extend
around the poles.
❖ They lie around poles between 80 – 90°
North and South latitudes.
❖ Because of low temperature, air compresses,
and its density increase. Hence, high pressure
is found here throughout the year.
Formation:
❖ The air from sub-polar low-pressure belts,
after saturation, becomes dry. This dry air
becomes cold while moving toward the poles
through the upper
troposphere.
❖ The cold air (heavy) on
reaching the poles subsides
creating a high-pressure
belt at the surface of the
earth.
Climate:
❖ The lowest temperatures
are found over the poles.

General Circulation of the Atmosphere:

❖ The pattern of planetary winds depends on:
1. Latitudinal Variation Of Atmospheric Heating;
 9

2. Emergence Of Pressure Belts;

3. The Migration Of Belts Following the
Apparent Path Of The Sun;
4. The Distribution Of Continents And Oceans;
5. The Rotation of the earth.
❖ The pattern of the movement of the planetary
winds is called the general circulation of the
atmosphere.
❖ The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets
in motion the ocean water circulation which
influences the earth’s climate.
Winds:
❖ When air moves in a definite direction, it is called
wind. Winds are a result of pressure differences.
❖ If the winds move from west to east, they are
called Westerlies.
❖ If they move from east to west, they are called
Easterlies.
❖ The direction of the wind is also affected by the
Coriolis effect.
❖ The Coriolis force deflects the wind to its right
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
left direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
Hadley Cell:
❖ The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of the convection
currents caused by low pressure. Low pressure,
in turn, occurs due to high insolation.
❖ The winds from the tropics converge at this low-pressure zone.
❖ The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude
of 14 km and moves towards the poles.
❖ This causes accumulation of air at about 30°North and South.
❖ The circulation cell closest to the equator is called the Hadley cell.
❖ Winds are light at the equator because of the weak horizontal
pressure gradients located there.
❖ The warm air rises at the equator producing clouds and causing
instability in the atmosphere.
❖ This instability causes thunderstorms to develop and release large
amounts of latent heat.
 10

❖ Latent heat is just energy released by the storms due to changes from water vapor to liquid water droplets as
the vapor condenses in the clouds, causing the surrounding air to become more warm and moist, which
essentially provides the energy to drive the Hadley cell.
Ferrel Cell:
❖ In the middle latitudes, the
circulation is that of sinking
cold air that comes from the
poles and the rising warm air
that blows from the subtropical
high.
❖ At the surface, these winds are
called westerlies and the cell is
known as the Ferrel cell.
❖ The Ferrel cell has air motion
opposite to planetary rotation. At the surface, this forms the southwesterly prevailing westerlies.
❖ The Ferrel cells and Hadley cells meet at the horse latitudes.
Polar Cell:
❖ At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar
easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
❖ The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar cells, which extend from between 60 and 70 degrees North and
South to the poles.
❖ Air in these cells sinks over the highest latitudes and flows out towards the lower latitudes at the surface.
Classification of Winds:
1. Permanent Winds:
❖ They are also called Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary
Winds
❖ Examples: Trade winds, Westerlies and Easterlies.
2. Secondary or Periodic Winds:
❖ Seasonal Winds: These winds change their direction in different
seasons. For example monsoons in India.
❖ Periodic Winds: Land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze
etc.
3. Local Winds:
❖ These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
❖ Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora, etc are examples of local winds.
Primary or Prevailing Winds:
❖ These are the planetary winds which blow extensively over continents and oceans.
 11

❖ The two most well-understood and significant winds for climate and human activities are trade winds and
westerly winds.
❖ Examples of Primary Winds are:
➢ The Trade Winds
➢ The Westerlies
➢ The Polar easterlies
Trade Winds:
❖ The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-
tropical high-pressure areas towards the
equatorial low-pressure belt.
❖ Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30
degrees North and 30 degrees South throughout the
earth’s surface. They are also called Tropical
easterlies.
❖ They flow as the north-eastern trades in the northern
hemisphere and the south-eastern
trades in the southern hemisphere.
❖ This deflection in their ideally
expected north-south direction is
explained on the basis of Coriolis
force and Farrel’s law.
❖ Since they travel from high latitude
to low latitude areas, they gradually
become hot and dry and hence
have a great capacity to hold
moisture.
❖ The trade winds from two
hemispheres converge near the
equator and due to the
convergence, they rise and cause
heavy rainfall.
❖ The eastern parts of the trade winds
associated with the cool ocean
currents are drier and more
stable than the western parts of
the ocean.
 12

❖ All tropical cyclones form on the

eastern side of the continent due
to the impact of trade winds.
Example: Bay of Bengal,
Philippines etc.
❖ These winds try to move the
surface (warm) water and bring
it to the eastern margin of the
continent.
Westerlies:
❖ The westerlies are the winds blowing from the
subtropical high-pressure belts towards the sub-
polar low-pressure belts.
❖ Their directions are opposite to trade winds and
that is why they are also called Anti-trade winds.
❖ They blow from south-west to north-east in the
northern hemisphere and north-west to south-east in
the southern hemisphere under Coriolis Effect.
❖ It blows from lower latitudes to higher latitudes.
❖ The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are
stronger and more persistent due to the vast
expanse of water and lesser obstructions from
continents.
➢ While in the
northern
hemisphere, these
are irregular
because of uneven
relief of vast land
masses.
❖ The westerlies are best
developed between 40
degrees and 65 degrees
in the Southern
Hemisphere.
❖ These latitudes are often called Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties.
❖ The poleward boundary of the westerlies is highly fluctuating. There are many seasonal and short-term
fluctuations.
❖ These winds produce wet spells and variability in weather.
 13

❖ These winds cause the formation of temperate cyclones and heavy rainfall on western coasts.

Polar Easterlies:
❖ The Polar easterlies are winds blowing from north-east to south-west direction in Northern Hemisphere
and south-east to north-west in Southern Hemisphere.
❖ They blow from the polar high-pressure areas to the sub-polar lows.
❖ They are very cold in nature as they originate in polar areas and do not cause much rainfall.
❖ These winds give birth to cyclones (temperate cyclones) when they come in contact with westerlies.
❖ The Polar Easterlies are more regular in the southern hemisphere in comparison to the northern
hemisphere.
❖ They bring frequent changes in weather conditions and cause heavy rainfall.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 33
Winds of the World
 2

Winds of the World

Winds:
❖ When air moves in a definite direction, it is called
wind. Winds are a result of pressure differences.
❖ If the winds move from west to east, they are called
Westerlies.
❖ If they move from east to west, they are called
Easterlies.
❖ The direction of the wind is also affected by the
Coriolis effect.
❖ The coriolis force deflects the wind to its right direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left direction
in the Southern Hemisphere.
Classification of Winds:
1. Permanent Winds:
❖ They are also called Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds
❖ Examples: Trade winds, Westerlies and Easterlies.

2. Secondary or Periodic Winds:

❖ Seasonal Winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. For example monsoons in
India.
❖ Periodic Winds: Land and sea breeze,
mountain and valley breeze etc.
3. Local Winds:
❖ These blow only during a particular period of
the day or year in a small area.
❖ Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora, etc are
examples of local winds.
 3

Primary or Prevailing Winds:

❖ These are the planetary winds which blow extensively over
continents and oceans.
❖ The two most well-understood and significant winds for
climate and human activities are trade winds and westerly
winds.
❖ Examples of Primary Winds are:
➢ The Trade Winds
➢ The Westerlies
➢ The Polar easterlies
Secondary or Periodic Winds:
❖ These winds change their direction with a change in season.
❖ Monsoons are the best example of large-scale modification of the planetary wind system.
❖ Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze, cyclones and
anticyclones, and air masses.
Monsoons:
❖ The word monsoon is derived
from the Arabic word
‘mausim’ which literally
means season.
❖ ‘Monsoon’ refers to the
seasonal reversal in the wind
direction during a year.
❖ They blow from sea to land
during summers and from land
to sea during winters, due to
the differential in heating of
continents and the oceans.
❖ During summer, the trade winds of the
southern hemisphere are pulled northwards
by an apparent northward movement of the
sun and by an intense low-pressure core in
the north-west of the Indian subcontinent.
❖ While crossing the equator, these winds get
deflected to their right under the effect of
Coriolis force.
❖ These winds now approach the Asian
landmass as south-west monsoons.
 4

❖ Since they travel a long distance over a vast expanse of water, by the time they reach the south western coast
of India, they are over-saturated with moisture and cause heavy rainfall in India and neighboring countries.
❖ During winter, these conditions are reversed and a high pressure core is created to the north of the Indian
subcontinent. Divergent winds are produced by this anticyclonic movement which travels southwards
towards the equator.
❖ Tropic of Cancer receives maximum sun rays during summer, thus the low-pressure zone is created in the
Tibetan plateau region.
❖ The high-pressure zone is formed in the Indian Ocean region and winds flow from the high pressure to low
pressure.
❖ The winds flow from the Southwest direction to the northeast direction. Thus Indian Monsoon is also known
as the Southwest monsoon.
❖ During winter, high pressure is formed in the Tibetan region and low pressure is formed in the Indian
Ocean.
❖ The winds now flow in the reverse direction from Northeast to southwest direction.
❖ It will bring rainfall to the Tamil Nadu coast. This type of monsoon is known as the Northeast monsoon.
Types of Local Winds:
❖ Periodical Winds: The winds originating
from diurnal temperature and pressure
variation are known as Periodical and they
generally complete their cycle in a day/ 24
hours like Land Sea Breeze and Mountain
Valley Breeze.
❖ Non-Periodical Winds: Only present during
a particular season and are classified as Hot
and Cold Winds.
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze:
❖ It influences only a narrow strip of 20-30 km along the coast.
❖ The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently.
❖ During the day, the land heats up faster and becomes warmer
than the sea.
❖ Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low-
pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure
over the sea is relatively high.
❖ Thus, a pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the
wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze.
❖ In the night, the reversal of the condition takes place.
❖ The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
 5

❖ The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.
❖ In coastal cities like Mumbai, Puducherry, etc. these land and sea breeze distributes the temperature and
maintain moderate weather conditions. It also helps in the reduction of pollution.

Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze:

❖ In mountainous regions, during the day the
slopes get heated up, and to fill the resulting
gap the air from the valley floor blows up
the slope. This wind is known as the valley
breeze.
❖ During the night the slopes get cooled and
the dense air descends into the valley as the
mountain wind.
❖ The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice
fields draining into the valley, is called
katabatic wind.
❖ Another type of warm wind (katabatic wind)
occurs on the leeward side of the mountain
ranges.
❖ The moisture in these winds, while crossing
the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitates.
❖ When it descends down the leeward side of
the slope the dry air gets warmed up by an
adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the
snow in a short time.

Tertiary or Local Winds (Non-Periodical):

❖ Local differences in temperature and pressure produce local winds.
❖ Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere.
 6

Loo:
❖ It originates from the Thar desert and has north westerly to westerly
direction.
❖ In the plains of northern India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot
and dry wind blows from the west in the months of May and June,
usually in the afternoons. It is known as a loo.
❖ Its temperature invariably ranges between 45 degrees Celcius and
50 degrees Celcius.
❖ It may cause sunstroke to people.
Foehn or Fohn:
❖ Foehn is a hot wind of local importance in the Alps.
❖ It is a strong, gusty, dry, and warm wind that develops
on the leeward side of a mountain range due to adiabatic
heating.
❖ As the windward side takes away whatever moisture
there is in the incoming wind in the form of orographic
precipitation, the air that descends on the leeward side is
dry and warm (Katabatic Wind).
❖ The temperature of the wind varies between 15 - 20
degrees Celcius.
 7

❖ The wind helps animal grazing by melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.
❖ The Foehn winds are present throughout the winter and due to the presence of such winds the temperature
increases, and the valleys of Switzerland are called Climatic Oasis during the winter season.

Chinook:
❖ These are warm and dry winds blowing
on the eastern slopes (leeward side) of
the Rocky Mountains.
❖ They are the result of adiabatic heating
which occurs due to downslope
compression on the leeward side, as the
mountain barrier creates frictional drag
which tends to pull the air from the
higher level down on the leeward.
❖ Air forced down is heated adiabatically
and at the same time its relative humidity
is also lowered.
❖ The temperature in Chinook is so warm that it can remove the underlying snow cover/ice and sometimes
these winds are so dry that in spite of their below-freezing temperatures, the entire snow cover on the ground
disappears, by the process of sublimation. Thus, these winds are also known as Chinook, which literally
means Snow Eater.
❖ Chinook leads to the meltdown of the water, and due to the sudden rise in temperature the water is
evaporated.
❖ Thus, there occurs a reduction in the soil moisture, which is a negative aspect of Chinook.
Mistral:
❖ Harmful Wind.
❖ Mistral is one of the local names given to such winds that blow from the Alps
over France towards the Mediterranean Sea.
❖ It is channelled through the Rhine Valley.
❖ It is very cold and dry with blow with high speed.
❖ It brings blizzards into southern France.
 8

Sirocco:
❖ Harmful Wind.
❖ Sirocco is the warm, dry, dusty local wind that blows from the Sahara Desert over the central
Mediterranean, and southern Italy, and may even reach Spain.
❖ As the Sirocco descends through the
northern slope of the Atlas Mountain, they
become extremely warm and dry.
❖ These winds carry red sand particles from
Sahara which causes red colour rainfall in
southern Europe and this rainfall is known
as Blood Rain.
❖ Sirocco is so much laden with sand and
dust that the atmospheric visibility reduces
almost to zero and they are much injurious
to Agriculture and fruit crops.
❖ The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa, storms in the Mediterranean Sea,
and cool wet weather in Europe.
Harmattan:
❖ It is warm and dry wind and travels
through the Sahara Desert.
❖ It blows from the northeast or east in the
western Sahara and is strongest from late
November to mid-March.
❖ It usually carries large amounts of dust,
which it can transport hundreds of miles
out over the Atlantic Ocean; the dust
often interferes with local aircraft
operations.
As compared to the humid tropical air, the
trade wind is also known as “doctor
wind” due to its strong dryness.


PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 34
Temperature Inversion
 2

Temperature Inversion
Vertical Distribution of Temperatures:
❖ The normal lapse rate is uniform at a
given level at all latitudes within the
troposphere.
❖ At the Tropopause, the lapse rate is
zero, i.e. there is no change in
temperature here.
❖ In the lower stratosphere, the lapse rate
remains constant for some height, while
higher temperatures exist over the poles
because this layer is closer to Earth at the
poles.
Temperature Inversion:
❖ Temperature inversion is a reversal of the
normal behaviour of temperature in the
troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at
the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer
air. (Under normal conditions, the
temperature usually decreases with height).
❖ Inversion is usually of short duration but
quite common nonetheless.
❖ In normal conditions, as we go up,
temperature decreases with a normal lapse
rate. It is 6.5°C per 1000m.
❖ Against this normal rule, sometimes, instead of decreasing, the temperature may rise with the height gained.
❖ The cooler air is nearer the earth and the warmer air is aloft. This rise of temperature with height is known as
Temperature inversion.
❖ There are various types of inversion, these are
as follows:
1. Advectional- it consists of Frontal and
Valley Inversion.
2. Non-advectional- it can be ground or
surface inversion and upper air inversion.
3. Mechanical- The subsidence of winds
occurs in this type of inversion.
❖ Over polar areas, a temperature inversion is
normal throughout the year.
 3

❖ The inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to air drainage.
➢ Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during the night, flows under the influence of gravity.
➢ Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up deeply in
pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage.
Ideal Conditions For Temperature Inversion on the
Ground:
❖ Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater
than the incoming radiation. The heat of the day is
radiated off during the night, and by early morning
hours, the earth is cooler than the air above.
❖ Clear skies, which allow the unobstructed escape of radiation.
❖ Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.
❖ Snow-covered regions reflect the incoming radiation and less heat will be trapped in
the atmosphere. Therefore the nearest layer to the ground will be cooler.
❖ High Humidity, so that sufficient moisture is
present.
❖ Dry air is free from water vapours and thus
traps lesser radiation & less heat. It will create
good conditions for the ground or surface
inversion.
Types of Temperature Inversion:
1. Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature
Inversion):
➢ A ground inversion develops when
air is cooled by contact with a
colder surface until it becomes cooler
than the overlying air; this occurs
most often on clear nights when the
ground cools off rapidly by
radiation.
➢ If the temperature of surface air
drops below its dew point, fog may
be formed.
➢ This kind of temperature inversion is very common in higher latitudes.
➢ Surface temperature inversion in lower and middle latitudes occurs during cold nights and gets destroyed
during daytime.
2. Upper-Air Inversion:
➢ Upper air inversion occurs due to the presence of warm air in the stratosphere and cold air in the
tropopause.
 4

➢ Stratosphere: The stratosphere is the atmospheric layer above the troposphere, extending from about 10
to 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
➢ Warm air: In the stratosphere, temperature generally increases with altitude due to the presence of ozone,
which absorbs solar radiation and warms the surrounding air.
➢ Tropopause: The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere, located at an
altitude of about 10-15 kilometers.
➢ Cold air: The tropopause acts as a barrier where the temperature gradient changes. Above the tropopause,
the temperature remains relatively
constant or even decreases with altitude,
creating a layer of cold air.
➢ Inversion: When warm air gets trapped in
the ozone layer of the stratosphere due to
absorption of radiation from the Sun, the
warm air encounters the cold air (which is
at around -50 degrees C) of the
tropopause (a layer just below the
stratosphere), and hence the temperature
inversion starts taking place at this layer.
It is also known as the thermal inversion.
3. Valley Inversion/ Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type
of Inversion):
➢ In the intermontane valley, the temperature increases with
the elevation instead of decreasing.
➢ Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and
cools down at a faster rate than the upper layers. As a
result, the lower cold layers get condensed and become
heavy.
 5

➢ The sloping surface underneath makes

them move towards the bottom where the
cold layer settles down as a zone of low
temperature while the upper layers are
relatively warmer.
➢ Hence, the heavy cold air wind subsiding
into the valley is also known as the
Katabatic Winds.
➢ This condition, opposite to the normal
vertical distribution of temperature, is
known as Temperature Inversion.
➢ In other words, the vertical temperature
gets inverted during a temperature
inversion.
➢ This kind of temperature inversion is very
strong in the middle and higher latitudes.
It can be strong in regions with high
mountains or deep valleys also.
➢ Valley floors are subjected to frostbite.
➢ Hence, in the valley regions, generally,
farmers avoid the cultivation of certain crops
due to frost action. Example: Cultivation of
coffee on slope etc.
4. Frontal Inversion (Advectional Type of
Temperature Inversion):
➢ Interaction of two different masses of air (warm air and
cold air) is called as front.
➢ A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass
undercuts a warm air mass and lifts it aloft; the front
between the two air masses then has warm air above and
cold air below.
➢ (Cold and Warm Fronts: we will study in detail
later)
➢ In addition, humidity may be high, and clouds
may be present immediately above it.
➢ This kind of inversion has a considerable slope,
whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal.
➢ This type of inversion is unstable and is
destroyed as the weather changes.
 6

➢ These fronts can be seen in the temperate region of 60 to 65 degree latitude.

➢ These inversions lead to the formation of frontal cyclones.
➢ It is an advectional inversion.
➢ In temperate regions, these types of inversion
are common. Example: Canada, etc.
5. Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface
Temperature Inversion):
➢ A subsidence inversion develops when a
widespread layer of air descends.
➢ The layer is compressed and heated by the
resulting increase in atmospheric pressure,
and as a result, the lapse rate of temperature is
reduced.
➢ If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at
higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower
altitudes, producing a temperature inversion.
➢ This inversion is generally seen in the region
of 30 to 35-degree latitude.
➢ This region experiences stable weather
conditions (no clouds seen).
➢ Subsidence inversions are common
over the northern continents in
winter (dry atmosphere) and over
the subtropical oceans; these
regions generally have subsiding air
because they are located under large
high-pressure centers.
➢ This temperature inversion is called
upper surface temperature
inversion because it takes place in
the upper parts of the atmosphere.
6. Convective Inversion:
➢ As the ground heats up during the day, warm air rises (because the wind is light) where it reaches a certain
altitude.
➢ This situation is known as instability conditions.
➢ The vacuum created by the rising warm air is filled by the heavy cold air. Hence, a zone of turbulence is
created in this region where the warm air lies above the cold air. This is known as convective inversion.
 7

➢ In this region various weather

conditions are experienced such
as instability, cloud formation,
rainfall, and cyclonic condition.
➢ It is commonly experienced in
Equatorial regions during day
time.
Effects of Temperature Inversion:
❖ Inversions play an important role in
determining cloud forms, precipitation,
and visibility.
❖ An inversion acts as a cap on the upward movement of air from the layers below. As a result, convection
produced by the heating of the air from below is limited to levels below the inversion.
❖ Diffusion of dust, smoke and other air pollutants is likewise limited. Thus, it promotes atmospheric stability.
❖ Temperature Inversion also determines precipitation, cloud forms, etc.
❖ In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to
produce showers and hence less rainfall. This causes problems in agriculture and its productivity. It is
dangerous for crops like coffee, cotton, etc.
❖ Visibility may be greatly reduced below the inversion due to the accumulation of dust and smoke particles
because the air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool.
❖ Inversions also affect diurnal
variations in temperature. Diurnal
variations tend to be very small.
❖ Fog is formed due to the situation of
warm air above and cold air below and
hence visibility is reduced.
➢ This inversion commonly lasts for
a few hours until the sun comes up
and beings to warm the earth.
➢ The heavy air also contains various
harmful gases and pollutants like
dust, smoke, pollens, ash, smoke,
etc.
➢ Pollutant acts as hygroscopic nuclei which attract water vapor around it.
➢ Fog and smoke lead to the formation of Smog. It reduces visibility which is a cause of accidents on
roads and delays in flights.
➢ Examples: London Smog (Killed around 3000-4000 people), Muse Valley in Belgian in 1930 etc.
❖ It causes frost when the condensation of warm air due to its cooling by cold air below occurs at a temperature
below freezing point.
 8

➢ It is harmful to potatoes, peas and coffee cultivation because of frequent incidents of frostbite.
➢ Therefore important activities like the construction of habitats (Homes and hotels) and the cultivation of
coffee to avoid the harmful effects of temperature inversion in the valley.
❖ In winter the cold air containing pollutants is heavy and sinks near the surface and leads to the ground level
air pollution. It is very harmful to people and leads to various lung-related diseases such as bronchiectasis,
asthma, congestion and other breathing issues.
Additional Information:
Fog:
❖ Fog is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny
water droplets or ice crystals suspended
in the air at or near the Earth's surface.
❖ When the moist air containing
hygroscopic nuclei comes in contact with
the cold surface then it leads to the
formation of fog.
❖ It only occurs in the lower strata of the
atmosphere as a sort of dense ‘ground
cloud'.
❖ The visibility in fog is even less than 1000 meters.
Smog:
❖ The term "smog" was first used in the early 1900s to describe a mix of smoke and fog. The smoke usually
comes from burning coal.
❖ Smog is an air pollution that reduces visibility.
❖ Smog is common in industrial areas, and remains a familiar sight in some cities today.
❖ The visibility may be reduced to 220 yards or even less.
Frost:
❖ Frost is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface, which forms from water vapor in an above-freezing
atmosphere coming in contact with a solid surface whose temperature is below freezing, and resulting in a
phase change from water vapor to ice as the water vapor reaches the freezing point.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 35
Jet Streams
 2

Jet Streams

Geostrophic Wind:

 The velocity and direction of the wind

are the net result of the wind
generating forces i.e., the Coriolis
Force, Pressure Gradient Force,
and Frictional Force.
 The winds in the upper atmosphere,
2-3 km above the surface, are free
from the frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled by the
pressure gradient and the Coriolis
force.
 An air parcel initially at rest will move from high pressure to low pressure because of the
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF).
 However, as that air parcel begins to
move, it is deflected by the Coriolis
force to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere (to the left in the
southern hemisphere).
 As the wind gains speed, the
deflection increases until the
Coriolis force equals the pressure
gradient force (2–3 km above the
ground, friction is low and winds
travel at greater speeds).
 At this point, the wind will be
blowing parallel to the isobars (perpendicular to Pressure Gradient Force). When this happens, the
wind is referred to as Geostrophic Wind.
 3

Why winds don't flow from tropical high pressure (in the upper troposphere) to polar low
directly as shown in the figure below?
 Because these winds are geostrophic, i.e., they flow at great speeds due to low friction and are
subjected to greater Coriolis force.
 So they deflect greatly giving rise to three distinct cells
called Hadley cell, Ferrel Cell and Polar cell.

 North Pole
 Heated Air Rising

 Instead of one big cell we have three small cells that

combined produce the same effect.

Jet Streams:

 The Jet Stream is a type of geostrophic wind

blowing horizontally through the upper layers
(known as upper air westerly winds) of the
troposphere, generally from west to east, at an
altitude of 7-15 km above the surface of the earth.
 These are circumpolar whils that rotate around the
earth.
 Jet Streams develop where air masses of differing
temperatures meet. So, usually, surface temperatures
determine where the Jet Stream will form.

 Greater the difference in temperature, the faster the wind

velocity inside the jet stream.

 Jet Streams extend from 20 degrees latitude to the poles in both

hemispheres.
 4

Origin of Jet Streams:

 Jet streams are caused by the temperature difference between tropical air masses and polar
air masses.
 Tropical air is warm and polar air is cold, and this is due to its relative locations.
 So, what happens in one part of the world depends on what is happening elsewhere, after all the
atmosphere is one complete environment, it is connected with so many factors.

Where Does the Jet Stream Begin?

 It originates in the tropics,

which means around the
equator.
 These are generated due to the
temperature gradient and
pressure gradient between
poles and equator
 This region is warm because the
Insolation falls overhead at the
equator. Hence, it is a place that
fuels the jet stream.
 At the Equator, the warm air
rises up in the atmosphere and
goes to the region between the
troposphere and stratosphere.
 From here, this warm air gets
drawn toward the colder air
found in the north and south
pole.
 Now at higher altitudes, the
warm air cools and sinks
drawing more and more warm air behind it.
 Meanwhile the cooled air flows towards the equator creating a simple looping mechanism. It’s
endless repetition.
 American Bombers jet explored the phenomenon of jet streams.
 5

Features of Jet Streams:

 Narrow Bands: These are narrow concentrated bands of winds. The stream of air is very narrow
(a few hundred km across) and, the air in the stream is directed towards the axis of the stream
making it very narrow.
 Circumpolar (situated around or inhabiting one of the earth's poles): Jet streams are winds that
circle around the earth with poles as their centers.
 High Velocity: Pressure gradient increases with altitude and creates high velocity winds at higher
altitudes.

 The friction in the upper troposphere is quite low due to less

dense air. Hence, the Jet streams flow at great velocities.
 Temperature also influences the velocity of the jet stream.
 The greater the difference in air temperature, the faster the jet
stream, which can reach speeds of up to 250 mph (402 kph) or
greater, but average about 110 mph (177 kph).
 The jet streams have an average velocity of 120 kilometers per
hour in winter and 50 km per hour in summer.
 These jet streams also have cores where the speed is much greater.

 Geostrophic Streams: The direction of the jet

stream is determined by pressure gradient force
(temperature contrast creates pressure gradients) and
Coriolis force.

 The direction of the jet stream is perpendicular

to the pressure gradient force.
 The winds surrounding jet streams are of
comparatively low velocities.

 Are a part of upper-level westerlies: Jet streams are

produced due to winds flowing from the tropics
towards the poles (In polar jet streams, wind flows
from the temperate region towards the polar region,
and in sub-polar jet streams winds flow from sub-
tropics towards the temperate region).
 6

 Anything moving from the tropics towards the poles

deflects towards their right in the northern
hemisphere and towards their left in the southern
hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect.

 Upper Tropospheric: Jet streams flow just below the

Tropopause.

 Polar jet streams flow 6–9 km above the

ground and Sub-tropical jet streams flows
10–16 km above the ground.

 Concentrated bands of Meandering: When the

temperature contrast is maximum, the jet stream
flows nearly straight.

 But when the temperature contrast reduces,

the jet stream nearly follows the meandering
path.
 So, meandering depends on temperature
contrast (Temperature difference).
 A Meander is called a peak or ridge if it
is towards the poles and trough if it is
towards the equator.
 The descending winds affect the
Indian monsoon. In the month of
March, April and May the Jet stream is
positioned in a way that winds are
descending in nature. It causes
high-pressure conditions in north
and northwest India and suppresses
rainfall.
 7

Rossby Waves:

 The meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.

 Rossby waves are a natural phenomenon in
the atmosphere and oceans due to the
rotation of the earth.
 Rossby waves are formed when high-
intensity polar air moves Equatorwards
while tropical air moves poleward.
 The existence of these waves explains the
low-pressure cells (cyclones) and high-
pressure cells (anticyclones).

Permanent Jet Streams:

 There are Two Permanent Jet Streams – subtropical jets at lower latitudes and polar front jets at
mid-latitudes.

1. Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ):

 The sub-tropical jet stream is

produced by the earth’s rotation
(Coriolis force) and temperature
contrast between tropical and
sub–tropical regions.

 At the equator, the rotation produces the

greatest velocity in the atmosphere.
 As a result, the rising air which spreads
out northwards and southwards moves
faster than the latitudes over which it is
blowing.
 It is deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere, and at about 30° latitude, it
becomes concentrated as the subtropical
jet streams.
 8

 During winter, the STJ is nearly continuous in both hemispheres.

 The STJ exists throughout the year in the southern hemisphere.
 However, it is intermittent in the northern hemisphere during summer when it migrates north.
 The STJ can be temporarily displaced when strong mid-latitude troughs extend into subtropical
latitudes.
 When these displacements occur, the subtropical jet can merge with the polar front jet.
 STJ is closely connected to the Indian and African summer monsoons.

2. Polar Front Jet (PFJ):

 The polar front jet is produced by a temperature difference and is closely related to the polar front
(more about fronts later).
 It has a more variable position than the sub-tropical jet.

 In summer, its position shifts towards the poles, and

in winter towards the equator.

 The jet is strong and continuous in winter.

 It greatly influences climates of regions lying close to 60
degree latitude.
 It determines the path and speed and intensity of temperate
cyclones.

Temporary Jet Streams:

 Temporary Jet Streams are Somali Jet, Polar Night Jet Stream, and The African Easterly Jet.

The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet:

 There are also major high-velocity winds in the

lower troposphere called Low-Level Jets
(LLJs).
 In the tropics, the most prominent of these are
the Somali Jet and the African Easterly Jet.
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the
northern hemispheric summer over southern
Asia and northern Africa.
 9

 The TEJ is found between 5° and 20° North.

 It is continuous in its position, direction, and intensity from June till the beginning of October.
 The TEJ is the upper-level venting
system for the strong southwest
monsoon.
 The establishment and maintenance of
the TEJ are not fully understood but it is
believed that the jet may be caused by
the uniquely high temperatures and
heights over the Tibetan Plateau during
summer.
 During the south Asian summer
monsoon, the TEJ induces secondary circulations that enhance convection over South India and
the nearby ocean.

The Somali Jet:

 Among the most well-known of the tropical LLJs is the Somali Jet, a southwesterly jet.
 The Somali jet occurs during the summer
over northern Madagascar and off the coast
of Somalia.
 The jet is most intense from June to August.
 It is a major cross-equatorial flow from the
southern Indian Ocean to the central Arabian
Sea.
 A split in the axis of the jet over the Arabian
Sea, the more northern branch intersecting
the west coast of India near 17° North, while
the southerly branch moves eastward just
south of India.
 The jet remains relatively steady from June to September before moving southward to the
southern Indian Ocean during the winter.
 10

Polar Night Jet Stream:

 Also called the stratospheric subpolar jet stream, it develops in winter due to the sharp
temperature gradient in the stratosphere around the poles at the height of 30km.
 These jet streams become very strong westerly circulation with high wind velocity during winters
but their velocity decreases during summers and the direction becomes easterly.

Influence of Jet Streams on Weather:

 Jet streams help in the maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass exchange of air.
 It affects monsoons, Tropical Easterly Jet Streams and Somali Jet Streams have a positive impact.
 PFJ influence the mid-latitude weather disturbances. Usually, there are severe storms when jet
streams interfere with surface wind systems. Example: create chilling effects in Northern America
etc.
 Jet streams also influence the path of temperate cyclones. They have an influence on the
distribution of precipitation by temperate cyclones.
 Sub-tropical jet streams and some temporary jet streams together influence Indian Monsoon
patterns.
 Jet streams also exercise an influence on the movement of air masses which may cause prolonged
Drought or Flood conditions.
 It also affects the aviation sector, flying planes tries to follow jet streams.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 36
Atmospheric Phenomenon
 2

Atmospheric Phenomenon

How Does It Trigger The North East Monsoon?

❖ The westerly Jet Stream is a cold wind that pushes downwind to the surface creating high pressure on the
surface.
❖ Dry winds from this high-pressure area (northwestern part of India) start blowing towards the low-pressure
area (Bay of Bengal).
❖ These winds in turn bring cold waves in winter in the northern part of the country including UP and Bihar.
❖ After reaching the Bay of Bengal, westerly under the influence of Ferrel’s cell take the form of the northeast
monsoon.
❖ When this wind reaches the coast of Tamil Nadu, it causes rainfall with the humidity received from the Bay of
Bengal.

Jet Streams and Aviation:

❖ Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to
fly in the direction of the flow of the jet
streams, and avoid them when flying in
opposite directions.
❖ Jet streams may also cause a bumpy flight full
of turbulence because the jet stream is
sometimes unpredictable and can cause
sudden movement.

Water Vapour in Atmosphere:

❖ Water vapour in the air varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere (averaging around
2% in the atmosphere).
❖ The amount of water vapour (Humidity) is measured by an instrument called a Hygrometer.

Significance of Atmospheric Moisture:

❖ Water vapour absorbs radiation - both incoming and terrestrial. It, thus, plays a crucial role in the earth’s heat
budget.
❖ The amount of water vapour present decides the quantity of latent energy stored up in the atmosphere for the
development of storms and cyclones.
❖ The atmospheric moisture affects the human body’s rate of cooling by influencing the sensible temperature.

Evaporation:
❖ Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
❖ It is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water
vapor.
 3

❖ Evaporation may be taken as the starting

point in the hydrological cycle. The source
of energy for evaporation is mainly solar
radiation.
❖ The Ocean covering 71 % of the earth’s
surface holds 97% of the earth’s water
reserves. The ocean contributes 84% of the
annual total and the continents 16%.
❖ Evaporation increases with temperature,
dryness and movement of air.
❖ Evaporation decreases with cloud cover.
❖ Evaporation of Water - 64 % by Transpiration,
6 % by Soil Evaporation, 3 % by Water bodies.
❖ The highest annual evaporation occurs in the
sub-tropics of the western North Atlantic
and North Pacific because of the influence of
the Gulf Stream and the Kurishio Current,
and in the trade wind zone of the southern
oceans.
❖ The maximum evaporation occurs in the equatorial region because of high insolation and luxuriant
vegetation.

Absolute Humidity:
❖ The actual amount of water
vapour present in the atmosphere
is known as Absolute Humidity.
❖ It is the weight of water vapour
per unit volume of air and is
expressed in gm/m3.
❖ The absolute humidity differs
from place to place on the surface
of the earth.
❖ The ability of the air to hold water
vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
➢ Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.

Specific Humidity:
❖ It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air. It is expressed in gm/ Kg.
❖ Since it is measured in units of weight, the specific humidity is not affected by changes in pressure or
temperature.
 4

❖ Absolute Humidity and Relative Humidity are variable whereas Specific Humidity is constant.

Relative Humidity:
❖ The ratio of water vapour in air at a particular temperature to the total amount of water vapour required
to saturate the same air at the same temperature.
❖ Relative humidity increases with an increase in water vapour in the air and decreases with an increase in
temperature
❖ It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.
❖ Relative humidity is measured by a Hygrometer.
❖ Relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation of a place and, hence, it is an important
climatic factor.
❖ Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be ‘saturated’.
➢ At this temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture. Thus, the relative humidity
of the saturated air is 100%.
❖ Relative humidity can be changed in either of two ways -
➢ By adding moisture through evaporation (by increasing absolute humidity): if moisture is added by
evaporation, the relative humidity will increase and vice versa.
➢ By changing the temperature of air (by changing the saturation point): a decrease in temperature (hence,
decrease in moisture-holding capacity/decrease in saturation point) will cause an increase in relative
humidity and vice versa.

Role of Humidity:
❖ Excess humidity will result in diseases due to the presence of thriving conditions for bacteria, and pathogens.
For example- Equatorial Forest like Amazon is home too various bacteria.
➢ It may also result in rusting as witnessed in coastal areas.
❖ Deficient humidity adversely impacts the development of a region. For Example- In the Sahara Desert,
agriculture is underdeveloped due to the deficiency of moisture. The same holds true for the Thar desert in
India.

Dew Point:
❖ The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
❖ It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at
that stage.
❖ The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as the dew point.
❖ Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.

Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation:

❖ Amount of water available
❖ Temperature
 5

❖ Relative humidity
❖ Area of the evaporating surface
❖ Wind speed: A high wind speed removes the saturated air from the evaporating surface and replaces it with
dry air which favors more evaporation.
➢ Whenever there is a combination of high temperature, very low relative humidity and strong winds, the
rate of evaporation is exceptionally high. This leads to the dehydration of soil to a depth of several inches.
❖ Air Pressure: Evaporation is also affected by the atmospheric pressure exerted on the evaporating surface.
➢ Lower pressure over the open surface of the liquid results in a higher rate of evaporation.
❖ Composition of water: Evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity of the water.
➢ The rate of evaporation is always greater over fresh water than over salt water. [Because of the reduction
in the water vapor pressure at the water surface due to salinity.]
➢ Under similar conditions, ocean water evaporates about 5% more slowly than fresh water.
❖ More evaporation by plants: Water from plants generally evaporates at a faster rate than from land.
❖ Surface Area: Evaporation increases with an increase in the surface area. For example- We spread out clothes
to dry.

Lapse Rate:
❖ Lapse Rate is the rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the Earth’s
atmosphere.
❖ The lapse rate is considered positive when the
temperature decreases with elevation, zero when
the temperature is constant with elevation.
❖ It is negative when the temperature increases with
elevation (temperature inversion).
❖ The lapse rate of non-rising air-commonly referred
to as the normal, or Environmental Lapse Rate
(ELR)- is highly variable, being affected by
radiation, convection, and condensation; it averages about 6.5 °C per kilometer in the lower atmosphere
(troposphere).

Reasons for The Fall in Temperature With Rise in Elevation:

❖ When we move up a hill, we notice a fall in temperature. This fall in temperature with elevation is primarily
due to two reasons:
1. With an increase in elevation, the atmospheric pressure falls. A fall in pressure implies that the
temperature also falls [Pressure is directly proportional to Temperature and vice versa]
2. With an increase in elevation, the concentration of greenhouse gases decreases (Water vapor and carbon
dioxide fall sharply with elevation). Hence, the heat absorption capacity of the atmosphere will also
decrease.
 6

❖ This sort of fall in temperature with elevation is called Temperature Lapse and the rate at which it happens
is called Temperature Lapse Rate or simply Lapse Rate.

Adiabatic Lapse Rate:

❖ Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall in
temperature of a rising or a falling air parcel
adiabatically.
❖ It is without any heat exchange.
❖ Adiabatic or adiabatically: It means the heat
doesn’t enter or leave the system. All temperature
changes are internal.
❖ The Adiabatic Lapse rate is governed by Gas law.
According to gas law Pressure ‘P’ is directly
proportional to Temperature ‘T’ when Volume ‘V’ is a constant.

Adiabatic Process- A Parcel of Rising or Falling Air:

❖ An air bubble rises in water whereas stone sinks.
❖ This is because the stone is denser (heavier than water), whereas the air bubble is less dense (lighter than
water).
❖ Similarly, a parcel of air rises when it is less dense than the surrounding environment and it falls when its
density becomes greater than the surrounding environment.
❖ When the air parcel comes in the contact with a hot surface, it becomes hot and rises in an upward direction.
❖ A parcel is a bubble of air of no definite size that we generally assume retains its shape and general
characteristics as it rises or sinks in the atmosphere.

A Parcel of Rising Air:

❖ When an air parcel is subjected to differential
heating compared to the surrounding air, it
becomes lighter (less dense) or heavier (more
denser) depending on whether the air parcel is
heated or cooled.
❖ When an air parcel receives more heat than the
surrounding air, its temperature increases leading
to an increase in volume (Increase in Volume -
Fall in Density).
❖ The air parcel becomes lighter than the surrounding
air and it starts to rise. This process is non-
adiabatic (there is heat exchange between the air
parcel and the external environment).
❖ But when the air parcel starts to rise, the ambient pressure on it starts to fall [The atmospheric pressure
decreases with height, so the pressure on the air parcel decreases with height].
 7

❖ With the fall in ambient pressure, the temperature falls, and the volume increases.
❖ This is adiabatic since there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and the external environment. All the
temperature changes are internal.
❖ Temperature changes are only due to changes in pressure or volume or both.
❖ This fall in temperature with the rising of the air parcel is called Adiabatic Temperature Lapse. The rate at
which it happens is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate [This is a Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate as the Temperature
is falling].
❖ [Lapse Rate = fall in temperature with height. Adiabatic Lapse Rate = Fall in temperature in a rising parcel
of air without losing any internal heat].
❖ At the ground there is heat exchange- A non-Adiabetic process.
❖ From ground to top there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and the atmosphere (Adiabetic
process).
❖ At the top level there is heat exchange- A non-Adiabetic process. The loss of latent heat of condensation
leads to cloud formation.
❖ Rise of a parcel of air (and associated Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate) is the first step in the formation of
Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, and Cyclones.
❖ An air parcel falls to the lower levels of
the troposphere when it is cooled
sufficiently.
❖ When an air parcel is in the upper levels,
it gets cooled due to lower temperatures
(Lapse Rate). Its volume falls and its
density increases. When it becomes
more denser than the surroundings, it
starts to fall.
❖ This also happens when an air parcel is
in contact with cooler surfaces like
mountain slopes.

A Parcel of Falling Air:

❖ The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic process as there is an exchange of heat between the air parcel and
the surrounding environment.
 8

❖ When an air parcel is falling, the atmospheric

pressure acting on it will increase and its
internal temperature will increase
adiabatically. [This is a Negative Adiabatic
Lapse Rate as the Temperature is rising].
❖ As the air falls down, height decrease and
pressure increases, which leads to
compression of air. Air becomes hot/warm and
starts reducing in size.
❖ There is no moisture in the compressed hot air
and it falls upon the surface with high pressure.
❖ The warm and dry air is responsible for the formation of deserts or dry regions.
❖ At 25-30 degree latitudes there are descending winds that lead to the formation of deserts. Example: Thar
desert, Sahara desert, etc.
❖ Katabatic Wind is a hot dry wind that blows down a mountain slope. It is an example of a falling parcel of
air in which temperature changes happen adiabatically.

   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 37
Atmospheric
Phenomenas- Fog,
Clouds, Mist, Frost
 2

Atmospheric Phenomenas-Fog, Clouds, Mist, Frost

Condensation:
 The transformation of water vapour into liquid water droplets is called condensation.
 Condensation is caused by the loss of heat (latent heat of condensation, opposite of latent heat of vaporization).
 When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases (Saturation Point
= 100% Relative Humidity = Dew Point reached). Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form.
 If it directly condenses into solid form, it is known as sublimation.
 In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic
condensation nuclei.
 Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei because they absorb
water.
 Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it may also
take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
 Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air.
 Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of clouds.
 These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return to the Earth's
surface within the water cycle.
 Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.
 After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following forms -
dew, frost, fog and clouds.
 Condensation takes place:
 When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant
(adiabatically).
 When both the volume and the temperature are reduced.
 When moisture is added to the air through evaporation.
 However, the most favourable condition for condensation is a decrease in air temperature.
Forms of Condensation:
 Condensation can take place when the dew point
is-
1. Lower than the freezing point.
2. Higher than the freezing point.
 White frost, snow and some clouds (cirrus clouds)
are produced when the temperature is lower
than the freezing point.
 Dew, fog and clouds result even when the
temperature is higher than the freezing point.
 3

 Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their location, i.e. at or near the earth’s surface
and in free air.
 Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas clouds are in the second category.
Dew:
 When the moisture is deposited in the form of water
droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather than
nuclei in the air above the surface) such as stones, grass
blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
 The ideal conditions for its formation are a clear sky,
calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long
nights.
 For Dew Formation, the dew point must be above the
freezing point.
 Dew point temperature is the temperature at which the first droplet of water is formed.
 It is the temperature at which the moisture of the air gets converted into the liquid droplet.
 Conditions for the formation of dew are the following:
1. Winter or rainy season
2. Presence of moisture in the air
3. Presence of cool surface
4. Calm weather conditions
Frost:
 Frost is when the excess moisture is deposited in the form ofminute
ice crystals instead of water droplets.
 It is frozen microdroplets of water on the surface of leaves of plants.
 Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below
the freezing point (0° C), i.e. the dew point is less than or equal to
the freezing point.
 The ideal conditions for the formation of frost are the same as those
for the formation of dew, except that the air temperature must be at
or below the freezing point.
 It is dangerous for coffee, tomato, peas, cotton and potato cultivation.
Fog:
 It is a special type of thin cloud that consists of microdroplets of water which are suspended in the air near the
ground surface.
 It is formed when the temperature of warm-moist air comes in contact with a cooled surface & moisture gets
condensed in the form of microdroplets that are suspended in the air.
 4

 Moisture gets condensed around the

hygroscopic nuclei.
 When the temperature of an air mass
containing a large quantity of water
vapour falls all of a sudden, condensation
takes place within itself on fine dust
particles.
 So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or
very near to the ground.
 The visibility becomes poor to zero because of the fog and mist.
 In urban and industrial centres, smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and mist.
Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke is described as smog.
 Colour- it becomes yellow due to dust particles and whitish grey due to the presence of soot or smoke.
 Region- 1. Tropics and subtropics- During winters and rainy seasons.
2. Temperate zone- All-year fog is formed.
Types of Fog:
 Advectional Fog: It is formed by the condensation of warm air
when it moves horizontally over a cold surface. These fogs are
thick and persistent. It occurs over warm and cold water mixing
zones in oceans. Example: New Foundland, has dense fog and is a
good fishing ground. The conditions of the formation of this are
the following:
1. Motion of air
2. Presence of moisture in air
3. Temperature difference
 Frontal or Precipitation Fog: It is produced due to
the convergence of warm and cold air masses
where the warm air mass is pushed under by the
heavier cold air mass. Precipitation in the warm air
mass condenses to produce fog at the boundary of
the two air masses.
 Sea Fog: It is formed over the sea surface due to a
large amount of moisture in the air which cools down
as Sea Fog.
 Steam Fog: It forms when a light wind of very cold
air mixes with a shallow layer of saturated warm air
immediately above the warmer water. It is found in
the Great Lakes Region.
 5

 Hill Fog: It is formed when winds blow air up a slope,

adiabatically cooling it as it rises, and causing the moisture
in it to condense. This often causes freezing fog on
mountaintops, where the cloud ceiling would not otherwise
be low enough.
 Radiation Fog: It results from radiation and cooling of the
ground and adjacent air. These fogs are not very thick. It is
usual in the winter. The conditions for formation are the
following-
1. Long nights (winters)
2. Cloudless or clear sky
3. Clam conditions of wind
4. Presence of moisture in the air
Mist:
 The difference between mist and fog is that mist contains more
moisture than fog.
 In the mist, each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture.
 Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface.
 Mist is also formed by water droplets but with less merging or coalescing. This means mist is less dense and
quicker to dissipate.
 Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of the air come in contact with cold
currents.
 Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust smoke and the salt
particles.
 In the mist, visibility is more than one kilometer but less than two kilometres.
Haze:
 Haze is an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke, salt and other dry particles obscure the clarity of
the sky. (No condensation)
 Smog is similar to haze but there is condensation in smog.
 Sources for haze particles include farming, vehicle traffic, industry, and wildfires.
 Pollutants such as dust, soot, smoke etc. are suspended in the air due to construction, coal burning, vehicle
pollution industries etc.
Smog:
 Smog is a combination of smoke and fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (Primary pollutants).
Clouds:
 A cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable elevations.
 6

 These are the accumulates or aggregates of microparticles

of water and ice.
 It is formed due to the condensation of water particles.
 Clouds are caused mainly by the adiabatic cooling of air
below its dew point.
 As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface
of the earth, they take various shapes.
 According to their height, expanse, density, and
transparency or opaqueness clouds are grouped under
four types:(i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv) nimbus.
 There are both high clouds and low clouds.
 The low clouds reflect the incoming radiation (insolation).
 The high clouds absorb the long wave radiation from the earth.
 The weight of the clouds is in billion tons. The
primary function of the clouds is to maintain the
heat budget.
 These also cause precipitation in the form of rain,
snowfall, etc.
 Cloudburst, a sudden, very heavy rainfall, usually
local in nature and of brief duration.
 Color: Generally white, grey, black, yellow etc.
 Weight: millions of tons, when the moisture
exceeds the capacity of the cloud it leads to rainfall.
 Dynamic: Carried away by winds.
 Clouds contain water droplets, ice particles and hygroscopic nuclei (Dust, smoke, soot pollens etc.)
Types of Clouds (Based on Shapes and Size):

Type of Cloud Features

Cirrus  Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m).

 They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance.
 They are always white in colour.

Cumulus  Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.

 They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m.
 They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there.
 They have a flat base.
 7

Type of Cloud Features

Stratus  As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
 These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses
with different temperatures.

Nimbus  Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray.

 They form at middle levels or very near the surface.
 These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes the clouds
are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
 They are shapeless masses of thick vapour.

Types of Clouds (Based on Height):

 A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
1. High clouds – Cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;
2. Middle clouds – Altostratus and altocumulus;
3. Low clouds – Stratocumulus and nimbostratus (long duration rainfall cloud) and
4. Clouds with extensive vertical development – Cumulus and Cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 38
Rainfall &
Precipitation
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Rainfall & Precipitation

Types of Clouds (Based on Height):
1. High Clouds: Mainly Cirrus (Ci) clouds of the feathery form (at 20 - 40,000 feet above ground).
 Cirrus (Ci): This looks fibrous and
appears like wisps in the blue sky.
 Cirrocumulus (Cc): This appears as
white (like a cotton ball with a flat base)
globular masses, forming ripples in a
‘mackerel sky’.
 Cirrostratus (Cs): This resembles a thin
white sheet or veil; the sky looks milky
and the sun or moon shines through it with
a characteristic ' halo'.
2. Medium Clouds: Mainly Alto ( Alt ) or middle-height clouds (at 7- 20,000 feet).
 Altocumulus ( Alt-Cu): These are woolly, bumpy clouds arranged in layers and appearing like waves in
the blue sky. They normally indicate fine weather.
 Altostratus (Alt-St): These are denser, greyish clouds with a ‘watery’ look. They have a fibrous or striated
structure through which the sun's rays shine faintly.
3. Low Clouds: Mainly Stratus or Sheet Clouds.
 Stratocumulus (St- Cu ): This is a rough, bumpy cloud with waves more pronounced than in altocumulus.
There is a great contrast between the bright and shaded
parts.
 Stratus (St): This is a very low cloud, uniformly grey
and thick, which appears like a low ceiling or highland
fog. It brings dull weather with light drizzle. It reduces
the visibility of aircraft and is thus a danger.
 Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is a dark, dull cloud,
clearly layered, and is also known as a ‘rain cloud '. It
brings continuous rain, snow or sleet.
4. Clouds with Great Vertical Extent: Mainly cumulus or heap clouds with no definite height (2-30.000 feet ).
 Cumulus (Cu): This is a vertical cloud with a rounded top and horizontal base, typical of humid tropical
regions, associated with up-rising convectional currents. Its great white globular masses may look grey
against the sun but it is a ‘fair weather cloud'.
 Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): This is, in fact, an overgrown cumulus cloud, extending for a tremendous
vertical height from a base of 2,000 feet to over 30.000 feet. It's black and white globular masses take a
fantastic range of shapes. Its cauliflower top often spreads out like an anvil. This is frequently seen in
tropical afternoons. It is also referred to as a ' thunder-cloud ' and brings convectional rain, accompanied
by lightning and thunder.
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Precipitation:
 The process of continuous condensation in
free air helps the condensed particles to
grow in size. When the resistance of the air
fails to hold them against the force of
gravity, they fall onto the earth’s surface.
 Thus, after the condensation of water
vapour, the release of moisture is known
as precipitation.
 This may take place in liquid or solid
form.
 Precipitation in the form of drops of
water is called rainfall when the drop size
is more than 0.5 mm.
 It is called Virage when raindrops
evaporate before reaching the earth while
passing through dry air.
 Drizzle is light rainfall with a drop size
being less than 0.5 mm, and when
evaporation occurs before reaching the
ground, leading to foggy conditions. It is
referred to as Mist.
 When the temperature is lower than 0° C,
precipitation takes place in the form of fine
flakes of snow and is called Snowfall.
 Moisture is released in the form of
hexagonal crystals. These crystals form
flakes of snow.
 Besides rain and snow, other forms of
precipitation are Sleet and Hail, though the
latter is limited in occurrence and are
sporadic in both time and space.
 Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow water. When a layer of air with a temperature above
freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer near the ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
 Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the colder air below. As a result, they solidify and reach
the ground as small pellets of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which they are formed.
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 Sometimes, drops of rain after being

released by the clouds become solidified
into small rounded solid pieces of ice and
reach the surface of the earth. These are
called Hailstones.
 These are formed by the rainwater
passing through the colder layers.
 Hailstones have several concentric
layers of ice one over the other.
Type of Precipitation:

Type of Precipitation Features

Rainfall Drop size more than 0.5 mm up to 5 mm.

Virage Raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth.

Drizzle Light rainfall; drop size less than 0.5 mm.

Mist Evaporation occurs before reaching the ground leading to foggy weather.

Snowfall Fine flakes of snowfall when the temperature is less than 0°C (freezing point).

Sleet Frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow; a mixture of snow and rain or
merely partially melted snow.

Hail Precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is known as hail; 5 mm and
50 mm.

Types of Rainfall:
 On the basis of origin, rainfall may be
classified into three main types –
convectional, orographic or relief, and
cyclonic or frontal.
 Coalescence is the process by which two or
more droplets, bubbles or particles merge
during contact to form a single daughter
droplet, bubble or particle.
1. Convectional Rainfall:
 The air on being heated, becomes light
and rises up in convection currents. As it
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rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently,

condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed
(Cumulonimbus).
 This process releases latent heat of condensation which
further heats the air and forces the air to go further up.
 Convectional precipitation is heavy but of short duration,
highly localized, and is associated with a minimum amount
of cloudiness.
 Conditions:
1. Hot ground surface
2. Huge moisture
 It occurs mainly during summer or in the hotter part of the day and is common in the equatorial
regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the northern hemisphere.
 Features:
1. Daily rainfall in the afternoon
2. Short duration (quickly)
3. Thick cloud - Cumulonimbus clouds
4. Thunder and lightning
5. Lush green luxurious vegetation- Evergreen forest (Indonesia, Brazil, Ecuador, Congo )
2. Orographic Rainfall
 When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced
to ascend and as it rises, it expands (because of a fall in pressure);
the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
 This type of precipitation occurs when warm, humid air strikes
an orographic barrier (a mountain range) head-on. Because
of the initial momentum, the air is forced to rise.
 As the moisture-laden air gains height, condensation sets in, and
soon saturation is reached. The surplus moisture falls down as
orographic precipitation along the windward slopes.
Conditions:
1. Mountain barrier across the path of winds
2. Sufficient moisture in the winds
3. Sea coast near mountains for the presence of moisture
4. Sufficient height so that air parcel can rise and condense
 The chief characteristic of this type of rain is that the (Cumulonimbus clouds) windward slopes receive
greater rainfall.
 After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises.
 Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry.
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 The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the (Nimbostratus clouds) Rain-
shadow area (Some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct consequence of the rain-shadow effect.
 It is also known as the relief rain.
 Features:
1. Coastal region - more rainfall
2. Windward side- Cumulus clouds more rainfall, leeward side stratus clouds less rainfall
3. Foothills- more rainfall, plains low rainfall
4. Any season - Northwest monsoon in winter, southwest monsoon in summer
 Example: Patagonian desert in Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats).
 Example: Mahabaleshwar, situated on the Western Ghats, receives more than 600 cm of rainfall, whereas
Pune, lying in the rain shadow area, has only about 70 cm.
3. Frontal Precipitation:
 When two air masses, due to contrasting
temperatures and densities clash with each other,
condensation and precipitation occur at the surface
of contact. This surface of contact is called a
‘front’ or ‘frontal surface’.
 Conditions: Presence of airmass, existence of
fronts.
 For instance, in north-west Europe, cold continental
air and warm oceanic air converge to produce heavy rainfall in adjacent areas.
 If a cold air mass drives out a warm air mass’ it is called a ‘cold front’ and if a warm air mass replaces
the retreating cold air mass, it is called a ‘warm front’.
 If the two air masses are drawn simultaneously towards a low-pressure area, the front developed is
stationary and is called a ‘stationary front’.
 Cold front causes intense precipitation in comparatively small areas, while the precipitation due to
a warm front is less intense but is spread over a comparatively larger area.
 Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and usually overtake them, the frontal surfaces of cold and
warm air sliding against each other. This phenomenon is called ‘occlusion’ and the resulting frontal
surface is called an ‘occluded front’.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture – 39
Atmospheric Phenomenas
- Thunderstorms
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Atmospheric Phenomenas - Thunderstorms

4. Cyclonic Rain:
 Cyclonic Rainfall is convectional rainfall on a large scale
 The precipitation in a tropical cyclone is of convectional type while that
in a temperate cyclone is because of frontal activity.
5. Monsoonal Rainfall:
 This type of precipitation is characterized by seasonal reversal of winds
which carry oceanic moisture (especially the south-west
monsoon) with them and cause extensive rainfall in south and
southeast Asia.
World Distribution of Rainfall:
 Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts
of rainfall in a year and that too in different seasons.
 In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles,
rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
 The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts
of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
 The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the
landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water.
 Between the latitudes 35° and 40° North and South
of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west.
 But, between 45° and 65° North and South of the
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the western margins of the continents and it
goes on decreasing towards east.
 Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain on the windward side and
it decreases towards the leeward side.
 On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are identified
as follows:
 The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone, and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per
annum.
 Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100-200 cm per annum. The coastal
areas of the continents receive a moderate amount of rainfall.
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 The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive
rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
 Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very
low rainfall - less than 50 cm per annum.
 Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some regions,
rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the western parts of
cool temperate regions.

Latitudes Rainfall Pattern

0-10 degrees Latitude (Doldrum) Mainly convectional rainfall, along with lightning
and thunder.

10-20 degrees Latitude (Influence of Easterlies) Rainfall on the eastern part of the continent.

20-30 degrees Latitude (Sub tropical high- Cause minimum rainfall in the region.
pressure belt and descending winds)

30-40 degrees Latitude (Influence of Westerlies) Rainfall on the western margin of the continent.

40-45 degrees Latitude (Mid-latitude region) Both the Westerlies and Temperate cyclones cause
rainfall.

55-65 degrees Latitude (Sub polar low-pressure Frontal rainfall

zone)

65 degrees Latitude and Beyond Minimum rainfall, maximum precipitation in the

form of snowfall.

Thunderstorm:
 Thunderstorms are storms ranging several kilometers in
diameter, created by the rapid lifting of moist and warm air, as
a result of which a dense vertical tower of the cloud is created
 Thunderstorms are associated with strong winds, hail, lightning,
tornadoes, thunder, and heavy rain.
 There are many factors that lead to the uplifting of air, like solar
heating, low-pressure troughs, meeting of two different air streams,
or when air is forced uphill.
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 When humid air is lifted, it gets cooled and the moisture in

the air condenses to form clouds. Upon further uplifting,
the cloud will extend higher.
 Water droplets in the cloud continue to grow in size. As the
cloud extends further upward, ice crystals may form
because of the low temperature.
 A cumulonimbus cloud results when it grows to a height
of 10 to 20 kilometers. Thunderstorms are produced by
cumulonimbus clouds.
 Thunderstorms normally develop in late afternoon hours when surface heating produces the maximum number
of convection currents in the atmosphere.
 Thunderstorms mostly occur on the ground where the temperature is high. Thunderstorms are less
frequent on water bodies due to low temperatures.
 Worldwide, there are an estimated 16 million thunderstorms each year, and at any given moment, there are
roughly 2,000 thunderstorms in progress.
Thunderstorm Life Cycle:
1. Cumulus Stage (Youth Stage):
 Ground is significantly heated due to solar insolation.
 A low pressure starts to establish due to intense
upliftment of an air parcel (convection).
 Air from the surroundings starts to rush in to fill the low
pressure.
 Intense convection of moist hot air builds up a towering
cumulonimbus cloud.
2. Mature Stage:
 This stage is characterized by the intense updraft of rising warm air, which
causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to a greater height.
 Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and rain.
 The incoming thunderstorms are indicated by violent gusts of wind. This
wind is due to the intense downdraft.
 The updraft and downdraft determine the path of the
thunderstorm. Most of the time, the path is erratic.
3. Dissipating Stage:
 When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero
temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come
down as hailstorms. As a result, intense precipitation
occurs.
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 In a matter of a few minutes, the storm dissipates and clear weather starts to prevail.

Motion of Thunderstorm:
 Motion of thunderstorms is due to interactions of its updrafts and
downdrafts. Path of a thunderstorm is erratic.
 The speed of isolated storms is typically about 20 km (12 miles) per
hour, but some storms move much faster.
 In extreme circumstances, a supercell storm may move 65 to 80 km
(about 40 to 50 miles) per hour.
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Downbursts:
 Downdrafts are referred to as macrobursts or
microbursts.
 Macroburst is more than 4 km in diameter and
can produce winds as high as 60 metres per
second, or 215 km per hour.
 A microburst is smaller in dimension but
produces winds as high as 75 metres per
second, or 270 km/hour
 They are hazardous to aircraft, especially
during takeoffs and landings.
Types of Thunderstorms:
1. Thermal/Convective Thunderstorm:
 It is caused due to intense heating of ground during the summer
season.
 They are prominent in the equatorial regions.
2. Orographic Thunderstorm:
 Forceful upliftment of warm moist air parcel when it passes over a
mountain barrier creates a cumulonimbus cloud causing heavy
precipitation on the windward side.
 Orographic ‘Cloud bursts’ are common in Jammu and Kashmir,
Cherrapunji, and Mawsynram.
 Lake Maracaibo is also an example where this type of thunderstorm
is prominent.
3. Frontal Thunderstorm:
 These are thunderstorms occurring along
cold fronts.
 Example: In United Kingdom.
4. Advectional Thunderstorms:
 There is the horizontal movement of
winds.
 It occurs at mid-latitude regions (35-60
degrees latitude).
Single-cell Thunderstorm
 Single-cell thunderstorms are small, brief,
weak storms that grow and die within an hour or so. They are typically driven by heating on a summer
afternoon.
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 Single-cell storms may produce brief heavy rain and lightning- Very common in India during summers, mostly
April, and May.
 In Kerala they are called 'Mango Showers' and in Karnataka 'Blossom showers'.
 These storms can set up a better environment for stronger storms but are themselves not often severe.
 These storms generally occur in a lower moisture environment where the storms stay more isolated from each
other.
 Most of these single-cell storms are slow moving and some can be nearly stationary.
A Multi-cell Thunderstorm
 A multi-cell storm is a thunderstorm in which new updrafts form along the leading edge of rain-cooled air (the
gust front).
 Individual cells usually last 30 to 60 minutes, while the system as a whole may last for many hours.
 Multicell storms may produce hail, strong winds, brief tornadoes, and/or flooding.
A Supercell Thunderstorm
 A supercell is a long-lived (greater than 1 hour) and highly organized storm feeding off an updraft (a rising
current of air) that is tilted and rotating.
 Most large and violent tornadoes come from supercells.
 The updraft within super-cell thunderstorms can have a 10-mile diameter footprint and can extend up to 50,000
feet into the troposphere.
Lightning and Thunder:
 As water vapour moves upward, decreasing
temperatures causes it to condense.
 The heat (the latent heat of condensation)
generated in the process pushes the water
molecules further up.
 As they move beyond zero degrees, water droplets
change into small ice crystals.
 As they continue to move up, they gather mass
until they are so heavy that they start to fall.
 This leads to a system where smaller ice
crystals move up while bigger crystals come
down.
 The resulting collisions trigger the release of
electrons, in a process very similar to the
generation of electric sparks (this is called
ionization – an electron in the outer shell is
peeled out of the atom and the atom becomes
an ion.
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 There are two types of ions based on charge

– cation and anion.
 Cation: A cation is an atom or a
molecule which is positively charged, i.e.
has more number of protons than
electrons.
 Anion: An anion is an atom or molecule
which is negatively charged, i.e. has
more number of electrons than protons).
The moving free electrons cause more
collisions and more electrons, as a chain
reaction ensues.
 The process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged (cations) while
the middle layer is negatively (anions) charged.
 It produces heat, leading to the heating of the air column between the two layers of the cloud.
 It is because of this heat that the air column looks red during lightning.
 The heated air column expands and produces shock waves that result in thunder.
Features of Lightning:
 Positive charge accumulates at both higher and lower altitudes.
 Larger and heavier cloud particles charge with a negative polarity.
 Smaller and lighter clouds particles charge with a positive polarity.
 Roughly two-thirds of all discharges occur within the cloud. The rest are between the cloud and the ground.
Lightning from Cloud to Earth
 Earth is a good conductor of electricity but is electrically neutral.
 In comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, however, it becomes positively charged.
 As a result, a flow of current (about 20-15%) gets directed towards the Earth as well.
 It is this current flow that results in damage to life and property. There is a greater probability of lightning
striking tall objects such as trees, towers or buildings.
 Once about 80-100 m from the surface, lightning tends to change course to hit taller objects (guess why very
tall buildings have a vertical pole above).
 This is because travelling through the air, which is a bad conductor of electricity, electrons try to find a better
conductor, and also the shortest route to the relatively positively charged Earth's surface.
 Several thousand thunderstorms occur over India every year.
 Incidents of lightning have been showing an increasing trend over the last 20 years, especially near the foothills
of the Himalayas.
 People are rarely hit directly by lightning. But such strikes are almost always fatal. The most common way in
which people are struck by lightning are by 'ground currents'.
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 The electrical energy, after hitting a tree or any other object, spreads laterally on the ground for some distance,
and people in this area receive electrical shocks. It becomes more dangerous if the ground is wet, or there is
conducting material like metal on it.
Prediction and Precautions
 Predicting a thunderstorm over a very precise location is not possible. Nor is the exact time that it is likely to
strike.
 People are advised to move indoors in a storm.
 Moving under a tree or lying flat on the ground can increase risks.
 Even indoors, electrical fittings, wires, metal and water must be avoided.
The World's Most Electric Place
 The most lightning activity on Earth is seen on the shore of Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela.
 At the place where the Catatumbo River falls. into Lake Maracaibo, sees 28 lightning flashes every minute
a phenomenon referred to as the Beacon of Maracaibo or the Everlasting Storm.
 The reason probably lies in the topography of the spot: winds blow across Lake Maracaibo -the largest in
South America (By volume of water, Titicaca is the largest lake in South America.
 Lake Maracaibo has a larger surface area, though some consider it to be a large brackish bay due to its direct
connection with the sea.) which is surrounded by swampy plains and connected to the Gulf of
Venezuela/Caribbean Sea by a very narrow strait.
 The Maracaibo plain is enclosed on three sides by high mountain sides into which air masses crash.
 The heat and moisture picked from the swampy plains creates electrical charges and, as the air is destabilized
at the mountain faces, thunderstorm activity characterised by almost non-stop lightning activity within clouds
results.
Deadly Strikes
 Direct Strike: Occurs most often in open areas.
 Side Flash (Or Side Splash): Occurs when lightning strikes a taller object and some current jumps on to the
victim, who ends up acting as a "short circuit" for the energy.
 Generally occurs when the victim is within a foot or two of the struck object. Most victims are those sheltering
under a tree in a rainstorm.
 Ground Current: When an object is struck, much of the energy travels outward in and along the ground
surface. This is 'ground current', and anyone close can be a victim.
 Ground current affects a larger area than other kinds of current and causes the most lightning deaths and
injuries.
 Conduction: Lightning can travel long distances in wires or other metal surfaces.
 Most indoor lightning casualties and some outdoor casualties are due to conduction.
Thunder:
 Lightning creates plasma (ionized gas medium) [Temperature as high as 30,000 °C].
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 The channel pressure greatly exceeds the ambient (surrounding) pressure, and the channel expands at a
supersonic rate (speed of sound).
 The resultant shock wave decays rapidly with distance and is eventually heard as thunder once it slows to the
speed of sound.

Tornado
 From severe thunderstorms sometimes
spiraling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low
pressure at the center, causing massive
destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is called a tornado.
 Tornadoes generally occur in middle
latitudes. The tornado over the sea is
called water sprout.
 A tornado is a violent windstorm characterized
by a twisting, funnel-shaped cloud.
 In the United States, twister is used as a
colloquial term for tornadoes.
 A tornado is a rotating column of air that is in
contact with both the surface of the earth and a
cloud, which is generally cumulonimbus and
occasionally cumulus.
 These whirling atmospheric vortices can
generate the strongest winds known on Earth:
wind speeds in the range of 500 km (300 miles) per hour.
 They are often referred to as twisters or cyclones.
 These violent storms are the manifestation of the atmosphere's adjustments to varying energy distribution. The
potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless atmosphere again
returns to its stable state.
 Tornado is a small-diameter column of violently rotating air developed within a convective cloud and in
contact with the ground.
 Tornados occur most often in association with thunderstorms during the spring and summer in the mid-
latitudes of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
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How are Tornadoes formed?

 First the rotating cloud base lowers.
 This lowering becomes a funnel, which continues descending
while winds build near the surface, kicking up dust and other
debris.
 Finally, the visible funnel extends to the ground, and the tornado
begins causing major damage.
Distribution of Tornadoes
 Rare in polar regions and infrequent at latitudes higher than 50°
North and 50° South.
 The temperate and tropical regions are the most prone to thunderstorms.
 Tornadoes have been reported on all continents except Antarctica.
 United States has the most violent tornadoes.
 Canada reports the second-largest number of tornadoes.
 In the Indian sub-continent, Bangladesh is the most prone country to tornadoes.
 At any moment there are approximately 1,800 thunderstorms in progress throughout the world.
How they are detected?
 Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler radar by recognizing
patterns in velocity and reflectivity data.
What is Fujitsa and Torro Scale?
 Fujitsa scale rates tornadoes by damage caused, and has been replaced in some countries by the updated
Enhanced Fujita Scale.
 FO or EFO is the weakest tornado, while F5 or EF5 is the strongest tornado.
 TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.
Waterspout
 Waterspout is an intense columnar vortex (usually appearing as a funnel-shaped cloud) that occurs over a body
of water.
 They are connected to a towering cumuliform cloud or a cumulonimbus cloud.
 Weaker than most of its land counterparts i.e. tornadoes.
 Most waterspouts do not suck up water; they are small and weak rotating columns of air over water.
 They are tornadoes in connection with severe thunderstorms but simply occur over water.
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Damage Caused by Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

 Many hazardous weather events are associated with thunderstorms.
 Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding,
 killing more people each year than hurricanes, tornadoes or lightning.
 Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year, and causes fatalities.
 Hail up to the size of softballs damages cars and windows, and kills livestock caught out in the open.
 Strong (up to more than 120 mph) straight-line winds associated with thunderstorms knock down trees, power
lines and mobile homes.
 Tornadoes (with winds up to about 300 mph) can destroy all but the best-built man-made structures.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
GEOGRAPHY

Lecture – 40
Air Masses and Fronts
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Air Masses and Fronts

Air Mass:
❖ Air mass is a large body of air with an area of around 1000 Sq. Km.
❖ It has distinct characteristics with respect to temperature and humidity.
❖ Its height extends from the surface to the lower stratosphere.
❖ There is very little or nil change in the temperature horizontally.
❖ Area mass is an integral part of the Planetary Wind System.
❖ One air mass interacts (front formation) with another air mass.
❖ When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the characteristics of
the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and plateaus.
❖ The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an Air Mass. It is
a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
❖ Air masses form an integral part of the global planetary wind system. Therefore, they are associated with
one or other wind belts.
❖ They extend from surface to lower stratosphere and are spread across thousands of kilometers.
Sources of Air Mass:
❖ The homogeneous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
❖ The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the subtropics (giving rise to tropical air masses) and
around the poles (the source for polar air masses).
❖ Source Region establishes heat and moisture equilibrium with the overlying air mass.
❖ When an air mass moves away from a source region, the upper level maintains the physical characteristics for
a longer period.
➢ This is possible because air masses are stable with stagnant air which does not facilitate convection.
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❖ There are five major source regions. These are:

1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
2. The subtropical hot deserts;
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
Conditions for the Formation of Air Masses:
❖ Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation (slightly at high pressure).
❖ There should be uniformity in meteorological conditions on the surface over which it is present.
❖ The air mass should be provided with sufficient time to adapt to the characteristics of the surface.
❖ Plain topography will generally assist their formation.
❖ Areas with high pressure but little pressure difference or pressure gradient are ideal source regions.
❖ Low-Pressure gradient (avoid wind movement within air mass) with gentle high pressure.
❖ There are no major source regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions are dominated by cyclonic and other
disturbances.
Different types of Air Mass:
1. Based on Temperature:
❖ Cold Air Mass:
➢ It is the air mass whose temperature is lower than that of the areas/regions visited or it passes over.
➢ It will be heavy, dry (relative humidity will be low) and creates stability conditions.
➢ Example: The air mass in the Arctic will be cold and moist, in Canada and Siberia it will be cold and
dry.
❖ Warm Air Mass:
➢ It is the air mass whose temperature is higher than the temperature of the region/area visited or the region
it passes over.
➢ It will be lighter and create instability. There will be clouds and precipitation.
➢ Example: In tropical oceans the air mass will be moist and warm, the air mass in deserts will be warm
and dry like Sahara, Kalahari, Thar etc.
2. On the basis of source regions:
❖ Continental Air Mass:
➢ It occurs on land
➢ If it occurs in tropics it is known as Continental Tropical Air Mass. Example: Africa.
➢ If it occurs in poles it is known as Continental Polar Air Mass. Example: Antarctica.
❖ Maritime Air Mass:
➢ It is formed on the ocean or water
➢ If it occurs in the tropics it is known as Maritime Tropical Air Mass. Example: Equatorial Pacific.
➢ If it occurs in poles it is known as Maritime Polar Air Mass. Example: Polar Sea.
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❖ Continental Arctic: If it occurs in the continental Arctic zone it is known as the Continental Arctic Air Mass.
❖ These categories are represented by a lowercase 'c' for continental or 'm' for maritime.
Air Masses Based on Source Regions:
❖ Accordingly, the following types of air masses are recognised:
1. Maritime tropical (mT);
2. Continental tropical (cT);
3. Maritime polar (mP);
4. Continental polar (cP);
5. Continental arctic (cA).
❖ Tropical Air Masses are warm and Polar Air Masses are cold.
❖ The heat transfer processes that warm or cool the air take place slowly.
❖ Arctic air masses occur over arctic regions, like Greenland and Antarctica.
❖ Polar air masses occur slightly farther from the poles, like in Siberia, Canada and the Northern Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans.
❖ Finally, tropical air masses occur in the tropics, so along the equator and over Mexico and the Southwest U.S
Cold Air Mass:
❖ A cold air mass is one which is colder than the underlying surface and is associated with instability and
atmospheric turbulence.
❖ Cold source regions (Polar Air Masses):
1. Arctic Ocean - cold and moist
2. Siberia - cold and dry
3. Northern Canada - cold and dry
4. Southern Ocean - cold and moist
Warm Air Mass:
❖ A Warm Air Mass is one which is warmer than the underlying surface and is associated with stable weather
conditions.
❖ Warm source regions (Tropical Air Masses)
1. Sahara Desert - warm and dry
2. Tropical Oceans - warm and Moist
Influence of Air Masses on Global Weather:
❖ The properties of an air mass that influence the accompanying weather are vertical distribution temperature
(indicating its stability and coldness or warmness) and the moisture content.
❖ The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents and cause precipitation over land
masses. Air Mass plays a role in the transfer of moisture from the equator to the poles.
❖ They transport latent heat, thus removing the latitudinal heat balance. It transfers heat from the equator to
the poles.
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❖ Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and storms originate at the contact zone
between different air masses and the weather associated with these disturbances is determined by the
characteristics of the air masses involved.
❖ It plays a role in the formation of weather phenomena like precipitation, thunderstorms, cyclones, fog,
tornadoes and the formation of planetary winds.
Classification of Air Masses:
❖ Broadly, air masses are classified into polar and tropical air masses.
❖ Both the polar and the continental air masses can be either of maritime or continental types.
➢ Continental Polar Air Masses (cP)
➢ Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)
➢ Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT)
➢ Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT)
Continental Polar Air Masses (cP):
❖ Source regions of these air masses are the Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and Antarctica.
❖ These air masses are characterized by dry, cold and stable conditions.
❖ The weather during winter is frigid, clear and stable.
❖ During summer, the weather is less stable with the lesser prevalence of anticyclonic winds, warmer
landmasses and lesser snow.
❖ They are marked by surface high pressure, cold temperatures, and low dew points.
Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP):
❖ The source region of these air masses are the oceans lying between 40° and 60° latitudes.
❖ These are actually those continental polar air masses which have moved over the warmer oceans, got heated
up and have collected moisture.
❖ The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist and unstable. These are the regions which cannot lie
stagnant for long.
❖ The weather during winters is characterized by high humidity, overcast skies and occasional fog and
precipitation.
❖ During summer, the weather is clear, fair and stable.
Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT):
❖ They are part of upper-level westerlies
❖ The source regions of the air masses include tropical and Sub-tropical Deserts of Sahara in Africa, and of West
Asia and Australia.
❖ These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the source.
❖ They are dry throughout the year.
❖ Continental tropical air masses originate in northern Mexico. They are characterized by clear skies and
negligible rainfall.
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Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT):

❖ The source regions of these air masses include the oceans in the tropics and sub-tropics such as the Mexican
Gulf, the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.
❖ These air masses are warm, humid and unstable.
❖ The weather during winter has mild temperatures, and overcast skies with fog.
❖ During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous clouds and
convectional rainfall.
Continental Polar Air Maritime Polar Air Continental Tropical Maritime Tropical
Mass (cP) Mass (mP) Air Mass (cT) Air Mass (mT)
Source regions: It occurs Source regions: It occurs Source regions: It forms Source regions: These
in North America, between 450 – 600 latitude over warm and dry land form over tropical and
Eurasia, Siberia, and oceans. regions with high subtropical oceans.
Canada. Example: In the temperatures. Examples: Indian Ocean,
Norwegian Sea, North Example: Deserts of Gulf of Mexico,
Sea Tropics and Sub-Tropics Equatorial Pacific.
such as Africa, Arab, Thar
etc.
The air mass will be cold The air mass is moist and No clouds or The air mass will be
and dry with relatively cool. precipitation will form. It warm and moist with
low humidity. is a part of upper-level high relative humidity.
westerlies.
It is a stable air mass. It creates unstable It creates stable weather It creates unstable
weather conditions. conditions. weather conditions.
The weather will be clear The weather will be The weather conditions The weather conditions
with a frigid zone. humid with the will be warm and dry will be warm and
occurrence of fog and throughout the year. formations of clouds,
precipitation. thunderstorms and
Fronts will be formed precipitation will take
which will lead to frontal place.
rains, frontal storms and The types of clouds that
frontal cyclones. will form are cumulus
and cumulonimbus.

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