Unit VI: Microwave Measurements

Frequency Measurements
Power Measurements
Attenuation Measurements
VSWR Measurements
Impedance Measurements
Insertion Loss Measurements
Dielectric constant Measurements
Terminologies Low Frequency Microwave Frequency

Power Voltage and current can be Difficult to measure V and I in

measured hence is power transmission line hence is
desirable to measure power
directly.
Circuit Elements Lumped elements hence Distributed & impedance of
can be identified and whole circuitry can be
measured. measured.

Parameters Can be exactly known. Many parameters can not be

measured for their absolute
values i.e. relative
measurements.
There are various ways for frequency measurements:

Wave meter method.

Slotted line method.

Down conversion method.

Typically constructed from cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable
short circuit termination.
Shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of cavity
by changing cavity length.

•TE011 mode is used because of its higher

Q & absence of axial current.

•TM010 mode is excited in cavity

through coupling hole by magnetic
field coupling.
Possible oscillation due to plunger can be avoided by placing a block
of polytron at its back.
Different plunger position results in different cavity resonant
frequencies which can be calibrated by observing dip in power meter
which connected by means of waveguide.
For Q ranging from 1000-50,000 the accuracy of wavemeter is 1% to
0.005%.
Since power is absorbed in wavemeter at resonance this is called as
absorption type wavemeter.
Since distance between two minima dmin = λg/2 frequency can be
determined from relations:
λg
= d min ⇒ λ g = 2.d min
2
For waveguide:
λ0 λ0
λg = ⇒ λg =
  λ0   2   λ0  2 
1 −  λ   1 −  2a  
  c
    

λ0
For coaxial line: λg =
εr
Accurate measurement using heterodyne converter.
Unknown frequency fx is down converted by mixing it with known fa
(fx – fa = fIF) & is then amplified & measured by counter.
fa is obtained by = Local oscillator frequency X f1
Convenient frequency & is then passed through harmonic generator to
give series of harmonics of f1.

Appropriate harmonics are then selected by tuning cavity such that fa

can be added with fIF and displays unknown frequency fx.

Typical value for f1 = 100 to 500 MHz for a range of fx up to 20 GHz.

Microwave power is average power & inside a waveguide it is
invariant with measurement position.

Following are the techniques used for power measurement:

Measurement of low microwave power (0.01 mW-10mW): Bolometer
Technique.
Measurement of medium microwave power (10 mW-1W):
Calorimetric Technique.
Measurement of high microwave power (> 10 W): Calorimetric Watt
meter.
Bolometer & thermocouples whose resistance changes with applied
power are used measuring low microwave power.
Bolometer: Simple temperature sensitive device whose resistance
varies with temperature.
◦ Barremeter and Thermistor.
Barremeter have positive temperature coefficient & its resistance
increases with increase in temperature.
Consists of short platinum wire mounted in a cartridge like an
ordinary fuse.
Bolometer is at one arm & initially bridge is balanced by adjusting R5
which varies with DC power applied.
Let E1 be voltage of battery at balance, with microwave power applied
bolometer heats up & changes its resistance. Hence bridge becomes
unbalanced.
New power E2 is proportional to microwave power & detector ‘G’ can
be directly calibrated in terms of microwave power.
R6 & R7 are used for temperature compensation.
R6 & R3 are identical and close to bolometer elements.
If temp. is changed and R3 is reduced then it will not be termed as
microwave power change since R6 will reduce.
Thus more current will flow through R6 and hence lesser amount
through bridge and R3 hence bridge will be restored for balanced
condition.
Barremeter and Thermistor have limited power handling capability to
10 mW.
Power measuring capability can be increased by using directional
couplers.
20 dB directional coupler power + 10 dB attenuator power = 30 dB
down power received by bolometer. This method extends its range by
1000 times.
Principle: Temp. rise in special load is monitored which is
proportional to power responsible for its rise.
Water is used as a special load knowing its mass, specific heat and
temp. rise and known rate of fluid flow the power can be measured.
I/p load & I/p temp. gauge are closely placed so that temp. gauge will
sense change in temp. making bridge unbalanced.
Signal due to imbalance is then amplified & is given to comparison
load resistor placed near to comparison gauge.
Heat generated is transferred to comparison gauge making bridge
rebalanced.
For efficient and quick heat exchange components are immersed in
oil.
Power measurement accuracy is ± 5%.
To maintain constant temp. streams are passed through parallel flow
heat exchanger.
1200 Hz source and meter are separated by means of transformer.
Dry type or flow type.
Dry type: Consists of coaxial cable filled with dielectric having high
hysteresis loss.
Flow type: Circulating water, oil or any liquid which is good absorber
of microwaves.
Fluid changes its temp. when it passes through load because of
absorption of microwave power.
Exact power is measured by using eq’n P = RK ρ (T2 − T1 )
where P = Power measured 4 .18
R = Rate of flow (cm3/s) & (T2-T1) = Temp. diff. in 0C
K = Specific heat in cal/g & ρ = Specific gravity in g/cm3
 Ratio of input power to output power expressed in dBs.
Pin
Attenuatio n = 10 log
Pout
The amount of attenuation can be measured by two methods:
1. Power ratio method.
2. RF substitution method.
Measures the input power and output power with and without the
device whose attenuation is to be measured.

Set up 1

Set up 2
Measured attenuation corresponds to two power positions on power
meter with square law crystal detector chars.
Results will not be accurate if attenuation of n/w is large and if input
power is low.
Attenuation at single power position is measured.
Set up 1: Includes network whose attenuation is to be measured.

Set up 1

Set up 2: Network is replaced by precision attenuator.

Set up 2
Mismatched load, leads to reflected waves resulting in standing
waves.
Vmax 1 + ρ
Ratio of max. to min. voltage gives the VSWR. S = =
Vmin 1 − ρ
Preflcetd
Where ρ = reflection coefficient =
Pincident
S varied from 1 to ∞ as ρ varies from 0 to ∞
Adjusting attenuator to give adequate reading on meter.
Probe of slotted line is moved to get max. reading where attenuation
is adjusted to get full meter reading & it is noted down.
Then probe of slotted line is moved to get min. reading & ratio of max
to min reading is taken.
Full scale deflection corresponds to VSWR of 1.
 Double minimum method is used.
Probe is moved to a point where power is twice the min. and denoted
by d1.
Probe is then again moved for twice the power point on other side of
min. say d2.
2 Pmin α V x2
2
1 V min
= 2 ⇒ V x2 = 2 .V min
2
⇒ Vx = 2V min
2 Vx
λc = 2 a & λo = c f
λo λg
λg = ⇒ VSWR =
2 π ( d 2 − d1 )
1 −  o 
λ
 λc 
It can be measured by using any of the following method:

Using magic T
Using slotted line
Using reflectometer
Incident and reflected waves are due to mismatch of load under test
whose impedance is to be measured giving standing waves.
Set up 1: With ZL giving Vmax and Vmin is shown:

Set up 2: ZL is replaced & shift in Vmax and Vmin is measured.

If minimum shifted to left then impedance is inductive.
If minimum shifted to right then impedance is capacitive.
Both impedance and reflection coefficient can be obtained in
magnitude and phase.
Gives only magnitude of impedance but not phase angle.
Employs two directional couplers to sample Pi and Pr from load.
The magnitude of reflection coefficient is given from
Pr
ρ =
Pi
Knowing reflection coefficient VSWR and reflection coefficient can
be calculated from
1+ ρ z − zg
S= &ρ =
1− ρ z + zg
Where Zg = Known impedance & Z = Unknown impedance.
Due to directional coupler there will be no interference between
forward and reverse waves.
Insertion Loss = Reflected power from device due to mismatch +
Power attenuated.
Reflected power is measured using reflectometer technique.
Attenuated power is measured using RF substitution method hence
insertion loss can be measured.
 EM property of non-magnetic material or medium is defined by its
permeability (µ), conductivity (σ) & dielectric constant (ε).
Permeability (µ) : Gives efficiency of transfer of magnetic force.
Conductivity (σ) : Gives efficiency of transfer of electric charge.
Dielectric constant (ε) : Gives efficiency of transfer of electric force.
Complex dielectric constant is given by ε = ε0 (ε'− jε' ' )
ε = Dielectric constant in free space = εrε0
ε’ = Ability of dielectric to store energy &
ε’’ = Energy dissipation in medium.
ε
Where εr = Relative permittivity ε r = = ε '− jε ' ' = ε ' (1 − j tan δ )
εo
Loss tangent tan δ : Ratio of power dissipated to power stored/cycle
i.e. it is a measure of energy lost in the form of heat.
Roberts and Von Hippel method is employed.
Shift in minima of standing wave produced by a short circuit when a
dielectric sample is placed at its front.
Guide wavelength is measured using frequency meter & dielectric
thickness is measured using micrometer accurately.
Micrometer of short circuit is adjusted to read same value as thickness
of dielectric.
Exact position of two successive minima's are measured from SWR
meter.
Short circuit is removed and dielectric sample is then inserted into
aperture of short circuit.
Dielectric filled short circuit on SWR meter is then replaced &
position of first minima from SWR meter is measured, which will
give shift in minima. λg  2π ( ∆s + d ) 
X = tan  
d  λ 
 g 
For calculating dielectric constant Roberts and Von Hippel developed
a plot X vs V as shown in fig.
 tan( 2πV )
Unknown quantity X =
V
Where V = No. of wavelengths of microwave radiation in distance ‘d’
of dielectric filled guide.

For X values value V are read from plot & Dielectric constant is
measured from formula 2
 λo   λoV 
2

ε r = 1 −   +
  d 
 λg 
If εr is unknown repeat above procedure to get εrs, the average of these
two will give dielectric constant.
Ans:
Given: f = 10GHz ;a = 4cm; b = 2.5cm
For TE10 mode, λC=2a = 2x4 = 8cm
c 3 × 1010
λO = ⇒ 9
= 3 cm ⇒ λO = 3 cm
f 10 ×10
Also given d2-d1 = 1 mm

λo 3
We know λ g = ⇒ λg = ⇒ λ g = 3.236 cm
1 −  o 
λ
2
( 8)
1− 3
2

 λc 
Ans:
For double minimum method VSWR is given by;
λg
VSWR =
π (d 2 − d1 )

3 . 236
VSWR =
(
π 1 × 10 −1 )
VSWR = 10 . 3
Ans:
Pi
Given: = 3 mW ⇒ Pi = 3×100 mW ⇒ Pi = 300 mW
100
Pr
= 0.1 mW ⇒ Pr = 0.1×100 mW ⇒ Pr = 10 mW
100
Reflection coefficient
Pr 10
ρ= ⇒ρ= ⇒ ρ = 0.033 ⇒ ρ = 0.1816
Pi 300

VSWRs = 1 + ρ = 1 + 0.1816 ⇒ VSWRs = 1.44

1− ρ 1 − 0.1816
Ans:
We know that,
Pr
Reflection coefficient ρ =
Pi
0.15
⇒ρ=
2.5
⇒ ρ = 0.06 ⇒ ρ = 0.244

Now VSWR = 1 + ρ = 1 + 0.244 ⇒ VSWRs = 1.64

1− ρ 1 − 0.244
Ans:
We know that,
1+ ρ
Now VSWR = = 2 ⇒ (1 + ρ ) = 2(1 − ρ )
1− ρ
⇒ (1 + ρ ) = 2 − 2 ρ
⇒ 3ρ = 1 Hence ρ = 0 .333

Now Coupling Factor C = 10 log

Pi
= 30
Pf
Pi Pi
⇒ = 10 ⇒ Pf = 3
3

Pf 10
 Pi
Given 3
= 4.5mW or Pi = 4.5W
10
Pr 103
Reflection coefficient ρ =
Pi 103
Pr
⇒ρ=
Pi
Pr
⇒ρ = 2

Pi
⇒ Pr = ρ 2 × Pi
⇒ Pr = (0.333) × 4.5 = 0.499W
2

⇒ Pr ≅ 0.5 W
 Refer:
1.Microwave and Radar Engineering by M. Kulkarni
2.Microwave Engineering by Annapurna Das