Languages of the Philippines

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Languages of the Philippines

Overview of the spread and overlap of the languages spoken

throughout the country, by the KWF (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino)

Official Filipino[2], English

National Filipino

 Aklanon
Regional
 Central Bikol

 Cebuano

 Chavacano
  Hiligaynon

 Ibanag

 Ilocano

 Ivatan

 Kapampangan

 Kinaray-a

 Maguindanao

 Maranao

 Pangasinan

 Sambal

 Surigaonon
 Tagalog

 Tausug

 Waray

 Yakan[3]

Vernacula Malay, Spanish, Philippine English, Taglish, Bislish

Foreign  Tamil

 Hokkien

 Mandarin

 Korean

 Japanese

 Arabic
 Latin

 Punjabi

Signed American Sign Language

Filipino Sign Language

Culture of the
Philippines
 Society

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o sign language
 People
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o indigenous peoples
 Religion
 Value system

Arts and literature

  Architecture
 Arts
 Dance
 Fashion and clothing
 Literature
 Music

Other

  Cuisine
 Cultural Properties
 Folklore
 Historical markers
 Media
o newspapers
o radio
o cinema
o TV
o Internet
 Mythology
 Public holidays
o festivals
 Sports

Symbols

  Anthem
  Bird
 Coat of arms
 Flag
 Flower
 Gem
 Great Seal
 Language
 Motto
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 Tree

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Life in the Philippines

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There are some 120 to 187 languages spoken in the Philippines, depending on the
method of classification.[4][5][6] Almost all are Malayo-Polynesian languages native to the
archipelago. A number of Spanish-influenced creole varieties generally
called Chavacano along with some local varieties of Chinese[7][8][9] are also spoken in
certain communities. The 1987 constitution designates Filipino, a standardized version
of Tagalog, as the national language and an official language along with English.
Filipino is regulated by Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino and serves as a lingua franca used
by Filipinos of various ethnolinguistic backgrounds.[10]
On October 30, 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law Republic Act 11106,
which declares Filipino Sign Language or FSL to be the country's official sign
language and as the Philippine government's official language in communicating with
the Filipino Deaf.[11]
While Filipino is used for communication across the country's diverse linguistic groups
and in popular culture, the government operates mostly using English. Including
second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Filipino than English in the
Philippines.[12] The other regional languages are given official auxiliary status in their
respective places according to the constitution but particular languages are not
specified.[13] Some of these regional languages are also used in education.[3]
The indigenous scripts of the Philippines (such as the Kulitan, Tagbanwa and others)
are used very little; instead, Philippine languages are today written in the Latin
script because of the Spanish and American colonial experience. Baybayin, though
generally not understood, is one of the most well-known of the Philippine indigenous
scripts and is used mainly in artistic applications such as on the Philippine banknotes,
where the word "Pilipino" is inscribed using the writing system. Additionally, the Arabic
script is used in the Muslim areas in the southern Philippines.
Tagalog and Cebuano are the most commonly spoken native languages, together
comprising about half of the population of the Philippines. Only Filipino and English are
official languages and are taught in schools. This, among other reasons, has resulted in
a rivalry between the two language groups.[14]

National and official languages[edit]

Language map of the 12 recognized auxiliary languages based on Ethnologue maps.

History[edit]
Spanish was the official language of the country for more than three centuries under
Spanish colonial rule, and became the lingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and
early 20th centuries. In 1863, a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating
free public schooling in Spanish.[15] It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution,
and the 1899 Malolos Constitution effectively proclaimed it as the official language of
the First Philippine Republic.[16] National hero José Rizal wrote most of his works in
Spanish. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of
English, the use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.
Under the U.S. occupation and civil regime, English began to be taught in schools. By
1901, public education used English as the medium of instruction. Around 600
educators (called "Thomasites") who arrived in that year aboard
the USAT Thomas replaced the soldiers who also functioned as teachers. The 1935
Constitution added English as an official language alongside Spanish. A provision in this
constitution also called for Congress to "take steps toward the development and
adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native
languages." On November 12, 1937, the First National Assembly created the National
Language Institute. President Manuel L. Quezón appointed
native Waray speaker Jaime C. De Veyra to chair a committee of speakers of
other regional languages. Their aim was to select a national language among the
other regional languages. Ultimately, Tagalog was chosen as the base language on
December 30, 1937, on the basis that it was the most widely spoken and developed
local language.[17]
In 1939, President Manuel L. Quezón renamed the Tagalog language as Wikang
Pambansa ("national language" in English translation).[18] The language was further
renamed in 1959 as Pilipino by Secretary of Education Jose Romero. The 1973
constitution declared the Pilipino language to be co-official, along with English, and
mandated the development of a national language, to be known as Filipino. In addition,
Spanish regained its official status when President Marcos signed Presidential Decree
No. 155, s. 1973.[19]
The 1987 Constitution declares Filipino as the national language of the country. Filipino
and English are the official languages, with the recognition of the regional languages as
auxiliary official in their respective regions (though not specifying any particular
languages). Spanish and Arabic are to be promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.
[20]
Filipino also had the distinction of being a national language that was to be
"developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages."
Although not explicitly stated in the constitution, Filipino is in practice almost completely
composed of the Tagalog language as spoken in the capital, Manila; however,
organizations such as the University of the Philippines began publishing dictionaries
such as the UP Diksyonaryong Filipino in which words from various Philippine
languages were also included. The present constitution is also the first to give
recognition to other regional languages. The constitution also made mention of Spanish
and Arabic, both of which are to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.
Republic Act No. 7104, approved on August 14, 1991, created the Commission on
the Filipino Language, reporting directly to the President and tasked to undertake,
coordinate and promote researches for the development, propagation and preservation
of Filipino and other Philippine languages.[21] On May 13, 1992, the commission issued
Resolution 92–1, specifying that Filipino is the
...indigenous written and spoken language of Metro Manila and other urban centers in
the Philippines used as the language of communication of ethnic groups.[22]

Usage[edit]

Sign in Palawan in English, Filipino, Cebuano, Chinese, Korean and Russian.

Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila.[23] Both

Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and
business, with third local languages often being used at the same time.[24] Filipino has
borrowings from, among other languages, Spanish,[25] English,[26] Arabic,[27] Persian,
Sanskrit,[28] Malay,[29] Chinese,[30][31] Japanese,[32] and Nahuatl.[33] Filipino is an official
language of education, but less important than English as a language of publication
(except in some domains, like comic books) and less important for academic-scientific-
technological discourse. Filipino is used as a lingua franca in all regions of the
Philippines as well as within overseas Filipino communities, and is the dominant
language of the armed forces (except perhaps for the small part of the
commissioned officer corps from wealthy or upper-middle-class families) and of a large
part of the civil service, most of whom are non-Tagalogs.
There are different forms of diglossia that exist in the case of regional languages. Locals
may use their mother tongue or the regional lingua franca to communicate amongst
themselves, but sometimes switch to foreign languages when addressing outsiders.
Another is the prevalence of code-switching to English when speaking in both their first
language and Tagalog.
The Constitution of the Philippines provides for the use of the vernacular languages as
official auxiliary languages in provinces where Filipino is not the lingua franca. Filipinos
by and large are polyglots; In the case where the vernacular language is a regional
language, Filipinos would speak in Filipino when speaking in formal situations while
the regional languages are spoken in non-formal settings. This is evident in major urban
areas outside Metro Manila like Camarines Norte in the Bikol-speaking area,
and Davao in the Cebuano-speaking area. As of 2017, the case of Ilocano and
Cebuano are becoming more of bilingualism than diglossia due to the publication of
materials written in these languages.[citation needed] The diglossia is more evident in the case of
other languages such
as Pangasinan, Kapampangan, Bikol, Waray, Hiligaynon, Sambal, and Maranao, where
the written variant of the language is becoming less and less popular to give way to the
use of Filipino. Although Philippine laws consider some of these languages as "major
languages" there is little, if any, support coming from the government to preserve these
languages. This may be bound to change, however, given current policy trends.[34]
There still exists another type of diglossia, which is between the regional languages and
the minority languages. Here, we label the regional languages as acrolects while the
minority languages as the basilect. In this case, the minority language is spoken only in
very intimate circles, like the family or the tribe one belongs to. Outside this circle, one
would speak in the prevalent regional language, while maintaining an adequate
command of Filipino for formal situations. Unlike the case of the regional languages,
these minority languages are always in danger of becoming extinct because of
speakers favoring the more prevalent regional language. Moreover, most of the users of
these languages are illiterate[specify] and as expected, there is a chance that these
languages will no longer be revived due to lack of written records.[citation needed]
In addition to Filipino and English, other languages have been proposed as additional
nationwide languages. Among the most prominent proposals are Spanish,[35]
[36]
and Japanese.[37][38]

Indigenous languages[edit]
Major languages by region. Regions marked with black diamonds denote the language comprises only a
substantial minority of the populace.

According to Ethnologue, a total of 182 native languages are spoken in the nation and
four languages have been classified as extinct: Dicamay Agta, Katabaga, Tayabas
Ayta and Villaviciosa Agta.[39] Except for English, Spanish, Chavacano and varieties of
Chinese (Hokkien, Cantonese and Mandarin), all of the languages belong to
the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family.
There are 4 indigenous languages with more than 5 million native speakers:[40]

 Tagalog
 Cebuano
 Ilocano
 Hiligaynon
and 7 with 1 million to 5 million native speakers:

 Bikol
 Masbateňo
 Waray
 Kapampangan
 Pangasinan
 Maguindanao
 Maranao
 Tausug
One or more of these is spoken natively by more than 90% of the population.
A Philippine language sub-family identified by Robert Blust includes languages of
north Sulawesi and the Yami language of Taiwan, but excludes the Sama–Bajaw
languages of the Tawi-Tawi islands, as well as a couple of North Bornean
languages spoken in southern Palawan.
Eskayan is an artificial auxiliary language created as the embodiment of a Bohol nation
in the aftermath of the Philippine–American War. It is used by about 500 people.
A theory that the indigenous scripts of Sumatra, Sulawesi and the Philippines are
descended from an early form of the Gujarati script was presented at the 2010 meeting
of the Berkeley Linguistics Society.[41]
Mutual intelligibility[edit]
Philippine languages are often referred to by Filipinos as dialects, partly as a relic of the
inaccurate vocabulary used in literature during the American period (1898–1946).
[18]
While there are indeed many hundreds of dialects in the Philippines, they represent
variations of no fewer than 120 distinct languages, and many of these languages
maintain greater differences than those between established European languages like
French and Spanish.
The vast differences between the languages can be seen in the following translations of
what has been asserted to be the Philippine national proverb:[42]

Language Translation

He who doesn't know how to look back at the place he came from, will
English
never arrive at their destination.

El que no sabe cómo mirar hacia atrás al lugar de donde viene nunca
Spanish
llegará a su destino.

Philippine Hokkien (Lán-nâng- Hí-gê lâng é bô khòaⁿ kāi-kī ê kiâⁿ lō͘ , é bô tang kàu lō͘. 「許個儂彼無看
ōe) 家己的行路，彼無當到路。」

Malaysian & Indonesian (Malay) Orang yang melupakan asal-usulnya tak mungkin mencapai tujuannya.

Ro uwa' gatan-aw sa anang ginhalinan hay indi makaabut sa anang

Aklanon
ginapaeangpan.

Kag tawong waya giruromroma it ida ginghalinan, indi makaabot sa ida

Asi (Bantoanon)
apagtuan.

Bolinao Si'ya a kai tanda' nin lumingap sa pangibwatan na, kai ya mirate' sa keen
 na.

Bontoc (Ifuntok) Nan Adi mang ustsong sinan narpuwan na, adi untsan isnan umayan na.

Botolan Hay ahe nin nanlek ha pinag-ibatan, ay ahe makarateng ha lalakwen.

Kadtong dili kahibalo molingi sa iyang gigikanan, dili makaabot sa iyang

Butuanon
adtu-an.

West Miraya Bikol (Ligao) Kan idi tatao magkiling sa inalian, idi makaabot sa papaidtuhan.

Buhinon Bikol (Buhi) Yu di nikiling sa pinagalinan, di makaantos sa pupuntahan.

An dai tataong magsalingoy sa saiyang ginikanan, dai makakaabot sa

Central Bikol (Canaman)
padudumanan.

Gubatnon Bikol (Gubat) An diri maaram mag-imud sa pinaghalian, diri makaabot sa pakakadtu-an.

East Miraya Bikol (Daraga) Su indi tataw makarumdom nung ginitan, indi makaabot sa adunan.

Kan na taw na idi tataw maglinguy sa sanyang inalian, idi man maka abot
West Miraya Bikol (Oas)
sa sanyang paidtunan.

Rinconada Bikol (Iriga) A dirī tattaoŋ maglīlî sa pinaŋgalinan, dirī makaaābot sa pig-iyānan.

Ang indi kabalo magbalikid sa iya ginhalinan, indi makalab-ot sa iya

Capiznon
palakadtuan.

Sija nga dî kahibáwng molíngì sa íjang gigikánan, dî gajod makaabot sa

Cebuano Bohol (Binol-anon)
íjang padulngan.

Ang dî kahibáw molíngis' íyang gigikánan, dî gyud makaabots' íyang

Cebuano (Metro Cebu Variety)
padulngan.
 Ang dílì kahibalo molíngì sa iyáhang gigikánan, dílì gayod makaabot sa
Cebuano (Sialo-Carcar Standard)
iyáhang padulngan.

Chavacano Caviteño Quien no ta bira cara na su origen no de incarsa na su destinación.

Chavacano Ternateño Ay nung sabi mira i donde ya bini no di llega na destinación.

Chavacano Zamboangueño El Quien no sabe vira el cara na su origen, nunca llega na su destinación.

Ang ara agabalikid sa anang ing-alinan, indi enged maka-abot sa anang

Cuyonon
papakonan.

Ibanag I tolay nga ari mallipay ta naggafuananna, ari makadde ta angayanna.

Ti tao nga saan na ammo tumaliaw iti naggapuanna ket saan nga
Ilokano
makadanon iti papananna.

Ya tolay nga mari mallipay tsa naggafuananna, mari makakandet tsa

Itawis
angayanna.

Ang indi kabalo magbalikid sang iya nga ginhalinan, indi makaabot sa iya
Hiligaynon (Ilonggo)
nga pakadtuan.

Jama Mapun Soysoy niya' pandoy ngantele' patulakan ne, niya' ta'abut katakkahan ne.

Ing e byasang malikid king kayang penibatan, e ya miras king kayang

Kapampangan
pupuntalan.

An dili kahibayu mulingi sa ija gigikanan, dili makaabot sa ija

Kabalian
pasingdan/paduyungan.

Ang indi kamaan magbalikid sa ana ginhalinan, indi makaabot sa ana

Kinaray-a
paaragtunan.
 Iddos minuvu no konnod kotuig nod loingoy to id pomonan din,
Manobo (Obo)
konna mandad od poko-uma riyon tod undiyonnan din.

So tao a di matao domingil ko poonan iyan na di niyan kakowa so singanin

Maranao
iyan.

Masbateño An dili maaram maglingi sa ginhalian, kay dili makaabot sa kakadtuhan.

Pangasinan Say toon agga onlingao ed pinanlapuan to, agga makasabi'd laen to.

Northern Catanduanes Bikol Ang mai batid magkiling sa hinarian, mai makaabot sa pupuntahan.

Ang tawo nga bukon tigo mag lingig sa iya guinghalinan hay indi
Romblomanon (Ini)
makasampot sa iya ning pagakadtoan.

Sambali Hay kay tanda mamanomtom ha pinangibatan, kay immabot sa kakaon.

Sangil Tao mata taya mabiling su pubuakengnge taya dumanta su kadam tangi.

Sinama Ya Aa ga-i tau pa beleng ni awwal na, ga-i du sab makasong ni maksud na.

Adton dili mahibayo molingi sa ija ing-gikanan, dili gajod makaabot sa ija
Surigaonon
pasingdan.

Sorsoganon An diri mag-imud sa pinaghalian diri makaabot sa kakadtuan.

Ang hindi maalam lumingon sa pinaroonan ay hindi makakarating sa

Tagalog (Tayabas)
paroroonan.

Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makararating

Tagalog (Manila)
sa paroroonan.

Tausug In di' maingat lumingi' pa bakas liyabayan niya, di' makasampay pa

 kadtuun niya.

Waray (Leyte) An diri maaram lumingi ha tinikangan, diri maulpot ha kakadtoan.

Waray (Northern Samar) An diri maaram lumingi sa tinikangan, diri maulpot sa kakadtoan.

Mang gey matau mamayam si bakas palaihan nen, gey tekka si papilihan
Yakan
nen.

Dialectal variation
The amount of dialectal variation varies from language to language. Languages like
Tagalog, Kapampangan and Pangasinan are known to have very moderate dialectal
variation.
For the languages of the Bicol Region, however, there is great dialectal variation. There
are cities and towns which have their own dialects and varieties. Below is the sentence
"Were you there at the market for a long time?" translated into certain varieties of Bikol.
The translation is followed by dialect and corresponding language, and a city/town in
Bicol where they are spoken. The final translation is in Tagalog.

Haloy ka duman sa saod? (Standard Coastal Bikol, a dialect of Central


Bikol; Canaman, Camarines Sur)
 Aloy ka duman sa saod? (Magarao, a variety of Coastal Bikol; Magarao,
Camarines Sur)
 Huray ka doon sa saod? (Northern Catanduanes Bicolano or Pandan
Bikol; Pandan, Catanduanes)
 Naawat ka duman sa saod? (Southern Catanduanes Bikol or Virac Bikol, a
dialect of Coastal Bikol; Virac, Catanduanes)
 Naəban ikā sadtō sāran? (Rinconada Bikol; Iriga City)
 Nauban ikā sadtō sāran? (Rinconada Bikol; Nabua, Camarines Sur)
 Uban ika adto sa saod? (Libon, Albay Bikol; Libon, Albay)
 Naëǧëy ika adto sa saran? (Buhinon, Albay Bikol; Buhi, Camarines Sur)
 Ëlëy ka idto sa sëd? (West Miraya Bikol, Albay Bikol; Oas, Albay)
 Na-alõy ika idto sa sâran/merkado? (West Miraya Bikol, Albay
Bikol; Polangui, Albay)
 Naulay ka didto sa saran? (East Miraya Bikol, Albay Bikol; Daraga, Albay)
 Dugay ka didto sa merkado? (Ticao, Masbateño; Monreal, Masbate)
 Awat ka didto sa plasa? (Gubat, Southern Sorsogon; Gubat, Sorsogon)
 Awát ka didto sa rilansi? (Bulan, Southern Sorsogon; Bulan, Sorsogon)
 Matagal ka na ba roon sa palengke? (Tagalog)
Comparison chart[edit]
Below is a chart of Philippine languages. While there have been misunderstandings on
which ones should be classified as language and which ones should be classified
as dialect, the chart confirms that most have similarities, yet are not mutually
comprehensible. These languages are arranged according to the regions they are
natively spoken (from north to south, then east to west).

thr pers hou do coco ne we

English one two four day what and
ee on se g nut w (inclusive)

dado tatd vaha chi ara va-

Ivatan asa apat tao niyoy yaten ango kan
wa o y to w yo

mays tall upp bala alda bar

Ilokano dua tao aso inyog datayo ania ken
a o at y w o

Maguind duw wala bag

isa telu pat taw aso niyug gay tanu ngin engu
anao a y u

Tul Afo acə

Ifuntok əsang tswa əpat tacu aso inyog falu tsattaku ngag ya
o ng w

tadda tall app bala kit inniu agg bag

Ibanag dua tolay sittam anni anne
y u a' y u k aw u

add tall app bala baw sane

Gaddang tata tolay atu ayog aw ikkanetem e
wa o at y u nay

Pangasin duar talo apat abo age bal

sakey too aso niyog sikatayo anto tan/et
an a ra ira ng w o

Kapampa métun ngun bay ampon

adwá atlú ápat taú bale ásu aldó ikátamú nanú
ngan g gút u g/at

tol awr bâ-

Sambal saya rwa àpat tawu balè aso ungut udèng ani tan
o o yo

Tagalog isa dala tatl apat tao baha aso niyog ara bag tayo ano at
 wa o y w o

Coastal duw tul haro aya alda ba- asin,

saro apat tawo niyog kita ano
Bikol a o ng m w go buda

ag,
Rinconad darw tol balə aya noyo aldə bāg
əsad əpat tawō kitā onō sagkəd
a Bikol ā ō y m g w o
, sakâ

West dangan
duw tul balõ aya nuyo aldõ bâg
Miraya sad upat taw kita, sato uno , mî,
a o y m g w o
Bikol saka

dangan
East
duw tul bala aya nuyo alda bâg kita, satun, , mî,
Miraya usad upat taw uno
a o y m g w o kami saka,
Bikol
kina

North lubi /
daw tatl bara aya arda ba- kita, kami, kag /
Catandua sadu apat taho buton ano
ha o y m w go amo buda
nes Bikol g

Masbateñ tul bala buko, alda bag kita, kami,

usad duha upat tawo ido nano kag
o o y lubi w -o amon

Romblom tuy baya aya adla bag

isa duha upat tawo niyog kita, aton ano kag
anon o y m w -o

Bantoano tuy baya adla bag

usa ruha upat tawo iro nidog kita, ato ni-o ag
n o y w -o

darw tatl bala aya adla bag

Onhan isya apat tawo niyog kita, taton ano ag
a o y m w -o

Kinaray- darw tatl bala aya adla bag ano,

sara apat taho niyog kita, taten kag
a a o y m w -o iwan
Hiligayno tatl bala adla bag
isa duha apat tawo ido lubi kita ano kag
n o y w -o

tul bala adla bag

Cebuano usa duha upat tawo iro lubi kita unsa ug
o y w -o

tuy baya adla bag

Kabalian usa duha upat tawo ido lubi kita uno ug
o y w -o

tul bala aya adla bag ngan,

Waray usa duha upat tawo lubi kita ano
o y m w -o ug

Surigaon tuy baya Niyo adla bag

isa duha upat tao idu kami unu sanan
on o y g w -o

gun oh kda lom

T'boli sotu lewu tlu fat tau lefo tekuy tedu ne
u u w i

hamb duw adla ba-

Tausug tu upat tau bay iru' niyug kitaniyu unu iban
uuk a w gu

Zamboang
ueño:
nosotros/k
ame;
Chavacan cuat gent per nue cosá/
uno dos tres casa coco dia Bahra: y/e
o ro e ro vo qué
mijotros/m
otros;
Caviteño:
nisos

cuat pers per nue

Spanish uno dos tres casa coco día nosotros que y/e
ro ona ro vo

iâ
dī siám kap
Philippin it / saⁿ káu (椰) /
(二) sì lâng tshù di̍ t sin -mih (佮) /
e tsi̍ t (三 (狗 iâ-á lán (咱)
/ nňg (四) (儂) (厝) (日) (新) (啥 ka̍ h
Hokkien (一) ) ) (椰
(兩) 物) (交)
仔)
There is a language spoken by the Tao people (also known as Yami) of Orchid
Island of Taiwan which is not included in the language of the Philippines. Their
language, Tao (or Yami) is part of the Batanic languages which includes Ivatan,
Babuyan, and Itbayat of the Batanes.

on
English two three four person house dog coconut day new we what
e

dóa tílo
Tao ása ápat tao vahay gara ngata araw vayo tata vela
(raroa) (tatlo)

niyoy / va-
Ivatan asa dadowa tatdo apat tao vahay chito araw yaten ango
gata yo

Native speakers[edit]
Below are the number of Filipinos who speak the following 20 languages as a native
language based on the 2010 Philippine census by the Philippine Statistics Authority.[40]
[discuss]

Native languages in the Philippines

Tagalog (24.44%)
Cebuano (23.83%)
Ilocano (8.77%)
Hiligaynon (8.44%)
Waray (3.97%)
Kapampangan (3.02%)
Pangasinan (1.98%)
Maguindanao (1.58%)
Maranao (1.47%)
Tausug (1.33%)
Others (21.16%)

Language ISO 639-3 Native speakers

Tagalog tl 22,512,089

Cebuano ceb 21,943,948

 Language ISO 639-3 Native speakers

Ilocano ilo 8,074,536

Hiligaynon hil 7,773,655

Waray war 3,660,645

Kapampangan pam 2,784,526

Pangasinan pag 1,823,865

Maguindanao mdh 1,456,141

Maranao mrw 1,354,542

Tausug tsg 1,226,601

Caviteño 756,139

Capizeño cps 710,273

Masbateño msb 677,942

Karay-a krj 600,534

Aklanon akl, mlz 559,416

Manobo 549,784
 Language ISO 639-3 Native speakers

Subanën 492,978

Zamboangueñ
cbk 427,354
o

Ibanag ibg 402,591

Sama/Samal ssb, sml, sse, slm 369,553

Negrito languages[edit]
Main article: Philippine Negrito languages

Language vitality[edit]
2010 UNESCO designation[edit]
Endangered and extinct languages in the Philippines are based on the 3rd world volume
released by UNESCO in 2010.
Degree of endangerment (UNESCO standard)

Safe: language is spoken by all generations; intergenerational transmission is


uninterrupted
 Vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to
certain domains (e.g., home)
 Definitely endangered: children no longer learn the language as mother
tongue in the home
 Severely endangered: language is spoken by grandparents and older
generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not
speak it to children or among themselves
 Critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents and older,
and they speak the language partially and infrequently
 Extinct: there are no speakers left. These languages are included in the Atlas
if presumably extinct since the 1950s
Vulnerable languages

Speakers ISO 639-3

Language Province Coordinates Source
(in 2000) Code(s)
Central Cagayan 17°59′21″N 121°51′37″
779 Cagayan agt UNESCO 2000
Agta E

17°58′06″N 122°02′10″ David Bradley

Dupaninan Agta 1400 Cagayan duo
E (UNESCO 2000)

Definitely endangered

Speaker
ISO 639-3
Language s Province Coordinates Source
Code(s)
(in 2000)

14°25′57″N 120°28′44″ David Bradley

Bataan Agta 500 Bataan ayt
E (UNESCO 2000)

Mt. Iraya Camarines 13°27′32″N 123°32′48″ David Bradley

150 atl
Agta Sur E (UNESCO 2000)

10°06′29″N 119°00′00″ David Bradley

Batak 200 Palawan bya
E (UNESCO 2000)

Severely endangered

Speaker
ISO 639-3
Language s Province Coordinates Source
Code(s)
(in 2000)

18°01′37″N 120°29′34 David Bradley

Faire Atta 300 Ilocos Norte azt
″E (UNESCO 2000)

15°42′58″N 121°24′31 David Bradley

Northern Alta 200 Aurora agn
″E (UNESCO 2000)

Camarines Camarines 14°00′49″N 122°53′14 David Bradley

150 abd
Norte Agta Norte ″E (UNESCO 2000)

Critically endangered
 Speakers ISO 639-3
Language Province Coordinates Source
(in 2000) Code(s)

14°07′15″N 122°01′42 David Bradley

Alabat Island Agta 30 Quezon dul
″E (UNESCO 2000)

Camarines 13°40′50″N 123°22′50 David Bradley

Isarog Agta 5 agk
Sur ″E (UNESCO 2000)

Southern Ayta 13°01′37″N 124°09′18 David Bradley

150 Sorsogon ays
(Sorsogon Ayta) ″E (UNESCO 2000)

Extinct

Speakers ISO 639-3

Language Province Coordinates Source
(in 2000) Code(s)

Dicamay Agta David Bradley

(Dumagat, Dicamay 0 Isabela 16°41′59″N 122°01′00 duy (UNESCO
Dumagat) ″E 2000)

near Isabela- David Bradley

Arta 0 Quirino 16°25′21″N 121°42′15 atz (UNESCO
Border ″E 2000)

David Bradley
Katabaga 0 Quezon 13°26′12″N 122°33′25 ktq (UNESCO
″E 2000)

David Bradley
Negros 9°36′29″N 122°54′56″
Ata 0 atm (UNESCO
Oriental E 2000)

2014 North Dakota study[edit]

In a separate study by Thomas N. Headland, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in
Dallas, and the University of North Dakota called Thirty Endangered Languages in the
Philippines, the Philippines has 32 endangered languages, but 2 of the listed languages
in the study are written with 0 speakers, noting that they are extinct or probably extinct.
All of the listed languages are Negrito languages, the oldest languages in the
Philippines.[43]

Population of
General location
Language speakers Bibliographic source[43]
of speakers[43]
in the 1990s[43]

Batak Palawan Island 386 Elder 1987

Mamanwa Mindoro Island 1000 Grimes 2000

Ati Northern Panay Island 30 Pennoyer 1987:4

Ati Southern Panay Island 900 Pennoyer 1987:4

Ata Negros Island 450 Cadelina 1980:96

Ata Mabinay, Negros Oriental 25 Grimes 2000

Atta Pamplona, western Cagayan 1000 Grimes 2000

Atta Faire-Rizal, western Cagayan 400 Grimes 2000

Atta Pudtol, Kalinga-Apayao 100 Grimes 2000

Ayta Sorsogon 40 Grimes 2000

Agta (extinct, Grimes 2000; Reid, per.

Villaviciosa, Abra 0
unverified) com. 2001

Abenlen Tarlac 6000 K. Storck SIL files

Mag-anchi Zambales Tarlac, Pampanga 4166 K. Storck SIL files

Mag-indi Zambales, Pampanga 3450 K. Storck SIL files

Ambala Zambales, Pampanga, Bataan 1654 K. Storck SIL files

Magbeken Bataan 381 K. Storck SIL files

Isarog, Camarines Sur (noted as nearly

Agta 1000 Grimes 2000
extinct)

Mt. Iraya & Lake Buhi east, Camarines Sur

Agta 200 Grimes 2000
(has 4 close dialects)

Agta Mt. Iriga & Lake Buhi west, Camarines Sur 1500 Grimes 2000

Agta Camarines Norte 200 Grimes 2000

Agta Alabat Island, southern Quezon 50 Grimes 2000

Agta Umirey, Quezon (with 3 close dialects) 3000 T. MacLeod SIL files

Agta Casiguran, northern Aurora 609 Headland 1989

Agta Maddela, Quirino 300 Headland field notes

Agta Palanan & Divilacan, Isabela 856 Rai 1990: 176

Agta San Mariano-Sisabungan, Isabela 377 Rai 1990: 176

Agta (noted as Headland field notes,

Dicamay, Jones, Isabela 0
recently extinct) and Grimes 2000

Arta Aglipay, Quirino 11 (30 in 1977) Headland field notes,

 and Reid 1994:40

Alta Northern Aurora 250 Reid, per. comm.

Alta Northern Quezon 400 Reid, per. comm.

eastern Cagayan, Supaninam (several close

Agta 1200 T. Nickell 1985:119
dialects)

Mayfield 1987:vii-viii;
Agta central Cagayan 800
Grimes 2000

Proposals to conserve Philippine languages[edit]

There have been numerous proposals to conserve the many languages of the
Philippines. According to the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, there are 135 ethnolinguistic
groups in the country, each having their own distinct Philippine language.
Among the proposals include (1) "establishing a dictionary & sentence construction
manual" for each of the 135 living languages in the country, (2) "video
documentation" of all Philippine languages, (3) "revival of the ancient scripts of the
Philippines" where each ethnic group's own script shall be revived and used in schools
along with the currently-used Roman script in communities where those script/s used to
be known, (4) "teaching of ethnic mother languages first" in homes and schools before
the teaching of Filipino and foreign languages (English, Spanish, and/or Arabic), and
(5) "using the ethnic mother language and script first in public signs" followed by Filipino
and foreign languages (English, Spanish, and/or Arabic) and scripts, for example, using
Cebuano first followed by Filipino and English underneath the sign.
Currently, only the fourth proposal has been made by the national government of the
Philippines.[44] A National Script bill has been filed in Congress in support of the third and
fifth proposal, however, the bill only mandates the usage of the ancient script
compatible with the national language, which is Filipino.[45]

Major immigrant languages[edit]

French, German, Japanese, Chinese (Mandarin), Korean, and Spanish are taught in
some public and private schools.[46][47]
Arabic[edit]
Arabic is used by some Filipino Muslims in both a liturgical and instructional capacity
since the arrival of Islam and establishment of several Sultanates in the 14th century.
Along with Malay, Arabic was the lingua franca of the Malay Archipelago among Muslim
traders and the Malay aristocracy.[citation needed]
The 1987 Constitution mandates that Arabic (along with Spanish) is to be promoted on
an optional and voluntary basis. As of 2015 Arabic is taught for free and is promoted in
some Islamic centres predominantly in the southernmost parts of Philippines. It is used
primarily in religious activities and education (such as in a madrasa or Islamic school)
and rarely for official events or daily conversation. In this respect, its function and use is
somewhat like the traditional roles of Latin and Spanish in Filipino Catholicism vis-à-
vis other currently spoken languages.
Islamic schools in Mindanao teach Modern Standard Arabic in their curriculum.[48]
English[edit]
Main articles: Philippine English, Taglish, and Bislish
The first significant exposure of Filipinos to the English language occurred in 1762 when
the British invaded Manila during the Seven Years' War, but this was a brief episode
that had no lasting influence. English later became more important and widespread
during American rule between 1898 and 1946, and remains an official language of the
Philippines.
On August 22, 2007, three Malolos City regional trial courts in Bulacan decided to use
Filipino, instead of English, in order to promote the national language.
Twelve stenographers from Branches 6, 80 and 81, as model courts, had undergone
training at Marcelo H. del Pilar College of Law of Bulacan State University College of
Law following a directive from the Supreme Court of the Philippines. De la Rama said it
was the dream of former Chief Justice Reynato Puno to implement the program in other
areas such as Laguna, Cavite, Quezón, Nueva Écija, Batangas, Rizal, and Metro
Manila.[49]
English is used in official documents of business, government, the legal system,
medicine, the sciences and as a medium of instruction. Filipinos prefer textbooks for
subjects like calculus, physics, chemistry, biology, etc., written in English rather than
Filipino.[dubious – discuss] However, the topics are usually taught, even in colleges, in Tagalog or
the local language. By way of contrast, native languages are often heard in colloquial
and domestic settings, spoken mostly with family and friends. The use of English
attempts to give an air of formality, given its use in school, government and various
ceremonies.[citation needed] A percentage of the media such as cable television and newspapers
are also in English; major television networks such as ABS-CBN and GMA and all AM
radio stations broadcast primarily in Filipino, as well as government-run stations
like PTV and the Philippine Broadcasting Service. However, a 2009 article by
a UNICEF worker reported that the level of spoken English language in the Philippines
was poor. The article reported that aspiring Filipino teachers score the lowest in English
out of all of the subjects on their licensing exams.[50]
A large influx of English (American English) words have been assimilated into Tagalog
and the other native languages called Taglish or Bislish. There is a debate, however, on
whether there is diglossia or bilingualism, between Filipino and English. Filipino is also
used both in formal and informal situations. Though the masses would prefer to speak
in Filipino, government officials tend to speak in English when performing government
functions.[according to whom?] There is still resistance to the use of Filipino in courts and the
drafting of national statutes.
In parts of Mindanao, English and Tagalog blend with Cebuano to form "Davao
Tagalog".[51]
Hokkien[edit]
Main article: Philippine Hokkien
Diplomatic ties with the Ming dynasty among some established states or kingdoms
in Luzon and direct interactions and trade overall within the archipelago as a whole may
go as far back as the early 10th century. Mandarin Chinese is the medium of
instruction and subject matter being taught for Chinese class in Chinese schools in the
Philippines. However, the Lan-nang-ue variant of Hokkien Chinese is the
majority household and heritage language of the overseas Chinese in the Philippines,
who for generations originally mostly trace roots from Southern Fujian (pronounced
locally as Fukkien or Hokkien) province in China. Other varieties of Chinese such
as Yue Chinese (especially Taishanese or Cantonese), Teochew, and Hakka are
spoken among a minority of Chinese Filipinos whose ancestral roots trace all the way
back from the Guangdong or Guangxi provinces of Southern China. Most Chinese
Filipinos raised in the Philippines, especially those of families of who have lived in the
Philippines for multiple generations, are typically able and usually primarily
speak Philippine English and/or Filipino (Tagalog) and/or other regional Philippine
languages, or the code-switching or code-mixing of these, such as Taglish or Bislish,
but Philippine Hokkien is typically or occasionally used within Chinese
Filipino households privately amongst family or acts a heritage language among
descendants of such. Hokaglish is the code-switching equivalent of the above
languages.
As with Spanish, many native languages have co-opted numerous loanwords from
Chinese, in particular words that refer to cuisine, household objects, and Philippine
kinship terminology.
Japanese[edit]
The Japanese first came to the Philippines around the 11th century CE, the first country
they emigrated to, as well as in waves from the 15th century (as depicted in the Boxer
Codex) 17th century, late 19th century, 1900s, 1930s, and the 1940s.[52][53][54][55][56] There is a
small Japanese community and a school for Japanese in Metro Manila due to the
number of Japanese companies. Also there is a large community of Japanese and
Japanese descendants in Laguna province, Baguio, and in the Davao Region. Davao
City is a home to a large population of Japanese descendants. Japanese laborers were
hired by American companies like the National Fiber Company (NAFCO) in the first
decades of the 20th century to work in abaca plantations. Japanese were known for
their hard work and industry. During World War II, Japanese schools were present in
Davao City.
Korean[edit]
Korean is mainly spoken by the expatriates from South Korea and people born in
the Philippines with Korean ancestry. The Korean language has been added under
the Department of Education (DepEd) Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL)
curriculum, together with Spanish, French, German, Chinese, and Japanese.[57]
Malay[edit]
Main article: Malay language in the Philippines
Malay is spoken as a second language by a minority of the Tausug, Sama-Bajau,
and Yakan peoples in the southernmost parts of the Philippines, from Zamboanga down
to Tawi-Tawi.[citation needed] It is also spoken as a daily language by
the Malaysians and Indonesians who have settled, or do business in the Philippines. It
is also spoken in southern Palawan to some extent. It is not spoken among
the Maranao and Maguindanao peoples. Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and the southern
Philippines are largely Islamic and the liturgical language of Islam is Arabic, but the vast
majority of Muslims in the Philippines have little practical knowledge of Arabic beyond
limited religious terminology.
The Malay language, a Malayo-Polynesian language alongside the Philippine
languages, has had an immense influence on many of the languages of the Philippines.
This is because Old Malay used to be the lingua franca throughout the archipelago, a
good example of this is Magellan's translator Enrique using Malay to converse with the
native Sugbuanon (Cebuano) during this time period.
An example of Old Malay spoken in Philippine history can be seen in the language of
the 10th century Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
When the Spanish had first arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, Old Malay was
spoken among the aristocracy.
It is believed that Ferdinand Magellan's slave Enrique of Malacca could converse with
the local leaders in Cebu Island, confirming to Magellan his arrival in Southeast Asia.
Today, Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in the Department of Linguistics and
Asian Languages in the University of the Philippines. Also, the Indonesian School
in Davao City teaches the language to preserve the culture of Indonesian immigrants
there. The Indonesian Embassy in Manila also offers occasional classes for Filipinos
and foreigners.
Since 2013, the Indonesian Embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian
language training to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.[58]
In an interview, Department of Education Secretary Armin Luistro[29] said that the
country's government should promote Indonesian and Malaysian, which are both
related to Filipino and other Philippine languages. Thus, the possibility of offering it as
an optional subject in public schools is being studied.
South Asian languages[edit]
Since pre-Spanish times, there have been small Indian communities in the Philippines.
Indians tend to be able to speak Tagalog and the other native languages, and are often
fluent in English. Among themselves, Sindhi and Punjabi are used. Urdu is spoken
among the Pakistani community. Only few South Asians, such as Pakistani, as well as
the recent newcomers like speakers of Tamil, Nepali and Marathi retain their own
respective languages.[53][59][60][61][62][63]
Spanish[edit]
Main article: Spanish language in the Philippines
Spanish was introduced in the islands after 1565, when the
Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi set sail from Mexico and founded the
first Spanish settlement on Cebú. Though its usage is not as widespread as before,
Spanish has had a significant influence in the various local Philippine languages such
as providing numerous loan words.[50] Several Spanish-based creole language varieties
collectively known as Chabacano have also emerged. The current 1987 constitution
makes mention of Spanish in which it provides that Spanish (along with Arabic) is to be
promoted on an optional and voluntary basis.
In 1593, the first printing press in the Philippine islands was founded and it released the
first (albeit polyglot) book, the Doctrina Christiana that same year. In the 17th century,
Spanish religious orders founded the first universities in the Philippines, some of which
are considered the oldest in Asia. During colonial rule through Mexico, Spanish was the
language of education, trade, politics, and religion, and by the 19th century, became the
colony's lingua franca although it was mainly used by the educated Filipinos.[64] In 1863,
a Spanish decree introduced a system of public education, creating free public
schooling in Spanish. In the 1890s, the Philippines had a prominent group of Spanish-
speaking scholars called the Ilustrados, such as José Rizal. Some of these scholars
participated in the Philippine Revolution and later in the struggle against American
occupation. Both the Malolos Constitution and the Lupang Hinirang (national anthem)
were written in Spanish.
Under U.S. rule, the English language began to be promoted instead of Spanish. The
use of Spanish began to decline as a result of the introduction of English into the public
schools as a language of instruction.[15] The 1935 constitution establishing the Philippine
Commonwealth designated both English and Spanish as official languages. The 1950
census stated that Filipinos who spoke Spanish as a first or second language made up
only 6% of the population. In 1990, the census reported that the number had dwindled
to just 2,500. A 2012 survey estimates that while around 1 million people can speak
Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439,000 people can speak
the language at a native level.[65]
Spanish briefly lost its status as an official language upon promulgation of the 1973
constitution but regained official status two months later when President Marcos signed
Presidential Decree No. 155.[19] In the 1987 constitution, Spanish is designated as an
"optional and voluntary language" but does not mention it as an "official language".
Spanish was dropped as a college requirement during Corazón Aquino's administration.
Former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, a third-language Spanish speaker,
introduced legislation to re-establish the instruction of Spanish in 2009 in the state
education system. Today, the language is still spoken by Filipino-Spanish mestizos and
Spanish families who are mainly concentrated in Metro Manila, Iloilo and Cebu. It
remains an optional subject in some academic institutions, such as the University of
Santo Tomás in Manila and the University of San Carlos in Cebu. Most foreign
language study takes place in Grades 9–12, where over a third of the students study a
foreign language. Spanish is the most popular language, studied by about 28% of all
secondary school students, followed by French with 11%, and German with 3%. At the
primary level, over 6% of the students study foreign languages, again with Spanish
leading the list at 4.5% followed by French with 1.5%, and German and Japanese each
with 0.2% of enrollments.[citation needed]
Many historical documents, land titles, and works of literature are written in Spanish and
are still not translated into Filipino languages, despite the fact that some such as land
titles have legal value. Spanish, through colonization has contributed the largest number
of loanwords and expressions in Tagalog, Cebuano, and other Philippine languages.
[66]
The Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española (Philippine Academy of the Spanish
Language), established in 1924, is a founding member of the Association of Academies
of the Spanish Language; an association of the various Spanish academies of the world
which cooperate in the standardizing and promotion of the Spanish language. Among its
past and present academics are former President Arroyo, former Foreign Affairs
Secretary Alberto Romulo, and Archbishop of Cebú Cardinal Ricardo Vidal.
Spanish creoles[edit]
Main article: Chavacano
There are several Spanish-based creole languages in the Philippines, collectively
called Chavacano. These may be split into two major geographical groups:

 In Luzon:
o Caviteño (Chabacano de Cavite), spoken in Cavite City, Cavite.
o Ternateño (Chabacano de Barra), spoken in Ternate, Cavite.
o Ermitaño (Chabacano de Ermita), formerly spoken in Ermita,
Manila but is now extinct. The last reported speakers were a
woman and her grandson during the 1980s and 1990s.
 In Mindanao:
o Zamboangueño Chavacano (Chabacano de Zamboanga /
Zamboangueño Chavacano), spoken in Zamboanga
City, Zamboanga Sibugay, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del
Norte, Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi and Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia (
360,000 native speakers-Zamboanga City alone as per 2000
census, making it the most spoken form and known form of
Chavacano)
o Cotabateño (Chabacano de Cotabato), spoken in Cotabato
o Davaoeño Abakay (Chabacano de Davao), spoken in Davao City

See also[edit]
 Philippines portal

 Languages portal
  Filipino alphabet
 Filipino orthography
 Philippine languages
 List of English words of Philippine origin

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
1. ^ "The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines - GOVPH".
2. ^ Constitution of the Philippines 1987,[1] Article XIV, Section 7.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b "DepEd adds 7 languages to mother tongue-based education for Kinder to
Grade 3". GMA News Online. July 13, 2013. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
4. ^ "Philippines". Ethnologue. Retrieved September 28, 2017.
5. ^ McFarland, C. D. (1994). "Subgrouping and Number of Philippine Languages". Philippine
Journal of Linguistics. 25 (1–2): 75–84. ISSN 0048-3796.
6. ^ The Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino enumerated 134 Philippine languages and 1 national
language (Filipino) present in the country through its Atlas Filipinas map published in 2016.
7. ^ Tsai, Hui-Ming 蔡惠名 (2017). Fēilǜbīn zán rén huà (Lán-lâng-uē) yánjiū 菲律賓咱人話
（Lán-lâng-uē）研究 [A Study of Philippine Hokkien Language] (PhD thesis) (in Chinese).
National Taiwan Normal University.
8. ^ Wong Gonzales, Wilkinson Daniel (May 2016). "Exploring trilingual code-switching: The
case of 'Hokaglish' (PDF Download Available)". Retrieved October 24, 2016 – via
ResearchGate.
9. ^ Palanca, Ellen H. (2002). "A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines
and Malaysia*" (PDF). Asian Studies. 38 (2): 1 – via Asian Studies: Journal of Critical
Perspectives on Asia.
10. ^ Filipino, not English, is the country’s lingua franca, Inquirer, Feb 27, 2014
11. ^ "[Republic Act No. 11106] An Act Declaring the Filipino Sign Language as the National Sign
Language of the Filipino Deaf and the Official Sign Language of Government in All
Transactions Involving the Deaf, and Mandating Its Use in Schools, Broadcast Media, and
Workplaces" (PDF). Official Gazette. Government of the Philippines. October 30, 2018.
12. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Gary F. Simons; Charles D. Fennig, eds.
(2021). "Philippines". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Twenty-fourth ed.). Dallas,
Texas: SIL International.
13. ^ The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as
auxiliary media of instruction therein... Article XIV Section 7.
14. ^ Dow, James R. (January 1, 1991). Language and Ethnicity. John Benjamins Publishing.
pp. 111–130. ISBN 978-90-272-2081-3.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b "Philippines – Education". CountryStudies.us. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
16. ^ Article 93 of the Malolos Constitution reads, "Art. 93. The use of languages spoken in the
Philippines shall be optional. This use cannot be regulated except by virtue of law, and solely
for acts of public authority and in the courts. For these acts the Spanish language will be used
in the meantime."
17. ^ Manuel L. Quezon (December 1937). "Speech of His Excellency, Manuel L. Quezón,
President of the Philippines on Filipino national language" (PDF). p. 4. Retrieved January
14, 2009.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b Gonzalez, Andrew (1998). "The Language Planning Situation in the
Philippines" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 19 (5, 6): 487–
525. doi:10.1080/01434639808666365. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2007.
Retrieved March 24, 2007.
19. ^ Jump up to:a b "Presidential Decree No. 155 : Philippine Laws, Statutes and Codes". Chan
Robles Virtual Law Library. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
20. ^ Article XIV, Sec 7: For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of
the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional
languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary
media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and
optional basis.
21. ^ "Commission on the Filipino Language Act". Chan Robles Law Library. Retrieved July
19, 2007.
22. ^ "Resolusyon Blg. 92-1" (in Filipino). Commission on the Filipino Language. May 13, 1992.
Retrieved March 24, 2007.
23. ^ Takacs, Sarolta (2015). The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe,
Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia,
Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific. Routledge. p. 659. ISBN 978-1-317-45572-1.
24. ^ Brown, Michael Edward; Ganguly, Sumit (2003). Fighting Words: Language Policy and
Ethnic Relations in Asia. MIT Press. pp. 323–325. ISBN 978-0-262-52333-2.
Retrieved August 4, 2020.
25. ^ Lopez, Cecilio (January 1, 1965). "The Spanish overlay in Tagalog". Lingua. 14:
477. doi:10.1016/0024-3841(65)90058-6. ISSN 0024-3841.
26. ^ Baklanova, Ekaterina (March 20, 2017). "Types of Borrowings in Tagalog/Filipino". Kritika
Kultura (28). doi:10.13185/KK2017.02803.
27. ^ Donoso, Isaac J. (2010). "The Hispanic Moros y Cristianos and the Philippine
Komedya". Philippine Humanities Review. 11: 87–120. ISSN 0031-7802. Thus, Arabic
words became integrated into Philippine languages through Spanish (e.g., alahas (alhaja, al-
haja), alkalde (alcalde, al-qadi), alkampor (alcanfor, al-kafiir), alkansiya (alcancia, al-
kanziyya), aldaba (aldaba, al-dabba), almires (almirez, al-mihras), baryo (barrio, al-barri),
kapre (cafre, kafir), kisame (zaquizami, saqf fassami), etc.)
28. ^ Haspelmath, Martin (2009). Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative
Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 724. ISBN 978-3-11-021843-5.
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foreign language". The Philippine Star. Retrieved June 11, 2013.
30. ^ Chan-Yap, Gloria (1980). Hokkien Chinese borrowings in Tagalog. Dept. of Linguistics,
School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-85883-225-1. The
number of loanwords in the domain of cookery is rather large, and they are, by far, the most
homogeneous of the loanwords.
31. ^ Joaquin, Nick (2004). Culture and history. Pasig. p. 42. ISBN 978-971-27-1426-
9. OCLC 976189040.
32. ^ Potet, Jean-Paul G. (2016). Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates. Raleigh, NC: Lulu Press,
Inc. p. 343. ISBN 978-1-326-61579-6.
33. ^ "Mexico, our older sister". Manila Bulletin News. Archived from the original on April 13,
2018. Retrieved April 13, 2018.
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Filipino). Commission on the Filipino Language. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
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schools". GulfNews. Retrieved August 6, 2018.
36. ^ Weedon, Alan (August 10, 2019). "The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage,
and for some it's paying off". ABC News. Retrieved December 23, 2020.
37. ^ Gonzales, Richard DLC. "NIHONGO NO BENKYOU: WHY AND HOW FILIPINOS LEARN
JAPANESE LANGUAGE".
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Philippines". Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota
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democracy.org. Forum for a safer democracy. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
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General references[edit]
 Bellwood, Peter; Fox, James; Tryon, Darrell (1995). The Austronesians: Historical and
comparative perspectives. Department of Anthropology, Australian National University. ISBN 0-
7315-2132-3.
 "Ethnologue report for Philippines".
 Lobel, Jason William; Tria, Wilmer Joseph S. (2000). An Satuyang Tataramon: A Study of the
Bikol language. Lobel & Tria Partnership Co. ISBN 971-92226-0-3.
  Mintz, Malcolm Warren (2001). "Bikol". Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of
the World's Major Languages, Past and Present. ISBN 0-8242-0970-2.
 Reid, Lawrence A. (1971). Philippine minor Languages: Word lists and phonologies. University of
Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-87022-691-6.
 Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez (1998). Tagalog-English English-Tagalog Dictionary. Hippocrene
Books. ISBN 0-7818-0961-4.
 Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez (2000). Ilocano Dictionary and Grammar. University of Hawai'i
Press. ISBN 0-8248-2088-6.
 Rubino, Carl Ralph Galvez. "The Philippine National Proverb". Translated into various Philippine
languages. Retrieved July 28, 2005.
 Sundita, Christopher Allen (2002). In Bahasa Sug: An Introduction to Tausug. Lobel & Tria
Partnership, Co. ISBN 971-92226-6-2.
 Sundita, Christopher. "Languages or Dialects?". Understanding the Native Tongues of the
Philippines. Archived from the original on June 16, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2005.
 Yap, Fe Aldave (1977). A Comparative Study of Philippine Lexicons. Institute of Philippine
languages, Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. ISBN 971-8705-05-8.
 Zorc, R. David (1977). "The Bisayan dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and
reconstruction". Pacific Linguistics. C (44).
 Zorc, R. David (2001). "Hiligaynon". Facts About the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the
World's Major Languages, Past and Present.
 Viray, Joseph Reylan B. (2006). "Dagang Simbahan". Makata International Journal of
Poetry. 7 (12).
 de la Rosa, Luciano (1960). "El Filipino: Origen y Connotación". El Renacimiento Filipino.

Further reading[edit]
 Dedaić, Mirjana N.; Nelson, Daniel N. (2003). At War With Words. Walter de
Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-017649-1. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
 Hamers, Josiane F. (2000). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-64843-2. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
 Tupas, Ruanni (2015). "The Politics of "P" and "F": A Linguistic History of
Nation-Building in the Philippines". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development. 36 (6): 587–
597. doi:10.1080/01434632.2014.979831. S2CID 143332545.
 Thompson, Roger M. (January 1, 2003). Filipino English and Taglish:
Language Switching from Multiple Perspectives. John Benjamins
Publishing. ISBN 9789027248916.

External links[edit]
 Linguistic map of the Philippines at Muturzikin.com
 Ricardo Maria Nolasco on the diversity of languages in the Philippines
 Lawrence R. Reid webpage of Dr. Lawrence A. Reid. Researcher Emeritus of linguistics at the
University of Hawai'i at Manoa. Has researched Philippine languages for decades.
 The Metamorphosis of Filipino as a National Language
 Carl Rubino webpage of Dr. Carl Rubino. A Filipino linguist who has studied Philippine languages.
 Literatura hispanofilipina: siglos XVII al XX by Edmundo Farolan Romero, with a brief Philippine
poetry anthology in Spanish.
  Salita Blog by Christopher Sundita. A blog about a variety of issues concerning the languages of
the Philippines.
 Espaniero An Online Spanish conversation group for Pinoys
 Philippine Language Tree
 The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines, by Andrew González, FSC
 kaibigankastila webpage of the Spanish culture in the Philippines.
 On linguistic mutual intolerance in the Philippines
 Filipino Translator
 Tagalog Translator Online Online dictionary for translating Tagalog from/to English, including
expressions and latest headlines regarding the Philippines.
 Linguistic map of the Philippines
 Learn Philippine Languages a compilation of lessons about languages of the Philippines.

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