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Chapter-10 Mechanical and Sound Waves

Mechanical waves require a medium and can be longitudinal or transverse. A longitudinal wave has particles moving parallel to the wave direction, while in a transverse wave particles move perpendicular. The wave equation describes a wave as a function of position and time. Superposition of waves occurs when multiple waves interact by adding their displacements. Standing waves result from interference of identical waves moving in opposite directions, forming nodes of no displacement and antinodes of maximum displacement.

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86 views14 pages

Chapter-10 Mechanical and Sound Waves

Mechanical waves require a medium and can be longitudinal or transverse. A longitudinal wave has particles moving parallel to the wave direction, while in a transverse wave particles move perpendicular. The wave equation describes a wave as a function of position and time. Superposition of waves occurs when multiple waves interact by adding their displacements. Standing waves result from interference of identical waves moving in opposite directions, forming nodes of no displacement and antinodes of maximum displacement.

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Mechanical Waves and Vibrating Bodies

Mechanical waves:
A wave is a method of transferring energy from one place to another without transferring matter.
Mechanical waves are those that require a medium for their transfer. Water waves, sound waves,
waves in stretched strings, etc. are examples of mechanical waves.

A disturbance at a position causes a disturbance of a particle that drags its neighbor’s particles along
with it until the disturbance reaches a new position. If the disturbance at the source continues, the
wave is maintained, and if it is simple harmonic, then a plot of the displacement of the particles at a
single point in time is a sine curve. This is the basic nature of a mechanical wave that is considered
when looking at mechanical waves.

There are two basic types of wave motion for mechanical waves: longitudinal waves and transverse
waves.

Figure 1: Longitudinal and transverse wave

Longitudinal waves:
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction which the wave moves.

Transverse waves:
A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a direction perpendicular to
the direction which the wave moves.

Mathematical description of a wave:


We consider a stretched string which in its equilibrium position lies along the x- axis of a coordinate
system. During wave motion each particle, labeled by its equilibrium x, is displaced some distance y
in the transverse direction. The value of y depends on which particle of string is being described
(that is, on x) and also on the time t at which we look at it. Thus y is a function of x and t: y = f (x,
t). Once the function y = f (x, t) is known, it constitutes a complete description of the motion. Such a
function is called a wave function.

As a sinusoidal wave travels from left to right on a string, each particle undergoes simple harmonic
motion, but successive particles have left end (at x = 0) where the motion originates. Let the
displacement of a particle at the origin (x = 0) be given by

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 1 of 14
The time required for the wave disturbance to travel from x = 0 to some point x to the right of the
origin is given by x/v, where v is the wave speed. The motion of a point at time t is the same as the
motion of point x = 0 at the earlier time t – x/v. Thus the displacement of point x at time t is obtained
simply by replacing t in eq. (1) by (t – x/v), and we find

( )

The notation y(x, t) is a reminder that the displacement y is a function of both the location x of the
point and the time t. Eq. (2) can be rewritten in several alternative forms, conveying the same
information in different ways. In terms of the wave number k and wavelength , we find

( )

( )

( ) [ ]

( ) [ ]

( )

( )

[ ]

[ ]

Where, k is called the propagation constant or wave number as

The above formulas may be used to represent a wave traveling in the negative x- direction by
making a simple modification. In this case the displacement of point x at time t is the same as the
motion of point x = 0 at the later time (t + x/v), and in eq. (1) we must replace t by (t + x/v). Thus,
for a wave traveling in the negative x- direction

[ ]

Summary:

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]
[ ]

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Differential Equation of Wave:

The equation of wave moving in the positive X direction is following,

Now, differentiating twice equation (5) with respect to time (t),

[ { }]

[ ]

Again, differentiating twice equation (5) with respect to position (x)

[ { }]

[ ]

Now divide equation (6) by equation (7)

This is a second order partial differential equation which is called the weave equation.

Particle speed: The particle speed v for any point in a transverse wave (that is, at a fixed point of x)
is obtained by taking the derivative of y with respect to t, holding x constant. Thus for a sinusoidal
wave given by eq. (4), we have

Acceleration: The acceleration of the point is the second partial derivative of eq. (4)

Principle of superposition:
When a continuous succession of waves, such as a sinusoidal wave, arrives at a fixed end of the
string, a corresponding continuous succession of reflected waves originates at this end and travels in
the opposite direction. The resulting motion of the string is determined by an extremely important
principle known as the principle of superposition, which states that
Dr. Bablu Chandra Das
Assistant Professor Page 3 of 14
“The actual displacement of any point on the string, at any time, is obtained by adding the
displacement that point would have if only the first wave were present, and the displacement it
would have with only the second wave”.

Mathematically, if y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) are the wave functions of the two separate waves, then
according to the principle of superposition the wave function describing the resulting motion is the
summation of the wave function of these waves, i.e. y1 + y2.

Standing waves:
Standing wave patterns are produced as the result of the repeated interference of two waves of
identical frequency while moving in opposite directions along the same medium. All standing wave
patterns consist of nodes and antinodes.

Standing wave patterns are characterized by certain fixed points along the medium which undergo
no displacement. These points of no displacement are called nodes. The nodes are always located at
the same location along the medium, giving the entire pattern an appearance of standing still (thus
the name “standing waves”).

Nodes Antinodes

Figure 2: Standing waves

Midway between every consecutive nodal point there are points which undergo maximum
displacement. These points are called antinodes. Antinodes are points along the medium which
oscillate back and forth between a large positive displacement and a large negative displacement.

The wave function for the standing waves can be obtained by adding the displacements of two
waves of equal amplitude, time period, and wavelength, traveling in opposite directions. Thus, if

[ ]
[ ]

Then the wave function of the standing wave is

[ ]

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( ) ( )

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ]

Therefore, the shape of the string at each instant is a cos curve whose amplitude (i.e. ),
varies with time.
The positions of nodes can be obtained from eq. (9) wherever , the displacement is
always zero. This occurs when

[ ]

The value of x represents the position of possible nodes in the standing wave.

The positions of antinodes can be obtained from eq. (9) wherever , the displacement
will be maximum in both directions. This occurs when

[ ]

The value of x represents the position of possible antinodes in the standing wave

Let us consider a string fixed at both ends. A sinusoidal wave is reflected and re-reflected; and since
the string is fixed at both ends, both ends must be nodes. If we consider a particular string of length

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of L, standing wave may be set up in the string by vibrating of a number of different frequencies,
these that give rise to waves of wavelengths,

Figure 3

The wave speed v is same for all frequencies. Form the relationship, , the possible frequencies
are,

The lowest frequency, , is called fundamental frequency and the others are the overtones. The
frequencies of the latter are therefore, , , and so on.

Fundamental frequency,

If we consider the tension on the string is and mass per unit length of the string is *
+, then the frequency will be

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Assistant Professor Page 6 of 14
√ [ √ √ ]

Math for practice:

1. A transverse sine wave of amplitude 10 cm and wavelength 200 cm travels from left to right
along a long horizontal string with a speed 100 cm/s. Take the origin at the left end. At time
t=0, the left end of the string is at the origin and is moving downward
i. Find the frequency, angular frequency, and propagation constant. [0.5 Hz, 3.14 /s,
o.o31 /cm]
ii. What is the equation of the wave? [ ( )]
iii. What is the equation of motion of the left end of the string? [ ]
iv. What is the equation of a particle 150 cm to the right of the string? [ (
)]
2. A certain string has a linear mass density of 0.25 kg/m and is stretched with a tension of 25 N.
One end is given a sinusoidal motion with frequency 5 Hz and amplitude 0.01 m. At t = 0 the
end has zero displacement and is moving in the +y direction.
i. Find the wave speed, amplitude, angular frequency, period, wave length and wave
number. [10 m/s, 0.01 m, 31.4 /s, 0.2 s, 2 m, 3.14 /m]
ii. Write a wave function describing the wave. [ ]
iii. Find the position of the point at x = 0.25 m at time t = 0.1 second. [0.00707 m]
iv. Find the transverse velocity of the point at x = 0.25 m at time, t = 0.1 second. [-0.22
m/s]
3. The equation of a transverse traveling wave on a string is [ ]
where x and y are in centimeters and t is in seconds. Find the wavelength, frequency, time
period and velocity of propagation. [2 cm, 100 Hz, 0.01 s, 400 cm/s ]
4. The equation of a transverse traveling wave on a string is, , where x and
y are expressed are in cm and t is in seconds. Find the amplitude, wavelength, frequency,
period and velocity of the propagation. [2 cm, 30 cm, 100 Hz, 3000 cm/s]
5. A steel piano wire 50 cm long of mass 5 g is stretched with a tension of 400 N.
(a) What is its fundamental frequency? [200 Hz]
(b) What is the number of the highest overtone that could be heard by a person who is capable
of hearing frequencies up to 10000 Hz? [50]

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 7 of 14
Sound Waves
Introduction:
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. They can be propagated in solids, liquids, and
gases. The material particles transmitting such a wave oscillate in the direction of propagation of the
wave itself.

Intensity:
The amount of energy which is transported past a given area of the medium per unit of times is
known as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of
the medium, the greater the rate at which energy is transported through it, and the more intense the
sound wave is.

Energy Power
Intensity  
Time * Area Area

Typical unit for expressing the intensity of a sound wave is Wm-2.

Intensity level:
Because of the large range of intensities over which the ear is sensitive, a logarithmic rather than an
arithmetic intensity scale is convenient. Accordingly, the intensity level of a sound wave is
defined by the equation

I
  10 log
I0
where I0 is an arbitrary reference intensity, taken as 10-12 Wm-2, which corresponds roughly to the
faintest sound that can be heard. Intensity levels are expressed in decibels, abbreviated in db.

Loudness:
Sound loudness is a subjective term describing the strength of the ear’s perception of a sound. It is
intimately related to sound intensity but can by no means be considered identical to intensity.

Loudness depends on Amplitude

Quality:
Sound quality or timbre describes those characteristics of sound which allow the ear to distinguish
sounds which have the same pitch and loudness. Timbre is then a general term for the
distinguishable characteristics of a tone. Timbre is mainly determined by the harmonic content of a
sound and the dynamic characteristics of the sound such as vibrato and the attack- decay envelop of
the sound.
Quality depends on Complexity of sound wave

Pitch:
The term pitch refers to the attribute of a sound sensation that enables one to classify a note as
“high” or “low”. Like loudness, it is a subjective quantity and cannot be measured with instruments.
Pitch is related to the objective frequency, but there is no on-to-one correspondence. For a pure tone
of constant intensity, the pitch becomes higher as the frequency is increased, but the pitch of a pure
tone of constant frequency becomes lower as the intensity level is raised.

Pitch depends on Frequency


Dr. Bablu Chandra Das
Assistant Professor Page 8 of 14
Audible range:
There is a large range of frequencies within which longitudinal mechanical waves can be generated,
Sound waves being confined to the frequency range which can stimulate the human ear and brain to
the sensation of hearing. This range is from about 20Hz to about 20,000Hz and is called audible
range.

Infrasonic and ultrasonic waves:


The longitudinal mechanical wave whose frequency is below the audible range, i.e. below 20Hz is
called infrasonic wave, and one whose frequency is above the audible range, i.e. above 20,000Hz is
called ultrasonic wave.

The frequency is the measurement of the sharpness of the sound wave and intensity is the
measurement of the loudness of the sound wave.

Beats:
If two sounding bodies of slightly different frequencies and amplitude are sounded together the
resultant sound wave will generate an alternative maxima and minima; this type of wave is called
the beat.
We have seen the phenomenon of constructive and destructive interference between two waves
leading to a standing wave pattern. In a standing wave pattern the amplitude of the wave depends
on position, but the shape of the pattern does not change with time. Beats is the name given to the
phenomenon of a standing wave pattern which varies with time.

Figure 1

Let us suppose that and are two sound waves of the form

If they are sounded together, then the resultant sound would be

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 9 of 14
[ ( ) ][ ( ) ]

[ ( ) ( )]

[ ( ) ] ( )

This is the equation of beats.


The resultant vibration can then be considered to have frequency (the average frequency of the
two notes) and amplitude given by the expression in brackets * ( ) +. The amplitude
therefore varies with time at a frequency . If and are nearly equal, this term is small and
the amplitude fluctuates very slowly. When the amplitude is large the sound will be large and vice-
versa. A beat or maximum amplitude will occur when,

( )

Doppler Effect:
When a listener is in motion toward a stationary source of sound, the frequency of the sound heard
is higher than when he is at rest. If the listener is in motion away from the stationary source, he
hears a lower frequency than when he is at rest. We obtain similar results when the source is in
motion toward or away from a stationary listener.

Therefore, “if the source and listener are in relative motion with respect to each other the frequency
heard by the listener is apparently different than the originally produced sound.” This effect is
known as Doppler Effect.

Let us suppose a source emits a sound wave of frequency f and wavelength . These waves
propagate in the air radially with velocity v. There are four different conditions.

(a) Listener is motion toward the stationary source:

First, let the source is at rest and listener is in motion toward the source with a velocity . We want
to determine the frequency that an observer heads while approaching or moving towards the
source. The original frequency produced by the source is

But due to the motion, the listener will receive an additional frequency, which is

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 10 of 14
Where
= frequency received by the listener due to the relative motion and
= velocity of the listener

Therefore, the total frequency or apparent frequency received by the listener is


[ ]

[ ]

( )

This is the apparent frequency heard by the listener due to his motion toward the stationary source.

(b) Listener is in motion away from the stationary source:

Second, let the source is at rest and listener is in motion away from the stationary source. We want
to determine the frequency that an observer heads while leaving the stationary source. The original
frequency produced by the source is

But due to the motion, the listener will receive a less amount of frequency, which is

Where
fL = frequency received by the listener due to the relative motion and
vL = velocity of the listener

Therefore, the total frequency or apparent frequency received by the listener is

[ ]

[ ]

( )

This is the apparent frequency heard by the listener due to his away motion from the stationary
source.

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 11 of 14
(c) Source is in motion toward the stationary listener:

Now, let the listener is at rest and source is in motion with a velocity toward the listener. After
emitting the first signal, it travels a distance of , and then emits the second signal. Hence, the
distance between the first signal and the second is now a shorter distance of
, and hence the apparent wavelength received by the observer is

[ ]

[ ]

( )

Hence, the apparent frequency heard by the stationary listener due to the motion of the source
toward him would be

( )
( )

( ) * +

( )

This is the apparent frequency heard by the listener due to the motion the source towards the
listener.

(d) Source is in motion away from the stationary listener:

Now, let the listener is at rest and source is in motion with a velocity vs away from the listener.
After emitting the first signal, it travels a distance of , and then emits the second signal. Hence,
the distance between the first signal and the second is now a longer distance of
, and hence the apparent wavelength received by the observer is

[ ]

[ ]

( )

Hence, the apparent frequency heard by the stationary listener due to the motion of the source away
from him would be

( )

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 12 of 14
( )

( ) * +

( )

This is the apparent frequency heard by the listener due to the motion the source away from the
listener.

The general Doppler equation:

( )[ ]

Where,

= frequency of the sound produce/emitted by the source


= apparent frequency of the sound received by the listener
= velocity of the sound wave
= velocity of the listener
= velocity of the source

Math for Practice:

6. A listener is at rest and the source is moving toward him at 30 ms-1, what is the frequency as
heard by the listener? The frequency and speed of the sound is 200 Hz and 332 ms-1. [218.87
Hz]
7. A source is at rest and the listener is moving toward it at 30 ms-1, what is the frequency as
heard by the listener? The frequency and speed of the sound is 200 Hz and 332 ms-1. [218.07
Hz]
8. A source and a listener are moving toward each other with a velocity of 30 ms-1 and 20 ms-1
respectively. What is the frequency as heard by the listener? The frequency and speed of the
sound is 200 Hz and 332 ms-1. [233.11 Hz]
9. A source and a listener are moving in same direction with a velocity of 30 ms-1 and 20 ms-1
respectively. What is the frequency as heard by the listener? The frequency and speed of the
sound is 200 Hz and 332 ms-1. [206.12 Hz]

Website address:

http://resource.isvr.soton.ac.uk/spcg/tutorial/tutorial/Tutorial_files/Web-basics-nature.htm

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 13 of 14
http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos/waves/wavemotion.html

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-1/Sound-is-a-Mechanical-Wave

Standing wave:

http://waiferx.blogspot.com/2014/11/physics-presentation-waves.html

https://www.docsity.com/en/news/physics/physics-sound-visual-representation-gifs/

https://gfycat.com/gifs/detail/BriskBrownBeauceron

Beats:

https://academo.org/demos/wave-interference-beat-frequency/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)

http://www.physics.louisville.edu/cldavis/phys298/notes/beats.html

Doppler Effect:

http://hearinghealthmatters.org/waynesworld/2016/doppler-effect-animated/

http://laplace.us.es/wiki/index.php/Efecto_Doppler

http://science.sbcc.edu/physics/flash/index.html

Dr. Bablu Chandra Das


Assistant Professor Page 14 of 14

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