Tree Physiology- Is a branch of science which deals with the study of the physiological processes

and conditions which control tree growth.

Factoids About Tree Physiology

 Trees both produce AND consume oxygen.

 Young forests capture more carbon from the atmosphere than old forests.
 Old forests have more stored carbon in the biomass than young forests.
 The food that trees produce for themselves are sugars.
 The purpose of photosynthesis is to capture and store energy.
 Green light is the only part of the visible light spectrum that plants can’t use.
 The timing of Autumn color change is largely controlled by lengthening nights.
 Conifers lose needles each fall, just the same as broad-leaf trees.
 Swamp trees don’t necessarily prefer swamps.
 Tree species have highly variable requirements for light, nutrients, and moisture.
 Oceans produce more oxygen and store more carbon than forests.
Role of Tree Physiology
 To explain how tree grow in terms of internal processes and conditions which control growth.
 To understand why tree grow differently under various environmental conditions and cultural
treatments.
History of Plant Physiology

 Early Experiments on Growth

 Nutrition and Transportation
 Cellular and Molecular Plant Physiology

A. Early Experiments on Growth

Jan van Helmont (1600)

- A Belgian physician, grew a willow seedling in 200 pounds of soil, and only added
rainwater. A 164-pound tree was produced with only 57.1 grams (2 ounces) of soil
lost.
Antoine Lavoisier

- a French chemist known as the “father of modern chemistry”

- found organic matter to be largely formed of carbon and oxygen.

Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingenhousz, and Jean Senebier

- Demonstrated that plant leaves in light take up carbon dioxide and emit equivalent
amounts of oxygen.
- Demonstrated photosynthesis on leaves

Nicholas de Saussure

- Noted that water was involved in the process. The reverse occurred in the dark—
plants respired like animals, taking up oxygen and emitting carbon dioxide.

Julius Robert Mayer

- Observed that the process converted light energy into the chemical energy of
organic carbon. Thus growth of seedlings in the dark or of roots in the soil was at the
expense of this energy.
- Photosynthesis with chemical energy of organic carbon

B. Nutrition and Transportation

Julius Sachs (1700-1800)
 - Used chemical assay to establish that quantitatively minor soil constituents of
nitrogen, potassium, phosphate, sulfur, and other elements had major importance in
plant growth.
- He discover that plants needs more chemical energy.
Stephen Hales (1727)

- English clergyman and amateur physiologist, studies on the transpiration, growth, and gas
exchanges of plants. Stephen Hales (1727)
- He also measured the root pressure (forced bleeding) of decapitated plants.- He demonstrated that
water from the soil moves up the stems to the leaves where it is lost as water vapor, a process called
transpiration

.
Edvard Munch (1926)

- Proposed a similar mechanism for translocation, the movement of sugars from

leaves to roots and other plant parts. This mechanism is known as the pressure-
flow model.

C. Cellular and Molecular Plant Physiology

 By the twentieth century, plant physiologists increasingly turned to chemistry and physics.
 A great deal of the fundamental biochemistry of cell growth and function, known from the more
extensive medical, animal, and microbiological research, was found to apply to plant cells.
 Anatomical studies gave structural details to support physiological findings, and
submicroscopic cell structure was revealed by the electron microscope.
 All the mineral nutrients required for plant growth were established.
 Hydrogen-ion – the key to their selective uptake from the soil and transport into the root xylem
proved to lie with an energy-requiring proton relies for the pumping mechanism in the cell
membranes.
 Cell growth hormone, or auxin
 Enzyme
 And abscission

 Charles Darwin – phototropism

 Cornelius Bernardus van Neil(1930) - used radioactive water to show that water, not carbon
dioxide, was the source of oxygen released during photosynthesis.
 Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson – found out that sugar was found to be synthesized in
the stroma (fluid part) of the chloroplast

Kleb’s Concept -the growth of tree like that of all organisms is controlled by their inherited
genetic potentialities, and their environment.”
Factors Affecting Growth

 Genetic Factor
- the basic physical unit of the heredity process
 Environmental Factors
- All external conditions and influences affecting the life and development of an
organism

A. GENETIC FACTORS
FIELD CROPS
  Yield potential is determined by genes of the plant
 Genetic engineering is now becoming an important tool in changing a plants potential.
NURSERY CROPS AND TURF

 Not interested in total growth as much as appearance. Ex. Is Bermuda grass

- Coastal Bermuda grass- As a forage the grower is interested in yield and feed quality.
- Tifdwarf – Golf greens – interested in appearance, cover, wear resistance not how much
total growth occurs.
VARIETY AND PLANT NUTRIENT NEEDS

 . As potential crop yields are increased, the plant nutrients required are increased.

A PRODUCER HAS CONTROL OVER THE GENETIC FACTOR BY HIS CHOICE OF VARIETY

 Field crops – highest yielding, disease resistant, etc.

 Nursery – Best appearance – dwarf vs larger shrub

B. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

The following are regarded as the most important environmental factors

• Temperature
• Moisture supply
• Radiant energy
• Composition of the atmosphere
• Soil aeration and soil structure
• Soil reaction
• Biotic factors
• Supply of mineral nutrients
• Absence of growth-restricting substan
Temperature – A measure of the intensity of heat. Plant growth occurs in a fairly narrow range – 60 –
100 degrees F
1. Temperature directly affects

-photosynthesis

-respiration

-transpiration – loss of water

-absorption of water and nutrients

2. The rate of these processes increases with an increase in temperature responses are different with
different crops

Cotton vs collards or potatoes

Fescue vs Bermuda grass

3. Temperature also affects soil organisms nitrifying bacteria inhibited by low temperature.

pH may decrease in summer due to activities of microorganisms

4. Soil temperature affects water and nutrient uptake

Moisture supply – Plant growth restricted by low and high levels of soil moisture

1. can be regulated with drainage and irrigation

2. good soil moisture improves nutrient uptake.

 If moisture is a limiting factor fertilizer is not used efficiently.
If moisture is a limiting factor fertilizer is not used efficiently.

1.Quality can’t be controlled on a field scale

- Feasible on specialty crops

2. The intensity of light (brightness) is an important factor.

- Photosynthesis light intensity

- Corn with upright leaves is bred to intercept more light

3. Duration – (Photoperiodism) – Plant behavior in relation to day length

- long day plants – flower only if days are longer than same critical period – 12 hours Grains and
clovers
- short-day plants – flower only if days are shorter than critical period (soybeans).

- indeterminate – flower over a wide range of day lengths. (Tomato, cotton, buckwheat)

Composition of the atmosphere

 Greenhouse crops
 Plant growth and quality can be enhanced by supplemental CO2. Growth
responses have been shown with tomatoes, lettuce, cucumbers, flower
crops, greens, peas, beans, potatoes
 Air Quality
 Air pollutants in sufficient quantities are toxic to plants
 sulfur dioxide – provides sulfur at low levels
 carbon monoxide
 hydrofluoric acid
Soil aeration

 Plants vary widely in their sensitivity to soil oxygen.

 Paddy rice vs tobacco
Biotic factors

 Disease – heavier fertilization may increase vegetative growth and susceptibility to disease
 Root knot – nematodes reduce absorption so more fertilizer is necessary.
 Insects
 Weeds – compete for moisture nutrients light
 Allelopathy – harmful substances released by roots.

Mineral nutrients

 Essential nutrients – any element that functions in plant metabolism

 Non-mineral nutrients (from water and air) – e.g.carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
 Primary nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
 Secondary nutrients – calcium, magnesium, sulfur
 Micronutrients – copper, manganese, zinc, boron, molybdenum, chlorine, iron
 Beneficial to some plants – cobalt, vanadium, sodium, silicon

Absence of growth – restricting substances

 High concentrations of plant nutrients

o e.g. aluminum, nickel, lead – associated with sewage disposal, wastes from industry,
mines, etc.
 Organic compounds – phenols, oil
DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Absorption – the intake of water, and nutrients in the roots and leaves or any part of the plant.
 Adsorption – the concentration and accumulation of ions or molecules of a substance at a
surface or interface.
 Amino acids – organic compounds containing amino and carboxylic groups; building blocks of
protein
 Assimilation – metabolic transformation of simple nutrients and substances to organic plant
constituents.
 Cell – basic unit of life.
 Cell wall – layer of material chiefly elongated polymers laid down outside the plasma
membrane to protect the protoplast and limit its expansion.
 Chloroplast – a plastid that contains chlorophyll pigment that absorb light energy during
photosynthesis.
 Cytosol – non-particulate (liquid) portion of the cytoplasm.
 Development – ordered change in the complexity of an organism; a combination of both
growth and differentiation
 Diffusion – movement of atoms, ions, molecules or particles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration.
 Emulsion – a colloidal system consisting of one liquid dispersed in another liquid.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – single, highly convoluted membrane continuous with the
nuclear envelope and serves as the channel of communication and transport between the
nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Enzymes – a protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reaction.

 Field capacity – amount of water retained in the soil after large capillary space have been
drained by gravity
 Geotropism – movement in response to gravity
 Golgi bodies – stacks of flattened membranous sac called cisternae which assemble and
process carbohydrate chain of glycoproteins.
 Growth – an irreversible increase in size or volume; a quantitative aspect of development
 Gutation – water loss in liquid form through the hydathodes.
 Hydathodes – small opening at the leaf tip
 Hypertonic solution – external solution has more negative osmotic potential than the cell or
water concentration inside the cell is higher than the external solution leading to plasmolysis.
 Hypotonic solution – external solution has higher concentration of water than the cell or
external solution has less negative water potential than the cell
 Imbibition (in plants) – absorption and adsorption of water by insoluble solid, hydrophilic
protoplasmic and cell wall constituents
 Ion – an atom or group of atoms that are electrically charged. Positively charged ions are
called cations and the negatively charged are anions.
 Isotonic solution – external solution has equal osmotic potential with the cell.

 Nucleus – a double membrane; information center of the cell.

 Oleosome – lipid storage bodies
 Organelles – discrete, membrane-limited compartments in the cytoplasm.
 Osmosis – water movement across a differentially permeable membrane from a region of
higher concentration to a lower concentration.
 Osmotic pressure – force to be applied to stop the osmotic movement of water across
membrane
 Photoperiodism – response of plants to the relative length of light and dark period
 Photorespiration – a light-dependent oxidation of organic compound (glycolate) to CO2
occurring in chlorophyllous tissues
 Photosynthesis – absorption of light energy and its conversion to useful chemical energy
 Physiology
-Physis – nature
-Logos – discourse or study
  Plant growth regulators – organic compounds other than nutrients which in small amount
promote, inhibit or otherwise modify any physiological processes in plants
 Plant hormones (phytohormones) – organic substances produced naturally in plants
controlling growth and other physiological functions at sites remote from the place of
production and eliciting response at minimal amount.
 Plasmodesma (plural- plasmodesmata) – fine protoplasmic thread or strands that
penetrates the cell wall through the pit.
 Respiration – oxidative breakdown of organic compounds accompanied by the release of
energy.
 Ribosome- complex aggregates of RNA and protein and site of protein synthesis.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – endoplasmic reticulum with associated ribosome on its
surface.
 Senescence – deterioration that ends the functional life of an organ or organism
 Sieve tubes – long, vertical arrays of sieve tube members joined end to end.
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – major site for lipid biosynthesis and membrane formation
and devoid of ribosome.
 Solute – a dissolved substance
 Solution – a homogenous mixture of two or more substances.
 Solvent – a substance usually a liquid having the property of dissolving other substances.
 Tracheid – an elongated tapering xylem cells with liquified pitted walls adapted for conduction
and support.
 Translocation – movement of materials from cell to cell, tissue to tissue and organ to organ
within the plant body.
 Vesicles – tiny vacuole-like structures
 Vessel – long tracheary elements made up of individual units known as vessel members,
arranged end to end in longitudinal series.
THE NECESSITIES OF LIFE

 SUGARS
 WATER
 NUTRIENTS
 HORMINES AND ENZYMES
 MYCORRHIZAE
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS, SUSPENSIONS, AND COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS

SOLUTION-Is a homogenous mixture of solute and solvent molecules.

Dilute solution – when only a small amount of solute is added to a solvent.

Concentrated solution – more solute is added to a solvent.

Saturated solution – when only a certain amount of solute can form a solution with a given amount
of solvent.

Types of Solution

a. Hypotonic – when the solute concentration is lower than the outside solution.

b. Hypertonic - when the solute concentration is higher than the other.

c. Isotonic – when solute concentration are equal.

COLLOIDAL SUSPENSION

 Is a stable heterogeneous mixture

 Dispersed phase – the suspended phase.
  Dispersion medium – the medium in which the dispersion takes place.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SUSPENSION

 Tyndall effect – colloidal suspension can scatter light when passed through it.
 Brownian movement – the random movement of very small particles in suspension.
 Filtration – the components of colloidal systems can be separated using filters. The
components of true solution cannot be separated in this manner
Cells

 are the primary building blocks of life. They come in all shapes and sizes
 Basic and fundamental unit of life, It possesses a highly organized structure that enables it to
carry
Out its vital functions..
A. The smallest cell is the Mycoplasma gallicepticum, a disease-causing bacteria in birds.
It can be as small as 0.3 nanometers.
B. The largest cell is the ostrich’s egg, which can reach up to 6 inches in diameter.

Examples of cell.

 Red blood cells

 Bacteria
 Nerve cell
 Columnar epithelial cells
 Skeletal muscle cell
 Fat cell
 Smooth muscle cell
 Skin cells
 Algae
Cells were first recorded by Robert Hooke around 1665.
Hooke’ discovery lead to the development of the Cell Theory

German scientists Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow consecutively
developed the classical cell theory.

 All organisms are made up of cell

 All life functions of an Organism happen within the cell
 All cells come from other cells that are already existing.

Type of cells

 Prokaryotic (Lack a defined nucleus)

 Eukaryotic (Have a defined nucleus)
Cell membrane - The cell membrane surrounds the cell and is a selective barrier between the interior
and the exterior.
Cell nucleus- An organelle that houses DNA, located in the center of eukaryotic

Cytoplasm -The cytoplasm is a gel-like matrix containing water, salts, proteins, and other molecules.
It occupies the intracellular space between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
-Essential for cellular metabolism, it provides structural support to the cell.

Ribosomes are essential organelles for cellular functioning and survival. are located in the
cytoplasm and the rough Endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum- A network of interconnected membranes that extends from the nuclear
membrane to the cell membrane. It plays a fundamental role in the transport, processing, and
distribution of proteins and lipids within the cell.

 The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is studded with ribosomes and is involved in the
synthesis and modification of proteins.
  The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) specializes in lipid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism, and detoxification.
Golgi apparatus- Key in the processing and packaging of proteins and lipids produced in the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondria- Present in eukaryotic animal and plant cells. Their primary function is energy
generation through cellular respiration (ATP production).
Chloroplasts-They are responsible for the crucial production of oxygen that sustains

The planet.
Lysosomes-They facilitate cellular digestion, by disposing of waste, recycling nutrients, and
defending against pathogenic invasions.
Peroxisomes-Additionally, they play a role in the synthesis and degradation of lipids and bile acids,
regulating lipid metabolism and overall homeostasis.
Cytoskeleton-Its specific functions encompass stability, intracellular transport, and contraction.
Furthermore, it regulates cellular shape and plays a role in division, migration, and communication.
Flagella and cilia-Composed of microtubules in a ‘9+2’ pattern, they are essential For sperm motility.

Vacuoles- Vacuoles can also be involved in the digestion of substances and serve as a defense
mechanism against predators By containing toxins.

-Membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells and some animal cells. They store nutrients, water,
ions, and waste materials, regulating turgor pressure And osmotic balance.
Animal cell- 10-30 micrometers in length

Typically round or irregular shape.

Plant cell – 10-100 meters micrometers length

Typically rectangular or cubic in shape

Parts of plant cell

 Cell wall – Made of cellulose and provides a rigid barrier

 Cell membrane (plasma membrane) – A thin, flexible barrier that contains the cell
 Nucleus – Holds the DNA
 Endoplasmic reticulum – Makes proteins and lipids
 Golgi – Sorts and modifies proteins
 Chloroplast – Makes food through photosynthesis
 Mitochondria – Makes energy through cellular respiration
 Vacuole – Stores water and salts

Parts of Animal cell

 Nucleus
 Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Mitochondria
 Ribosomes
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Centrosome
 Endoplasmic reticulum
  Golgi apparatus
Inorganic substances

- Are those substances taken into the cell from the outside

Water – is the most abundant of all compounds/substances in cells.

Organic substances – these are carbon-containing compounds synthesized by the living cell from
inorganic raw material.
Principal Carbohydrates in Plants:

 Sugar
 Starch
 Cellulose

Principal Carbohydrates in Plants:

 Sugar
 Monosaccharides – the simplest form of sugar
 Disaccharides – formed by the union of two monosaccharides
 Oligosaccharides – are made up of three or more sugar units
 Polysaccharides – made up of any units of monosaccharides
o Are complex sugars such as starch, cellulos, lignin, glycogen
Lipids- are fatlike compounds of mostly carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but they have fewer
than carbohydrates.

- insoluble in water but soluble in fat solvents.

Proteins- Are complex nitrogen-containing compounds made up of any units of amino acids.

MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES OF TREES

 A woody perennial plant, typically large and with a well-defined stem or stems carrying a more
or less definite crown.
 It defines as attaining a minimum diameter of 5 inches and a maximum of 15 feet at maturity
with no branches within 3 feet of the ground.
According to Society of American Foresters (1998)

 PHLOEM – transport materials from the crown to the roots

 XYLEM – transports water to the crown, but is not necessarily living.
 HEARTWOOD – inside the xylem
 SPRINGWOOD – usually wider and thinner-walled layer grows
 SUMMERWOOD – darker and thicker-walled layer

Parts of tree.

 Leaves
 Twigs or branches
 Crown
 Flowers
 Fruits and seeds
 Trunk or bole
 Bark
 Roots
Importance of Water

 Essential for protoplasm

  Carrier of dissolved substances like gases, minerals, organic and organic substances, etc
 Essential for metabolic reactions of cell
 For the maintenance of turgidity and rigidity of a cell
 Forms a continuous network throughout the plant
 Makes up the loss of water during transpiration and guttation
Physical and Chemical Properties of Water
 It is a medium in which diffusion of solutes takes place in plant cells.
 It is a solvent in which mineral nutrients enter into a plant from soil solution &
transported throughout the plant in an aqueous medium.
 It is a medium in which many biochemical reactions occur.
 Several movements of plant parts such as folding of leaflets in sensitive plants, opening
& closing of flowers, and stomata movements of leaves are due to water.
 Growth of plants due to elongation depends on water.
 It is the source of O2 evolved in photosynthesis.

A. DIFFUSION-Is the net movement of the substance from an area of its high
concentration into another area of lesser concentration as a result of the random
translational kinetic motion of molecules, ions or atoms
B. OSMOSIS- The movement of water through a differentially permeable membrane from
higher to lower water potential.

The diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane

C. IMBIBITIONS- The absorption and adsorption of water by insoluble solid, hydrophilic,
protoplasmic and cell wall constituents that usually results in swelling
D. Osmotic Pressure-A pressure needed to prevent the passage of pure water into an
aqueous solution
E. Water Potential-Is the expression of the difference between the chemical potential of
water at any point in a system and that of pure water under standard condition
F. Plasmolysis-A process whereby water from the cytoplasm of cells are removed
causing the cytoplasm to shrink