International Journal of Pavement Engineering

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Polymer modified asphalt binder – an approach

for enhancing temperature sensitivity for
emergency pavement repair

Hayder Al Hawesah, Monower Sadique, Clare Harris, Hassan Al Nageim, Karl

Stopp & Harry Pearl

To cite this article: Hayder Al Hawesah, Monower Sadique, Clare Harris, Hassan Al Nageim,
Karl Stopp & Harry Pearl (2022) Polymer modified asphalt binder – an approach for enhancing
temperature sensitivity for emergency pavement repair, International Journal of Pavement
Engineering, 23:13, 4760-4774, DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2021.1975704

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2021.1975704

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
2022, VOL. 23, NO. 13, 4760–4774
https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2021.1975704

Polymer modified asphalt binder – an approach for enhancing temperature

sensitivity for emergency pavement repair
Hayder Al Hawesaha, Monower Sadiquea, Clare Harrisa, Hassan Al Nageima, Karl Stoppb and Harry Pearlc
a
School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU), Liverpool, UK; bSTOPPTECH Ltd, Towcester, UK; cBillian
UK Limited, Sheffield, UK

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Conventional hot mix plants operate to support large paving projects, making production more Received 5 March 2021
economic with high volume output. When repairs and maintenance are needed, it can be challenging Accepted 27 August 2021
to maintain small quantities of hot bituminous mixtures at a sufficient temperature, especially in the
KEYWORDS
case of winter maintenance. Consequently, the repair materials cannot be compacted to the desired Temperature sensitivity;
level on some occasions. This research aimed to develop a polymer modified asphalt binder with penetration index; FTIR; XRD;
reduced temperature sensitivity for hand-laid and low-volume applications. The results showed that modified asphalt binder;
the highest penetration index has been achieved by modifying bitumen with 20% rubber and 2% modified asphalt mixture
wax. The FTIR and XRD analysis indicated that the bitumen, rubber and wax that react chemically to
build 3D networks have an interlocked structure in the bitumen matrix resulting in reduced
temperature sensitivity of the polymer modified asphalt binder. Furthermore, indirect tensile stiffness,
permanent deformation, creep test and fatigue life test, water sensitivity and freeze-thaw cycle
demonstrated an improvement in the asphalt mixture properties in terms of mechanical and
durability perspectives. Overall, based on this investigation, modifying asphalt binder with 20% rubber
and 2% wax resulted in stronger and durable asphalt mixture in comparison to traditional hot mix
asphalt.

1. Introduction
The temperature sensitivity of asphalt binder plays a signifi-
Producing high-quality asphalt materials for low-volume hand- cant role in understanding asphalt pavement failures,
laid applications for emergency pothole patching and utility cut especially on the asphalt aggregate adhesion (Wu et al.
repairs has always presented a challenge. The widely used 2008), as well as it is related to asphalt mixtures ability to resist
material in pavement repair is hot-mix asphalt (HMA). The permanent deformation (Wang et al. 2009). The temperature
main drawback of HMA is that it is produced in batches of sensitivity indicates how quickly asphalt properties change
two to three tons, despite the average patch requiring only a over time in terms of indices such as penetration index. All
small amount of asphalt (Saeed and Hammons 2009). When asphalt binders share the similar basic thermoplastic property
keeping the HMA at a high temperature for a long duration of being softer when heated and stiffer when cooled (Kish-
during the process of mixing, transportation and storage, the chynskyi et al. 2016). Normal asphalt binder has PI ranging
bitumen ages, and its viscosity and softening point are increased, between (−2 and +2). Asphalt binder has low sensitivity to
leading to fretting and/or cracking (Read et al. 2003). In temperature when PI values increased more than +2, while
addition, the temperature of HMA drops during transportation, the asphalt binder is extremely sensitive to high temperature
especially for remote maintenance during winter (Carruth and when PI values less than −2 (Abedali Abed and Al-Haddad
Santiago 2015). This reduction in temperature not only reduces 2019).
the compressibility of the mixture (resulting in high air void Using polymer in modifying asphalt has been considered as
content) but also weakens the joint between the old surface a great option to produce mixtures that can improve both rut-
and the new patching materials that trigger moisture ingress. ting and cracking; despite this, from an economic perspective,
In recent decades, some polymeric materials have been it is relatively expensive. However, the use of recycled polymer
developed to improve asphalt patching repair materials such as crumb rubber offers an inexpensive alternative
(Yuan et al. 2012), but it was relatively expensive to tailor (Mashaan et al. 2014). Rubberised binders have improved
them for specific special applications. Modifying bitumen asphalt pavement’s quality, increased rutting and cracking
with additive can improve bitumen characteristics such as resistance and therefore reduced maintenance costs (Porto
the adhesion to aggregate and workability and thus improving et al. 2019). Critical evaluation of several previous research
the properties of the final asphalt mixture (Suganpriya et al. showed that low content of rubber (around 4%) has almost
2016). Additives are used to delay the deterioration and no significant effect on the mechanical properties and the per-
increase the service life of the pavements. formance of the asphalt mixtures, more than 20% was also

CONTACT Hayder Al Hawesah [email protected]

© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/),
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 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 4761

found to be inappropriate (Porto et al. 2019). Moreover, in additives. The grade of the bitumen used in this investigation
terms of visco-flow characteristics and viscosity, it is suggested was 100/150 according to BS EN 12591 (European Committee
to use 15–25% of crumb rubber at 180°C of treatment temp- for Standardization 2009).
erature and a treatment duration of 90 min (Li et al. 2018). In order to investigate the individual influence of rubber
However, rubberised binders may be attributed to the weak and wax on binder (neat bitumen), mixes containing different
compatibility between rubber and bitumen, which is demon- workable ranges of these modifiers in the binary blend were
strated by its propensity to separate during transportation to tested, as shown in Table 2. The expectations from these
the paving site or during high-temperature static storage mixes were that they would improve the workability of the
(Polacco et al. 2015, Behnood 2019). Hence, transportation patching materials by reducing the temperature sensitivity,
and temperature can be considered very important factors enhancing PI.
because they impact the performance of the pavement. There- Figure 1 illustrates the flowchart to show the methods,
fore, adding wax to rubberised binders may tackle this pro- materials and tests performed to assess the physical properties
blem to improve the temperature sensitivity of the binder of the polymer-modified asphalt binder (PMAB) (developed
(Hainin et al. 2015, Wang et al. 2016). binder), also the mechanical and durability properties of poly-
Wax (Sasobit®) is an additive to bitumen that improves its mer-modified asphalt mixture using the developed binder.
workability and durability. Sasobit® additive could decrease First, the bitumen was heated in an oven at 180°C for 1 h.
the mixing and compaction temperatures of rubberised asphalt Then, the modifiers (rubber and wax) were blended with bitu-
mixtures and extend the long-term performance of the pave- men at 180°C and 2000 rpm, for 90 min. The second labora-
ment (Xiao et al. 2009, Jamshidi et al. 2013). At temperatures tory programme covered the determination of stiffness
under 100°C, Sasobit® seemingly emulates the structure of crys- modulus, permanent deformation using wheel track test
talline lattice in the binder resulting in improved rutting resist- (WTT) and fatigue performance using four-point bending
ance at service temperatures leading to improved stability test (4PB). The final stage of the laboratory programme cov-
(Wasiuddin et al. 2012). Furthermore, Sasobit® plays as a ered the durability tests for asphalt mixtures, such as water
flow-improver decreasing the binder viscosity and thus sensitivity and freeze and thaw test.
enabling lower mixing and compaction temperatures (Hainin
et al. 2015). Recent studies have demonstrated that adding 1–
3% of Sasobit® to the asphalt binder lowers the binder viscosity 2.1. Assessment of modified binder
making it much simpler to be mixed and handled at lower The penetration test was conducted according to BS EN 1426
temperatures compared to unmodified asphalt binder (Ghu- (European Committee for Standardization 2015a). The pen-
zlan and Al Assi 2017). They also recommended that the opti- etration test is a widely used method to assess the consistency
mum dose of Sasobit® to modify the asphalt binder is 2%, while of a bituminous binder at a specific temperature. The standard
a higher percentage has negatively affected the performance of test for softening point of bituminous materials is the Ring and
asphalt mixtures (Ghuzlan and Al Assi 2017). Ball method that has been conducted according to BS EN 1427
It can be concluded that rubber and wax have a strong influ- (European Committee for Standardization 2015b). The soften-
ence on the properties of the binder, as well as the mixture. ing point indicates the temperature at which bitumen starts to
These materials are expected to improve the temperature sen- display fluidity (Nassar and Ibrahim 2012). As it is known, the
sitivity of asphalt binder as well as the workability and com- softening point has a direct relationship with asphalt defor-
pactability of asphalt mixtures to be used in pavement mation; the higher softening point, the more deformation
repair. This research aimed to develop a polymer-modified resistance (Al-Hadidy and Yi-qiu 2009). The Penetration
asphalt binder exhibiting reduced temperature sensitivity for index (PI) is the measure of temperature sensitivity of binder
hand-laid pavement repair in low-volume applications. and stiffness of asphalt. Low-temperature sensitivity is a reflec-
tion of increased resistance against thermal cracking and per-
manent deformation (Ghasemi and Marandi 2013,
2. Materials and experimental methods Sitinamaluwa and Mampearachchi 2014). Thus, asphalt mix-
ture containing binder with high PI has greater resistance to
Based on the previous studies, the neat bitumen samples were low-temperature cracking and permanent deformation (Gha-
modified with rubber and wax by adding the desired dosages of semi and Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and Afroozi 2016, Yaacob
additives to the binder (neat bitumen). Table 1 shows the et al. 2016). The calculation of the PI is based on values of pen-
initial physical properties of the candidate binder and etration and softening point according to BS EN 12591 (Euro-
pean Committee for Standardization 2015c). PI was calculated
Table 1. Initial physical properties of candidate binder and additives.
Materials Property Value Table 2. Experimental scheme to examine the influence of additives on asphalt
Bitumen 100/150 Penetration (mm) at 25°C 110 binder.
The softening point 43.5 Percentages by weight of neat bitumen
Density (g/cm³) 1.05
Wax (Sasobit®) Flashpoint (°C) 285 Mixtures Rubber % Wax %
Melting point (°C) 75–115 Influence of In the range of 0–30% with –
Density (g/cm³) 0.9 rubber 5% increment
Rubber Particle size (mm) 0.400–0.450 Influence of – In the range of 0–4% with
Density (g/cm³) 0.83 wax 1% increment
4762 H. A. HAWESAH ET AL.

Figure 1. Flowchart showing the methods, materials and tests performed to evaluate the physical, mechanical and durability properties of the developed binder.

using the equation provided below: (Li et al. 2018). A Brookfield DV-II+ Pro Viscometer rotational
viscometer was used according to BS EN 13302 (European Com-
1952 − 500 log P − 20SP mittee for Standardization 2018a) at 180°C.
PI =
50 log P − SP − 120 The physical and chemical properties of asphalt binder can
be described using Fourier transform infrared spectrometer
where SP is the softening temperature in degrees Celsius and (FTIR) (Weigel and Stephan 2017). FTIR spectroscopy is the
Log P is the common logarithm of penetration at 25°C. most frequently used tool to observe the changes in the chemi-
Viscosity can be defined as the resistance to the flow of a fluid. cal structure of bitumen after ageing and measure the oxi-
Considering the standard test temperature used by Li et al., the dation products. FTIR gives precise information regarding
test was performed at a mixing temperature of 180°C for PMAB oxygenation rate, aliphaticity and aromaticity (Lushinga
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 4763

et al. 2019). The FTIR spectroscopy was conducted using the asphalt (HMA) of AC10 using a conventional 100/150 pen-
instrument: Perkin-Elmer Spectrum BX series FTIR, equipped etration grade neat binder. The binder content of 5.2% by
with a Miracle ATR accessory. In this investigation, the FTIR weight of aggregate was used.
was employed on the neat bitumen and PMAB. X-ray Diffrac-
tion is a non-destructive and multipurpose analysis technique
2.3. Assessment of asphalt mixture
used to distinguish crystalline phases in the materials and to
investigate the structural properties of these phases (Al- 2.3.1. Indirect tensile stiffness modulus test (ITSM)
Hdabi 2014). The XRD test was conducted using the instru- Stiffness Modulus is the uniaxial stress divided by the corre-
ment Rigaku mini-flex diffractometer (mini-flex goniometer), sponding strain. It has been referred to as an indicator of sat-
CuK X-ray radiation (30 kV voltage and 15 mA current at isfactory structural design due to its relation to the capacity of
scanning speed of 2.0°/min in continuous scan mode) and individual pavement layers enabling the traffic loads to spread
scanning range (2θ) of 5–60°. XRD is a commonly used tool to the layer underneath. ITSM was performed in accordance
to determine the crystallite parameters of modified binder; it with BS EN 12697-26 (European Committee for Standardiz-
offers quantitative intensity curves according to the peak ation 2018b) using Cooper Research Technology HYD-25 test-
intensity and position of the structural parameters in the bin- ing apparatus, seen in Figure 3.
der sample (Alhumaidan et al. 2015). In this test, the samples were exposed to five transient load
pulses along its vertical axis; the subsequent indirect defor-
mation crosses the horizontal axis obtained using Linear Vari-
2.2. Aggregates used for specimen able Differential Transducers (LVDTs).
The coarse and fine aggregate used in this investigation to
manufacture asphalt mixtures was of crushed granite from 2.3.2. Wheel track test (permanent deformation)
Carnsew Quarry at Mabe, Penryn, UK. A sieve analysis accord- Wheel tracking tests are used to evaluate the permanent defor-
ing to the standard BS EN 933-1 (European Committee for mation of the asphalt mixtures at 45°C and 60°C. This has been
Standardization 2012) was performed on the aggregate. The set as according to the European Committee for Standardis-
aggregate structure permitted a curve to be established follow- ation for hot weather (European Committee for Standardiz-
ing EN 13108-1 (European Committee for Standardization ation 2007). Also, these two temperatures have been selected
2016a). Figure 2 and Table 3 show the particle size distribution following the British Standard PD 6691:2016 (European Com-
of the aggregate where a dense aggregate gradation for asphalt mittee for Standardization 2016b), 45°C shows moderate to
concrete binder course AC10 was used to prepare asphalt mix-
ture (RuW) using PMAB (developed binder). Additionally, the
results have been compared with control traditional hot mix

Figure 2. 10 mm close graded surface course.

Table 3. Aggregate gradation for AC10 surface course.

Test sieve aperture size % By mass passing % By mass passing
(mm) range mid
14 100 100
10 100 100
6.3 62–68 65
2 25–31 28
1 14–26 20
0.063 6 6
Figure 3. ITSM test using Cooper Research Technology HYD-25.
4764 H. A. HAWESAH ET AL.

Figure 5. (A) Configuration of the four-point load fatigue test (4PB) and (B) Pris-
matic Specimen.

Figure 4. Wheel track test equipment with asphalt mixture slab.

temperature of 20°C under a sinusoidal waveform in a pre-

heavily stressed sites demanding high rutting resistance, set strain mode.
whereas 60°C shows very heavily stressed sites demanding
very high rutting resistance. The loose asphalt mixtures
2.3.4. Creep test (creep and relaxation test)
were blended and compressed in a steel mould under a roller
The creep test illustrates a way for detecting the creep par-
compactor, making a solid block with measurements of
ameters of asphalt mixtures through uniaxial static creep
405 mm (length) × 300 mm (width) × 50 mm (thickness).
and relaxation. The sample is exposed to a static pressure
These blocks were left to sit in the mould for a 24-hour period
showing the strain in 3600-s loading followed by 3600-s
at room temperature before conducting the test, as shown in
unloading conducted at a stress level of 100 kPa according
Figure 4.
to the European Committee for Standardization BS EN
12697-25 (European Committee for Standardization 2018b).
The accumulative strain (permanent deformation) of the
2.3.3. Four-point bending (fatigue test) test sample is obtained as a function of the loading time.
Several factors can result in fatigue cracking of asphalt pave- The samples were kept at the test temperature of 20°C and
ments, including traffic loading and freeze and thaw cycle, 40°C (±1°C) from four to seven hours. The creep and relax-
which causes high stress on the asphalt pavement (Read ation curves were drawn based on the average value of the
et al. 2003, Dulaimi et al. 2020). A repeated loading pressure three tested samples. The creep sample was cylindrical with
fatigue creates cracking in two phases: the crack initiation 150 mm in diameter, which was put between two plane-par-
phase through micro cracks and the crack propagation allel loading plates with the upper plate has a diameter of
phase through which the micro cracks increase under other 100 mm (Figure 6).
applications of tensile strains (Read et al. 2003). In this
research, a four-point bending test (4PB) (Figure 5) was
used to evaluate the resistance of fatigue crack for the asphalt
mixtures containing modified binder in accordance with BS
EN 12697-24 (European Committee for Standardization
2018b).
This device is capable of clamping specimens in a bend-
ing frame to provide horizontal translation and rotational
freedom at all supports. As cyclic bending is started, the
two inner clamps are loaded in the vertical direction, and
the perpendicular position of the outer clamps is fixed. A
constant movement was generated with a constant strain
between the inner loading points. The fatigue life can be
defined as the number of required cycles to achieve a
decrease of a 50% in the original stiffness of the mixture.
According to (Dulaimi et al. 2020), the strain level (150
microstrains) in a pavement structure depends on variables
including the type of mixture, the road load, the layer thick-
ness and subgrade. Tests were executed on prismatic samples Figure 6. Experimental arrangement for creep test. (A) represents the test device
measuring 400 × 50 × 50 mm at a frequency of 10 Hz and a and (B) the specimen that is subjected to a static pressure.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 4765

Figure 7. Experimental arrangement for water sensitivity test showing the vac-
uum container and the samples in the water bath at 40°C.
Figure 8. Freeze and thaw chamber used for the environmental performance of
mixtures.

2.4. Asphalt mixtures durability assessment

obtained using SMR as seen in Equation (1) (Al-Hdabi et al.
2.4.1. Water sensitivity test 2014, Dulaimi et al. 2017)
In this study, a water sensitivity test was carried out according
wet stiffness
to BS EN 12697-12 (European Committee for Standardization SMR = × 100
2017). This test reveals any loss of the adhesive bond between dry stiffness
the bitumen and aggregate in the cylindrical samples in the
presence of water. In this test, the compressed samples were 2. 4.2. Freeze and thaw test
split into two groups. The first group was for dry testing, Asphalt pavements deteriorate over time because of the
and the second was for saturated. The dry samples were tested environment and daily heavy traffic loading on roads. A
without moisture conditioning as they were left in the mould harsh environment such as cold temperatures can also cause
(after compaction) for a day at room temperature. The samples pavements to crack, but pavement deterioration is most nota-
in the second group were saturated as part of the moisture pre- bly caused by freeze and thaw cycles (Biswas et al. 2018, Cong
condition protocol. For this, every sample was extruded and et al. 2020). To apply freeze and thaw cycles, there is no specific
dipped in a water bath at room temperature for four days; approach recommended (Feng et al. 2010, Si et al. 2015, Fakhri
after that, the samples were removed from the water bath et al. 2020); however, some procedures have been suggested in
and placed in the vacuum container (Figure 7). To reach the the literature for freeze and thaw cycles on asphalt mixtures.
needed degree of saturation, vacuum pressure and duration As can be seen, a range of temperatures was applied in the
(6.7 kPa for 10 min) was applied to the samples. Following freeze and thaw cycles assessment. Therefore, based on recent
the completion of the vacuum process, the specimens were studies (Fiber et al. 2018, Cong et al. 2020), the freeze and thaw
left in the vacuum container for another 30 min and then process was carried out by placing the samples into an auto-
transferred from the container to a flat surface in a water matic chamber (Figure 8) with freeze and thaw cycles (maxi-
bath at 40°C for three days, before being tested. mum of 10 times).
The dry and wet specimens were tested at 20°C according to The automated freeze and thaw procedure is illustrated in
BS EN 12697-12 (European Committee for Standardization Table 4. Samples were vacuum saturated at 97.3 kPa for
2018b). For each mixture type, five sets of each sample were 15 min and placed into the automatic chamber for the main
tested. Water sensitivity of asphalt mixtures is measured procedure (Fiber et al. 2018, Cong et al. 2020). After cycling,
using the indirect tensile stiffness modulus ratio (SMR) or the specimens were cooled in a water container at a tempera-
indirect tensile strength ratio (ITSR) (Dulaimi et al. 2017, ture of 25°C for 2 h before the ITSM test to calculate the SMR
Shanbara et al. 2018). In this research, water sensitivity was (Cong et al. 2020).

Table 4. Freeze and thaw temperature regime followed.

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Assessment of the binder
3.1.1. Influence of rubber on binder
The influence of rubber content on binder PI and dynamic vis-
cosity is illustrated in Figures 9 and 10, respectively. As rubber
content increases in the mix, the penetration point decreases
and softening point increases. (Figure 9(A,B)). This obser-
vation was in accordance with Mashaan et al. (2011) studies.
The PI was considerably increased by the addition of rubber,
up to positive values of about 1.50 when adding 20%, as
shown in Figure 9(C), which consequently improved the temp-
erature sensitivity of the rubberised binder. Indeed, adding
Figure 10. Influence of rubber on dynamic viscosity of bitumen.
rubber enhanced the performance properties of asphalt pave-
ment in terms of resistance against deformation during con-
struction and road services (Mashaan et al. 2014). Moreover, temperature cracking and permanent deformation, as reported
a binder with a higher PI has a higher resistance to low- by many studies (Ghasemi and Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and
Afroozi 2016, Yaacob et al. 2016). To maximise the PI of rub-
berised binder, the optimum dose was found to be 20% in this
research, which was also in accordance with the findings of
Porto et al. (2019).
The positive correlation between rubber content and vis-
cosity is evident in Figure 10. Significantly, sharp increases
in viscosity were recorded above 15% rubber content. This
could happen because the rubber absorbs the light component
of the bitumen, resulting in variation of the binder component
that increases binder viscosity in the PMAB system. The
increase in viscosity leads to an increase in binder film thick-
ness around the aggregate due to the gel structure assumed
by the PMB, improving the adhesion and cohesion of the
asphalt mixture (Presti 2013).
Gel penetration chromatography analysis shows that a high
percentage of crumb rubber (15–20%) in bitumen contributes
to reducing the component of the binder’s large molecular
sizes value (Lee et al. 2011). This is due to the ejection of lighter
constituents that were at lower proportions, being absorbed by
the rubber from the bitumen (Lee et al. 2011). Furthermore,
significant improvements in terms of ageing and creep stiff-
ness, as well as lower energy requirement, when the dosage
of rubber was in the range of 15–20% (Wang et al. 2012). Over-
all, the higher the amount of crumb rubber, the higher the vis-
cosity of PMB thus improving the properties of the binder at
high temperatures. Nevertheless, an excessive amount of
crumb rubber may result in the weakness of the asphalt mix-
ture with inferior end properties at low winter temperatures.
Considering all the factors above and the results for PI and vis-
cosity, the optimum rubber amount was observed to be 20% in
modified bitumen, a level that is expected to improve the
workability and durability of the proposed asphalt mixture.

3.1.2. Influence of wax on binder

The influence of wax concentration on binder PI and dynamic
viscosity is illustrated in Figures 11 and 12, respectively. Vary-
ing the wax concentration was shown to influence the pen-
etration (Figure 11(A)) and softening point (Figure 11(B)) of
the binder and the PI in a similar way to the rubber effect.
Figure 9. Influence of rubber on bitumen (A) penetration test (B) softening point The explanation for this might be that when the wax cools
test C) penetration index PI. and crystallises it forms a uniform network structure in the
 3% by mass of the binder (Zhao and Guo 2012). Others have
reported that using more than 4% wax has a harmful impact,
causing cracking of asphalt mix at low temperatures (Hainin
et al. 2015). Additionally, Ghuzlan and Al Assi (2017) pointed
out that the optimum percentage of wax to be added to the
asphalt binder is 2%, and higher percentages negatively affect
the performance of asphalt. Thus, with the addition of 2%
wax, the modified binder is expected to be less susceptible to
temperature changes. Hainin et al. (2015) found that the net-
work of the crystalline structure formed in the wax-modified
binder reduces temperature sensitivity and increases the elas-
ticity of the binder.
As can be seen in Figure 12, increasing the wax content of
bitumen reduced its viscosity. This observation might partly be
explained by assuming that some parts of the wax dissolved in
bitumen due to that most waxes have low molecular content
and/or oil-based molecules (Wang et al. 2016). Furthermore,
wax forms a homogeneous solution with bitumen and pro-
duces a significant reduction in its viscosity (Qin et al. 2014).
The melting point of wax is around 100°C, and it is completely
dissolved in bitumen at temperatures higher than 115°C (Kri-
dan et al. 2011, Wasiuddin et al. 2012, Arshad et al. 2013). Hai-
nin et al. (2015) showed that wax affects the viscoelastic
properties of binder differently depending on the temperature.
It can decrease the viscosity of binder at high service tempera-
tures (around 135°C), whereas it has the opposite effect at low
temperatures (around 80°C) and increases the viscosity of vir-
gin bitumen (Hainin et al. 2015). Thus, adding wax to bitumen
will improve the viscosity during mixing (reduced viscosity)
and decrease the construction temperatures.

3.1.3. Influence of wax on binder modified with optimum

Figure 11. Influence of wax on bitumen (A) penetration test (B) softening point rubber content
test (C) penetration index PI.
Based on the PI results, the optimum rubber and wax contents
were observed to be 20% and 2%, respectively. Indeed, wax
decreases the risk of compaction failures, particularly when
using very hard and highly viscous bitumen such as a
rubber–bitumen system (Hainin et al. 2015). Normally, a
higher viscosity value results in higher mixing and compaction
temperatures and may increase the energy consumption (Xiao
et al. 2014) and result in loss of modifying properties such as
temperature sensitivity (Pyshyev et al. 2016). Therefore, with
the aim of further enhancement in terms of PI and viscosity,
a ternary blended binder through incorporating wax in a bin-
der containing the optimum level of rubber (20%) was inves-
tigated. The results in Figure 13(A) illustrate that adding
wax to the rubberised binder increased the penetration
slightly. This means that the hardness of rubber asphalt was
Figure 12. Influence of wax on dynamic viscosity of bitumen. slightly changed towards a softer grade. However, increasing
the wax content increased the softening point, as illustrated
in Figure 13(B). The chemical composition of wax is described
binder (Hainin et al. 2015). Furthermore, at temperatures as fine crystalline materials in long-chain hydrocarbons (Hai-
below 100°C, wax reportedly forms a crystalline lattice struc- nin et al. 2015). This structure means that wax can adsorb satu-
ture in the binder that is the basis for the increased resistance rated components (mostly wax-based or oil-based molecules)
to rutting at service temperatures leading to more stability with a similar structure in a rubber–bitumen system at high
(Hurley and Prowell 2005, Wasiuddin et al. 2012). Figure 11 temperatures (Wang et al. 2016). When the temperature
(C) illustrates that optimum PI was identified when the wax decreases, wax and saturated components crystallise together
concentration was around 2%. Previous researchers have rec- and form a stable crystal structure, which can improve the soft-
ommended the addition rate of wax to be in the range of 1– ening point of rubberised asphalt (Wang et al. 2016).
 Figure 14. Influence of wax on dynamic viscosity of bitumen modified with 20%
rubber.

Figure 15. Individual and combined influence of additives on binder PI.

Afroozi 2016, Yaacob et al. 2016). In addition, wax allows

Figure 13. Influence of wax on binder modified with 20% rubber (A) penetration for the production of rubber-modified asphalt mixes at stan-
test (B) softening point test (C) penetration index PI. dard temperatures. This means high-temperature melting
can be avoided, thus reducing emissions and preventing bin-
Significantly, the results displayed in Figure 13(C) show that der ageing, and representing a major contribution to environ-
adding 2% wax to bitumen modified with 20% rubber con- mental protection and occupational health and safety. An
siderably increased the PI value compared with the PI of additional benefit of the wax is that it enhances the workability
solo and binary blends; the significant increase was around and compacting properties of asphalt mixtures.
168%, as shown in Figure 15. However, reduction in viscosity
associated with increasing wax content in a ternary blend 3.1.4. FTIR analysis
(Figure 14), was in accordance with the findings in the case According to Figure 16, the PMAB and the neat bitumen both
of a binary blend in Figure 12. This can be explained by the have similar chemical groups, including the asymmetrical
ability of the wax to adsorb saturated components in the stretch (peaks 600–1700 cm−1) and the symmetric (peaks
rubber–bitumen binder (Wang et al. 2016). In addition, the 2850–2950 cm−1). However, PMAB, as was expected, has
aforementioned effect of the wax follows two different trends additional peaks 1540 and 1576 cm−1 which corresponded to
based on temperature, decreasing the viscosity at high temp- CH2 and C=O, respectively, compared with the peaks of the
eratures while increasing the viscosity at low temperatures neat bitumen. This indicated chemical reactions between the
(Hainin et al. 2015) (Figure 15). compounds in PMAB (Nivitha et al. 2016, Weigel and Stephan
The PI value indicates the temperature sensitivity; thus, the 2017).
higher PI value provided by the ternary blended binder con- Based on PMB peak at 1580 cm−1 which is aromatics
taining 20% rubber and 2% wax showed low sensitivity to (Nivitha et al. 2016) and corresponding to C=C. This result
temperature, which is expected to overcome the problem concluded that adding wax and rubber to neat bitumen
related to the transportation of patching or repair materials. increases the aromatic content significantly. Lushinga et al.
Asphalt mixtures containing bitumen with higher PI have a (2019) and Zhang et al. (2019) have concluded that the higher
higher resistance to low-temperature cracking and permanent content of aromatic components increases the resistance to
deformation (Ghasemi and Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and crack at low temperatures. Therefore, the high aromatic
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 4769

Figure 17. Comparative XRD analysis of modified binder.

Figure 16. Comparative FTIR analysis of bitumen modified with 20% rubber and
2% wax.
are different for the neat bitumen and PMAB, the peak inten-
sity values are different. The wide band of 2-theta between 10
and 29 shows that the structure is amorphous and crystallised
content improved low-temperature cracking performance and (Geçkil 2019).
that indicated the binder has low-temperature sensitivity According to Figure 10, the PMAB has lower peak intensity
(Ghasemi and Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and Afroozi 2016, compared to the neat bitumen. Hence, adding rubber and wax
Yaacob et al. 2016). Furthermore, binders with high aromatic to neat bitumen declined the peak intensity considerably. This
content improve asphalt mixture performance in terms of indicates that the bitumen, rubber and wax react chemically.
water resistance and fatigue life. Additionally, the spectra of Furthermore, the peak intensity shows the relative strength
PMB showed a couple of strong sharp peaks in the range of diffraction. Lower peak intensity results in less diffraction
between 1500 and 1600 cm−1. The peaks intensity is sharp, and improves low-temperature cracking and temperature sen-
and thus, it can be directly assigned to the N–H stretch. sitivity (Khordehbinan and Kaymanesh 2020). The addition of
These peaks show the Nitrogen presence as primary amines 2% of wax to binder modified with 20% rubber builds 3D net-
in crumb rubber (Nivitha et al. 2016). However, using works that have an interlaced form in the bitumen matrix
crumb rubber as polymer modifier binder, the spectra indicate (Khordehbinan and Kaymanesh 2020) as the wax has crystal-
the presence of N–H stretch in the region 3280 and 3320 cm−1 lises it forms (Hainin et al. 2015), resulting in improved temp-
as less intense (Nivitha et al. 2016). Hence, the results erature sensitivity (Hainin et al. 2015). Based on the XRD
suggested that this peak has vanished; this can be explained analysis, when peak intensity value decreased, the temperature
by the fact that adding wax to polymer-modified with rubber sensitivity decreased as well (Geçkil 2019). Overall, these
showed a chemical reaction between wax and rubber (Butt results indicate that the PMAB has a better performance
et al. 2010). The wavenumber range of 1030 cm−1 characterises than the neat bitumen, which is confirmed by the results of
the functional class of sulfoxide (S=O); as expected the sulfox- the PI and FTIR tests.
ide is from the rubber. The sulfoxide content in the rubber is
usually in a range of 1–2% regardless of whether it is from a car
or truck tire (Presti 2013), as adding wax to rubber modified
3.2. Mechanical properties assessment of mixtures
binder did not show any increase in the sulfoxide (Butt et al.
using PMAB
2010). Additionally, the wavenumber ranges 2800–
3000 cm−1 which is symmetric in neat bitumen, and PMAB 3.2.1. ITSM test
represents the functional class of aliphatic C–H stretch An ITSM test was accomplished at 20°C to assess the stiffness
(Nivitha et al. 2016). According to Khordehbinan and Kayma- modulus of the asphalt mixtures. As stated by previous
nesh (2020), the better asphalt binder has the most flexural researchers (Mashaan et al. 2014, Modarres and Hamedi
peaks in the wavenumber range of 400–1500 cm−1 (Khordeh- 2014), polymer-modified asphalt mixtures have obtained
binan and Kaymanesh 2020). Here, among compounds for higher stiffness than the traditional mixtures. The results of
neat bitumen and PMAB, the PMAB has the most flexural ITSM tests, as demonstrated in Figure 18, shows that the
peaks in the wavenumber range of 1355–1588 cm−1. Hence, RuW has a higher stiffness value (increased by 51%) than
PMAB has a better performance than the neat bitumen. the HMA. Of note, the higher the stiffness, the better resistance
to permanent deformation (Mashaan et al. 2014). Hence,
3.1.5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis rubber and wax have improved the mixture’s stiffness, as
Figure 17 shows the X-ray diffraction for PMAB in compari- showed in the PI results. Moreover, the FTIR analysis
son with the neat bitumen. As stated previously, the XRD confirmed that modifying bitumen with rubber and wax
method is used to chemically analyse bitumen specimens increased its resistance against thermal cracking and perma-
using centroid peak, peak area and peak intensity. nent deformation. Thus, the enhanced ITSM value may attri-
The response of XRD to various compounds follows an bute to the increase in the adhesion of the asphalt binder with
identical pattern; and thus, the centroid peak and peak area the aggregates. Furthermore, the viscosity of asphalt binder
4770 H. A. HAWESAH ET AL.

Figure 18. Comparative#ITSM performance of mixture prepared with modified

bitumen. Figure 20. Accumulated strain versus loading time of RuW and HMA mixtures at
20°C and 40°C.

can improve the binder adhesion and cohesion, as stated by rubber and 2% wax could provide a great alternative to the
Kim et al. (2015) and Presti (2013), this improvement is due expensive materials stated by Zhu et al. (2014) and Sun et al.
to the increased binder film thickness around the aggregate (2018), Styrene Butadiene Styrene.
(as confirmed previously in the viscosity test). PMAB offers
enhanced cohesion between the binder and the aggregate
3.2.3. Creep test
resulting in good adhesion between the previous surface and
It can be clearly seen from Figure 20 that the RuW mixture has
new layer of the patching materials once pothole or utility
more creep resistance than the conventional HMA at the
reinstatement repairs.
temperatures 20°C and 40°C, likely due to high values of stiff-
ness which strengthens bonds between aggregate particles and
asphalt binder. Also, the RuW mixture absorbs or distracts
3.2.2. Wheel track test (depth rutting) some amount of energy applied by static load, recording
The wheel track test was used to evaluate the rutting resistance high recovery (the relaxation) compared to the HMA. This
of asphalt mixtures. Figure 19 shows that RuW has the best might be due to the role the rubber plays in the modified bin-
rutting behaviour compared to the HMA, the rutting of der in creating a three-dimensional polymer network (Wang
RuW reduced by 23% and 57% at 45°C and 60°C, respectively. et al. 2020), which prevents or interrupts the formation of
As expected, the binder modified with rubber and wax microcracks under loading, also wax at temperatures below
improved the rutting resistance of asphalt mixtures (as 100°C forms a crystalline lattice structure in the binder
confirmed in the PI, FTIR and XRD results). The modification which acts as the basis for the increased resistance (Hurley
of the binder caused an increase in the stiffness of the asphalt and Prowell 2005, Wasiuddin et al. 2012). Furthermore, the
mixture; therefore, rut depth in the asphalt mixture was signifi- increase in the testing temperature caused by the stiffening
cantly reduced. In addition, the results of the wheel track test effect of the RuW mixture is higher compared to the HMA.
agree with the results of the ITSM test in that there were higher In addition, it is considered that PMAB has improved RuW
stiffness modulus values displayed by RuW, compared to that mixture when compared to elasticity behaviour of RuW at
of HMA. The wheel track test outcomes suggest that modify- 20°C and 40°C; it can be noticed that the mixture has less
ing the neat bitumen with 20% rubber and 2% wax decreases temperature sensitivity (as confirmed by PI results) (Ghasemi
rutting depth and the thermal sensitivity of asphalt mixtures. and Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and Afroozi 2016, Yaacob et al.
Indeed, using asphalt binder with high PI improved resistance 2016). Therefore, as expected, modifying the bitumen with
to permanent deformation of asphalt mixtures (Ghasemi and rubber and wax increases the asphalt mixtures’ elasticity and
Marandi 2013, Taherkhani and Afroozi 2016, Yaacob et al. reduces the permanent deformation (Ghasemi and Marandi
2016). Ultimately, modifying the neat bitumen with 20% 2013, Sitinamaluwa and Mampearachchi 2014).

Figure 19. Comparative rutting performance of mixture prepared with modified binder.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PAVEMENT ENGINEERING 4771

Figure 21. Fatigue performance for the RuW and the HMA mixtures. Figure 22. Water sensitivity results for the RuW and the HMA mixtures.

mixture with 150 microstrains and 50% reduction in the initial

3.2.4. Four-point bending test (fatigue cracking stiffness level at 20°C corresponding fatigue life. Both fatigue
resistance) life and strength of asphalt mixtures are affected by several
Figure 21 shows that the highest fatigue life is seen in the RuW test conditions, including test temperature, rate of the initial
mixture compared with the HMA mixture, and thus resulting stiffness, microstrains in addition to other factors. At some
in improved behaviour against fatigue. This result was based point, these conditions must be considered while evaluating
on controlled strain criteria (150 microstrains). There was a the fatigue life of the asphalt mixtures.
39% rise in the fatigue life of the RuW mixture compared to
that of the HMA mixture, this is due to the significant
improvement in the cohesive features of the asphalt mixture.
This improvement of the fatigue life is because of increased 3.3. Durability performance of mixtures prepared with
adhesive force between the aggregates and PMAB. The chemi- PMAB
cal-based additive improves the fatigue resistance of the base 3.3.1. Water sensitivity test
bitumen owing to the 3-D polymer network of the modified The stiffness modulus ratio (SMR) of RuW and HMA mixtures
binder (Wang et al. 2020), delaying or preventing the micro- are demonstrated in Figure 22. The RuW has a slightly higher
cracks formation under fatigue loading. Moreover, aggregate SMR compared to the HMA mixture, resulting in improved
particles have a stronger bond with the binder as the thicker adhesion characteristics of PMAB with aggregate due to the
modified binder surrounds the aggregates (Presti 2013, Kim positive effect of high viscosity of PMAB (as confirmed by the
et al. 2015); thus the performance of the RuW mixture is viscosity test). The modification of bitumen with rubber and
improved when compared to the HMA mixture. The stiffness wax has improved RuW water sensitivity by around 6% com-
of the RuW may offer extra stable cohesion that creates an pared to HMA. Improved cohesion and adhesion are mostly
improved, reinforcing factor (Ghasemi and Marandi 2013, responsible for this enhanced performance (Cui et al. 2014),
Sitinamaluwa and Mampearachchi 2014), resulting in against the water action in the RuW mixture. As modified bin-
enhanced cohesive characteristics of the asphalt matrix. This der has a resilient bond with aggregate, generating improved
test has only investigated the effect of loading rate on asphalt resistance to water action (Cui et al. 2014, Omar et al. 2020).

RuW mixture HMA mixture

3500 100 3500 100

3000 3000
90 90
2500 2500
ITSM (Mpa)
ITSM (Mpa)

80 80
% SMR
% SMR

2000 2000

1500 70 1500 70
1000 1000
60 60
500 500
0 50 0 50
1 3 5 7 10 1 3 5 7 10
Freeze and thaw cycle Freeeze and thaw cycle
before after SMR before after SMR

Figure 23. Comparative results of the ITSM and SMR of the RuW and the HMA mixtures under various freeze and thaw cycles.
4772 H. A. HAWESAH ET AL.

3.3.2. Freeze and thaw performance adhesion between old surface and patching materials (new
Stiffness of RuW and HMA mixtures along with SMR ratio layer) once pothole or utility reinstatement repairs.
present almost similar drop-trend with the rise of freeze and . From a durability perspective, the RuW mixture indicated a
thaw cycles as demonstrated in Figure 23. better resistance to water sensitivity along with freeze and
This is due to the viscosity of asphalt binder deteriorating thaw cycle.
when the number of freeze–thaw cycles increased (Mohi et al. . Ultimately, based on the results of this research, modifying
2020), thus, stiffness of asphalt mixtures reduced (Mohi et al. the asphalt binder with 20% rubber and 2% wax resulted in
2020, Vega-zamanillo et al. 2020). However, the RuW mixture a stronger, more durable asphalt mixture in comparison to
has recorded a higher SMR ratio in comparison with the HMA the HMA mixture.
mixture during all freeze and thaw cycles. This is due to the
modified asphalt binder having higher viscosity (as resulted in
viscosity test previously) than the bitumen; therefore, the cohe-
sion of the modified binder and its adhesion with aggregate is Disclosure statement
stronger than that of neat bitumen and HMA mixture, respect- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ively. Therefore, the RuW mixture resulted in better perform-
ance during freeze and thaw cycles. This is an evident
influence of modified asphalt binder with rubber and wax to Funding
improve the binder viscosity and temperature sensitivity.
This work was supported by Billian UK Ltd and LJMU (Match funded
project).

4. Conclusions
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