Unit III: Growth and Development of Horticultural Crops

Lesson 1 – Structure of Economically Important Parts of

Horticultural Crops
Learning Outcomes
▪ Identify correctly the basic structure of different plant parts.
▪ Explain the important parts of the plants economically.

Abstraction
A wide range of the parts of horticultural plants are economically important. This is especially true with
vegetables where, in Asia, more parts of a plant are used as vegetable. In horticulture, however, the emphasis is on
parts that are utilizable; thus, there is a tendency to focus interest on specialized and modified plant parts or on such
parts that are enlarged or unusual. Because this specialized parts, there is a wide incidence of misidentification
between roots and stems, between leaves and flowers or even between fruits and roots.
Botanically, a plant is composed of 2 main parts: the shoot and the root. The shoot is composed of the above
- ground parts – stems/bracts, leaves and if present, flowers and fruits. The growing point of a shoot or root is called
meristem. The roots below the ground level anchor the plant to the earth and act as the absorbing organs for water
and nutrients from the soil.

The Shoot System

Main Components of the Shoot System
▪ Stem
▪ Leaf
▪ Flower
▪ Fruit which contain the seed
Stem
▪ Supporting and conducting organ initially developed
from epicotyl
▪ Important for translocation
▪ Supports the leaves, connects the leaves and roots
▪ Provides storage
Major Parts of
Stem
▪ Bark
▪ Pith
▪ Cork
Types of Stem
▪ Bulb - short, erect underground stem
▪ Culm – flowering stem of grasses and sedges
▪ Offset – like runner originates from leaf axil as short and
thickened branch away from the mother plant
▪ Runner or stolon – indeterminate aboveground stem with
internodes and new plantlet at the tip
▪ Sucker –shoot arising from from below the ground from old
stem
▪ Tendril – slender coiling branch for climbing
▪ Tiller – shoot produced from the base of the stem or culm
▪ Tuber – thick storage underground stem
▪ Corm – enlarge solid fleshy base
▪ Phylloclades/cladodes –flattened or cylindrical green stems

1|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Leaf
▪ Principal photosynthetic organ
▪ Absorbing organ for chemicals and
micronutrients.
▪ Transpiration organ
▪ As storage organ
▪ As plant propagule
▪ As ornamental for pigment color

Modified Leaf
▪ Bulbs – vertically growing underground shoots
with fleshy leaves and a short stem
▪ Bracts: Bracts are specialized plant structures
that serve varied functions such as attracting
pollinators and protecting inflorescences (flower
structures).

Leaf Arrangement
▪ Alternate. Have only one leaf per node arranged
alternate on each side of the stem in a flat plane.
▪ Spiral. Have only one leaf per node arranged in
a spiral along the stem.
▪ Opposite. Two leaves arise at the same point,
with the leaves connecting opposite each other
along the branch
▪ Whorled. Three or more leaves connected at a node
Flower
▪ Reproductive organ of the plant.
▪ Gives rise to the fruit
▪ Plant structure serving for sexual reproduction with seeds as the final product
▪ Produced by spermatophytes – flowering plants

Two large Groups of Spermatophytes

▪ Gymnosperms – evolutionarily older and more
primitive group. i.e. conifers, cycads
▪ Angiosperms – the original flowering plants;
represents the majority of plant species

Parts of the Flower

▪ Perianth: calyx and corolla
o Calyx- sepals
o Corolla – petals
▪ Androecium: stamen
o Anther and filament
▪ Gynoecium or Pistil: Carpels
o Stigma, style and ovary

Types of Plants Depending On Sexes

▪ Androgynous or Hermaproditic - flowers that contain both androecium and gynoecium. E.g. papaya
▪ Monoecious – both male and female flower live on one plant. e.g. corn, cucurbits

2|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Dioecious – plants with
male and female flowers
borne on separate plants.
e.g. date
Morphology of the androecium
and gynoecium
▪ Hypogynous: the perianth
is attached to the receptacle
below the pistil
▪ Perigynous: the perianth
and stamens are borne on
the rim of a concave
structure in the depression
of which the pistil is borne
▪ Epigynous ovary: blossom seems to arise upon or above the ovary

Types of Flower
▪ Complete flower – all four organs (sepal, petal, stamen and pistil) are present. e.g. hibiscus
▪ Incomplete flower – lacks any of the four organs. e.g. grasses
▪ Perfect/bisexual flowers – flowers that contain both sexual flower parts (stamen and pistil)
▪ Imperfect Flower – contains either stamen or pistil only (regardless of whether they lack sepals or petals)
▪ Staminate flowers – bear stamens only
▪ Pistillate flowers – bear pistils only

Flower Types Affecting Pollination

Plants with flower synchrony based on maturation of
the stamen and pistil flower parts
▪ Dichogamous – when the two organs mature at
different time.
▪ Protandrous flowers – male flowers mature ahead of
pistils. e. g. carrots
▪ Protogyny – stigma becomes receptive while the
pollen grains are still immature. e. g. water lilies
▪ Autogamous – plants self-pollinate with the same
flower.
o Chasmogamous flowers - are open during
pollination
o Cleistogamous flowers – flowers do not open
during pollination period. e. g. tomato, lettuce, some rice

Fruit
▪ A part of a flowering plant that derives from specific
tissues of the flower.
▪ One or more ovaries
▪ In some cases accessory tissues
▪ The means by which the plant disseminate seeds
▪ A mature ripened ovary
▪ Contain the seed (ripened ovules) and pericarp(the
tissue that surrounds the seeds)

3|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

True or False Fruits
▪ True fruits – eucarp; mature or ripened ovary developed after fertilization. e.g. corn and mango
▪ False fruits – pseudo-carp; from floral parts other than
ovary.

Modes of Fruit Development

▪ Apocarpous fruits – develop from single flower having
one or more separate carpels; simplest fruits. e.g. corn,
peanut
▪ Syncarpous fruits – develop from single gynoecium
having two or more carpels fused together. e. g Strawberry
▪ Multiple fruits – form from many different flowers. e.g.
pineapple

Kinds of Fruits
▪ Simple fruits: can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the
ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one
pistil
▪ Aggregate fruit or etaerio: develops from a single flower with
numerous simple pistils; from single flowers that have multiple
carpels which are not joined together; each pistil contains one
carpel, e.g. Raspberry, Strawberry (also accessory fruit), Rose,
Blackberry, Soursop (Guyabano)
▪ Multiple/ Composite fruit: one formed from a cluster of flowers
(called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these
mature into a single mass
o Syconus: hypanthodium type of inflorescence, e.g. fig
o Sorosis: catkin, spike or spadix type of inflorescence, e.g.
Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mulberry
Simple Fruits
▪ Dry fruits: not fleshy; pericarp (fruit wall) no distinct three layers
▪ Fleshy fruits/ succulent: part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is
fleshy at maturity; with distinct layers including pericarp, epicarp,
mesocarp (fleshy or fibrous) and endocarp.

Dry Fruits
▪ Dehiscent capsular: opening to discharge seeds.
▪ legume/pulse/pod: pea
▪ Follicle: single carpel, opens by one suture; milkweed
▪ Silique: radish, cabbage, mustard
▪ Silicle/Silicula (syn. silique but with shorter fruit): shepherd’s purse/ Capsella

4|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Capsule: Brazil nut, Cotton

Indehiscent Achenial – not opening to discharge seeds

▪ Achene – strawberry
▪ Utricle (similar to achene) – beet
▪ Caryopsis – rice, wheat
▪ Cypsela (achene-like from individual florets in a capitulum) –
dandelion
▪ Nut – pili,
cashew
▪ Samara –
maple,
mahogany,
narra

▪ Schizocarpic splitting – splits at maturity into two or more closed, one seeded parts
o Lomentum – mimosa, acasia
o Cremocarp – coriander
o Regma - castor
o Carcerulus – salvia
o Double/compound samara –
maple, elm

Fleshy Fruits/Succulents
▪ Drupe – coconut, coffee
▪ Berry – simple fruit created from single
ovary. The ovary maybe compound with
several carpels.

▪ True berries or baccae

o Thin outer skin, not self-
supporting when removed from
the berry. e. g. tomato, grape,
guava.

▪ Modified Berries
▪ Pepo – skin is hardened. e.g.
squash, papaya, banana
▪ Hesperidium – berries with rind and juicy interior. e.g. citrus
▪ Pome – an accessory fruit composed of one or more carpels surrounded by accessory tissue.
e.g. apple, pear
▪ Balusta – Pomegranate
▪ Amphisarca – dry, more rigid and self-supporting skin. e.g. cacao

5|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Aggregate Fruits or Etario
▪ Develops from single flower with
numerous pistils
▪ From single flowers that have multiple
carpels which are not
joined together.
▪ Each pistil contains one carpel.
▪ Strawberry, raspberry, blackberry,
guyabano, atis

▪ Multiple/Composite Fruit
▪ Formed from a cluster of flower
(inflorescence).
▪ Each flower produces a fruit but mature
into a single mass.
▪ Jackfruit, mulberry, pineapple
Other Related Terms
▪ Parthenocarpy - fruit set without fertilization. May or may not require pollination. i.e. Banana, pineapple
▪ Stenospermocarpy – seedless bananas and grapes are triploid. Seedlessness results from the abortion of the
embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, requires normal pollination and fertilization.
▪ Apomixis (asexual seed formation) is the result of a plant gaining the ability to bypass the most fundamental
aspects of sexual reproduction: meiosis and fertilization. Without the need for male fertilization, the resulting
seed germinates a plant that develops as a maternal clone
Seed
▪ Miniature plant in an arrested state
▪ A ripened ovule which was shed from the parent plant consist of embryo and stored food supply both of which
are enclosed in a seed coat or covering

Parts of a Monocot Seed

▪ Brush. Tuft of persistent hairs found on tips of most types of wheat kernels.
▪ Dent. Found on tops of corn (maize) kernels (in dent corn). Forms because soft starch in the center of the
kernel shrinks more on drying than does the flinty endosperm along the outside Of the kernel.
▪ Pericarp. Primarily ovary tissue (maternal tissue) which protects the caryopsis (kernel). The caryopsis is a
ripened ovary (fruit) because of the presence of the pericarp and therefore, is not a true seed (ripened ovule).
Red color in some corn seed is found in the pericarp. Pericarp characteristics are determined by the mother
plant.
▪ Aleurone Layer. The outer few cellular layers of endosperm. Unlike the pericarp, the aleurone characteristics
are determined by both the female and male parents. Secretes enzymes that help break down endosperm
material for germination. Colorless in normal dent corn; blue in blue corn kernels.

6|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Endosperm. Mostly starch and comprises the bulk of the mature cereal grain. Energy source for the
germinating seed and seedling. Endosperm can be further classified as starchy (soft) or flinty (hard) depending
on texture and color.
o Starchy endosperm — soft, white starch.
o Flinty endosperm — hard, vitreous (glass-like); yellow in yellow dent corn; reddish brown in hard,
red wheat. The presence or amount varies in varieties or types of cereals.
▪ Endosperm proteins — important source of proteins in cereal grains. Wheat, rye and triticale (hybrid of
wheat and rye) are the only well- known cereals
whose endosperms contain gluten-forming proteins
that give bread dough it sticky, elastic quality
required for dough rise prior to baking.
▪ Scutellum. Primary function is enzyme secretion for
breaking down endosperm and transporting food to
the developing seedling. Important source of oil and
high-quality protein in cereal grains. The grass
caryopsis has one cotyledon (scutellum), so grasses
are known as monocotyledonous plants.
▪ Coleoptile. The topmost part of the embryo axis
(embryonic root and shoot) that serves as a protective
sheath for young leaves and growing point during
seedling emergence.
▪ Epicotyl (Plumule). Are the embryonic leaves and
shoot.
▪ Apical Meristem (Growing point). Located
immediately above the scutellar node. Stalk and leaf
tissue develops from the growing point. If the
growing point is destroyed, further plant development
is prevented.
▪ Scutellar Node. Point of attachment of the scutellum
to the embryo axis.
▪ Radicle. Embryonic root found in the lower part of
the embryo axis.
▪ Coleorhiza. Protective sheath surrounding the
radicle. Helps seal and prevent disease from entering
the kernel through the rupture made by the elongating radicle during germination.
▪ Black Layer. Forms near the tip of the corn kernel. Indicates physiological maturity (maximum kemel dry
weight).
▪ Pedicel (Tip). The point of attachment of the kernel to the flower stalk. Botanically called a pedicel.

Parts of a Dicot Seed

▪ Pod. The legume pod is the developed ovary that encloses the seeds (mature, fertilized ovules). Thus, legume
seeds are botanically true seeds because they are separated from the pod (ovary tissue) when threshed and
harvested.
▪ Embryo Area. This is the area of the embryo axis which develops into the legume seedling and is in a very
vulnerable position for mechanical damage. Therefore, seeds should be handled as gently as possible in
threshing and conditioning.

Types of Seeds
▪ Orthodox or drying-tolerant seeds
o These seeds can tolerate drying to as low as 5% moisture content under common conditions and low
storage temperatures. Their life span is prolonged with low seed moisture and temperature. i.e. cereal
grains, legumes

7|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Recalcitrant or drying-sensitive seeds
o Readily killed by drying, most especially if their moisture content falls below the critical value
ranging from 12-30%. i.e. durian, avocado, cacao
▪ Intermediate seeds
o Exhibit the drying tolerance characteristic of the orthodox seeds but are sensitive to low temperature
storage like the recalcitrant seeds. i.e. papaya, atis, guyabano
▪ Micropyle. Point of entry of the pollen tube into the ovule as fertilization took place.
▪ Hilum. Point of attachment of the seed to the legume pod. The seed receives its food during its growth and
development through this attachment. The hilum may vary in color (ex. soybeans), thus providing one method
of variety identification.
▪ Hypocotyl. The stem tissue between the epicotyl and the radicle. In most legumes the hypocotyl elongates
during germination to cause emergence of the seedling.
▪ Radicle. The embryonic root found in the lower portion of the embryo axis. Upon germination and emergence
it develops into the central axis of the root system.
▪ Epicotyl. The embryonic shoot and leave. It contains the growing point (apical meristem) and the first two
(unifoliolate) leaves. The stem and future vegetative growth forms from the growing point.
▪ Cotyledon. Each "half" of a legume seed is a cotyledon. Therefore, legumes are known as dicotyledonous
plants. Cotyledons are seed leaves and serve as a food supply for the seedling during germination and
emergence. Legume seeds, like soybean or peanuts, contain considerably more oil and protein and less starch
than cereal grains (for example, soybean seed—20% oil and 40% protein, and peanuts—50% oil and 30%
protein, versus cereal grains—4% to oil and 8% to 12% protein).
▪ Testa. The true seed coat of a legume seed. The testa
develops from the fertilized ovule and acts as protective
tissue for the internal seed parts.

The Root system

Root
▪ Normally underground.
▪ Functions are:
o anchorage of the plant,
o Absorption of water and dissolved minerals.
o Conduction of water and nutrients to the stem, and
storage of reserve foods.

Regions of the Root

▪ Root cap. It protects the apical meristem and perceive
gravity
▪ Apical meristem. Region of cell division and production
of new cells
▪ Region of cell elongation. Pushes meristem and root cap
through the ground.
▪ Region of maturation. Development of protoderm,
procambium and ground tissue.

Types of Roots
▪ Tap Root System
o One central primary root with several branches.
o Makes deep penetration in the soil
▪ Fibrous Root System
o Numerous, similar sizes.
o No central primary root.
o Makes shallow root penetration.

8|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Other Types of Root
▪ Adventitious Roots – Roots that grow from any part of the plant body other than radicle
▪ Foliar Roots – from leaves mainly petiole or vein
▪ Storage Roots – thickened underground roots used for storage of food. i.e. sweet potato, cassava, arrow root.
▪ Aquatic Roots. Roots that develop in water. i.e. water spinach, water hyacinth.
▪ Brace Roots. Roots that appear above ground at the base of a plant. i.e. maize
▪ Aerial Roots. Roots of hanging plants such as orchids
▪ Buttress Roots. Large adventitious roots that stabilize large trees.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

9|Page MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 Lesson 2 – Physiological Processes Affecting
Crop Production
Learning Outcomes
▪ Define and explain photosynthesis and respiration as a process
▪ Explain the importance of photosynthesis in plants and to other living organisms
▪ Describe the main structures involved in photosynthesis
▪ Identify the substrates and products of photosynthesis
▪ Discuss the different carbon dioxide concentrating mechanisms of a C3, C4 and CAM plants.
▪ Discuss the relationship of photosynthesis and respiration
▪ Explain the steps involved in the dark respiration.
▪ Discuss the factors that affect the rate of respiration
▪ Discuss the principles and concepts related to photosynthesis and respiration

Abstraction
The process of photosynthesis can be generalized by the following reaction:

6CO2 + 12H2O light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Carbon dioxide Water chlorophyll Carbohydrate Oxygen Water

Photosynthesis is the process

manufacturing of sugars and its precursors
by green plants of light and chlorophyll.
Photo means light and synthesis means to
create. Photosynthesis occurs in two
phases, one requiring light (the light
reaction) and the other occurring in the
dark (the dark reaction). This is presented
in diagram form in Fig. 1.

Let’s see what happen!

Light reaction phase

When the light and water comes in
the thylakoid membrane it produces two
things 1. Oxygen which simply waste
product and produce these products the
ATP and NADPH which are the energy.
Then this energy will then transfer to
Calvin cycle where carbon dioxide comes
in and glucose goes out. Let’s dig deeper in
light reaction (see Fig. 2).

10 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 In the electron transport chain, when a photon of light strikes to a pigment molecule in photosystem II, it
excites an electron. This electron is coupled to a proton stripped from water by an enzyme and is passed along a chain
of membrane-bound cytochrome electron carriers (yellow arrow) a proteins with chlorophyll. When water is split,
oxygen is released from the cell, and the hydrogen ions remain in the thylakoid space. At the proton pump (b6-f
complex), the energy supplied by the photon is used to transport a proton across the membrane into the thylakoid. The
concentration of hydrogen ions within the thylakoid thus increases further. When photosystem I absorbs another
photon of light, its pigment passes a second high-energy electron to a reduction complex, which generates NADPH.
The source of proton is water. Light is the one who provides energy and the waste product is oxygen. The process is
composed of non-cyclic and cyclic photophosphorylation.

Calvin cycle (C3)/dark reaction phase

▪ Named after its discoverer, Malvin Calvin, the first product of the Calvin cycle is a three-carbon compound.
▪ This pathway is also called the C3 pathway.
▪ Plants that photosynthesize by this pathway are called C3 plants.
▪ Carbon dioxide enters the cycle and becomes covalently bonded to a five-carbon sugar with two phosphate
groups called ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)
▪ This process (fixation) is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase, also commonly called rubisco.
▪ The overall process can be summarized by the following equation:
▪ 6CO2 + 12NADPH + 12H+ + 18ATP→1 glucose + 12NADP+ + 18ADP + 18Pi + 6H2O
▪ The intermediate product is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
▪ Most of the fixed carbon dioxide is either converted to sucrose (which is the principal form in which sugar is
transported in plants) or stored in the form of starch.

Three steps/phases in Calvin cycle

1. Carbon fixation. The Calvin Cycle begins when the carbon atom from the carbon dioxide molecule is
added to a five carbon molecule (starting material). The resulting 6 carbon molecule is unstable and immediately splits
into three carbon molecules.
2. Reduction. Through a series of chemical reactions, the energy from ATP and hydrogen's from NADPH
(the products of light reactions) are added to the three carbon molecule. The reduced three carbon molecules either
combine to make glucose or are used to make other molecules.
3. Regeneration of ribulose. Most
of the reduced 3 carbon molecules are used
to regenerate the five carbon starting
material, thus completing the cycle. The
fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates can occur via three ways:
▪ C3 or Calvin Benson Cycle
▪ C4 or Hatch Slack Pathway
▪ CrassulaceanAcid
Metabolism(CAM) pathway

11 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Hatch-Slack pathway (C4 pathway)
▪ The leaf anatomy of C4 plants is
characterized by their Kranz
anatomy(sheath of thick-walled
cells that surround the vascular
bundle) which is absent in the
C3 plants
▪ Occurred in the bundle sheath
and mesophyll cells
▪ Generally have higher net
photosynthesis
▪ No photorespiration
▪ the first compound formed after
CO2 fixation in C4 plants is a 4-
carbon molecule-oxaloacetate
(OAA)

The C4 pathway has the following stages;

▪ CO2 combines with phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) which is catalysed by an enzyme, PEP Carboxylase
(PEPCase) in the mesophyll cells to form a 4-carbon molecule, Oxaloacetate (OAA)
▪ Oxaloacetate, in the presence of NADPH, is converted to a 4-carbon compound (malic or aspartic acid
depending on the species) which is transported
to the bundle sheath cells
▪ C4 acids are decarboxylated within the bundle
sheath cells to produced CO2 and pyruvate.
CO2 is then reduced to carbohydrate via the
Calvin cycle while pyruvate is regenerated and
transported back to the mesophyll cell to fix
again CO2.

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM pathway)

▪ Majority of the CAM plants are succulents that
belongs to the family of Cactaceae (cactus),
Orchidaceae (orchids), Bromeliaceae
(pineapple), Liliaceae, and Euphorbiace.
▪ CO2 fixation occurs at night and PEP as CO2
acceptor and enzyme PEP carboxylase as
carboxylating enzyme. Just like in C4
pathway, a 4-carbon compound (malic or
aspartic acid) is produced and temporarily
stored in the vacuole at night. During the day,
organic acid diffuses out in the vacuole to the
chloroplast where it is decarboxylated to
produce CO2 which is use in the Calvin-
Benson cycle.

12 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Photorespiration
▪ Oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle or C2 cycle, or When the O2/CO2 ratio in the chloroplast (mainly in
C3 plants) is relatively high; O2 is fixed because RuBisCO can also act as an oxygenase.
▪ This means that RuBP is oxidized rather than carboxylated.
▪ The product is phosphoglycolate (2-carbon compound) and 3-PGA (not directly formed). This is a process in
plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, causing some of the energy produced by
photosynthesis to be wasted.

▪ Energy yield during photosynthesis

13 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

Light Intensity
▪ Light is important for the production of ATP and NADPH.
▪ At low light intensities, ATP and NADPH are not produced in adequate amounts.
▪ When light intensity is extreme, other factors such as CO2 may be limited, causing the rate of photosynthesis
to decline.
▪ Without light, dark respiration takes place
▪ As light gradually increases, photosynthesis increases to the light compensation level (carbon exchange rate or
CER is equal to 0)
▪ As light continues to increase, CER increases at a decreasing rate until light saturation level is reached.
▪ Most C4 plants increase their photosynthetic rate even at full sunlight while C3 plants reach saturation point
before full sunlight.
▪ C4 plants also use dimmer light more efficiently than the C3 plants.

Carbon Dioxide Concentration

▪ Rapid photosynthesis can deplete cells of carbon dioxide.
▪ An increase in carbon dioxide concentration is beneficial to C3 plants, since they have a high CO2
compensation point (the equilibrium concentration of carbon dioxide at which the amount evolved in
respiration is equal to the amount fixed by photosynthesis).
▪ C4 plants have a lower CO2 compensation point than C3 plants because C4 plants are more efficient in
trapping CO2.

Temperature
▪ Photosynthetic rate is decreased at low temperatures because the fixation stage is temperature sensitive.
▪ Under conditions in which light is a limiting factor (low light conditions) the effect of temperature on
photosynthesis is minimal.
▪ With adequate light, the photosynthetic rate is found to approximately double the rate in plants in temperate
areas for each 10°C (18°F) rise in temperature.
▪ The quality (sugar content) of certain fruits is reduced when they are grown under conditions in which the
photosynthetic rate is reduced but respiration is high because of high temperatures.
▪ C3 plants grow poorly at high temperatures, whereas C4 plants that are weeds thrive

Water Availability
▪ When plants grow under conditions of moisture stress, enzymatic activities associated with photosynthesis in
the plants slow down.
▪ Stomata close under moisture stress, reducing carbon dioxide availability and consequently decreasing the
photosynthetic rate.

Photoperiod
▪ The duration of day length (photoperiod) affects photosynthesis in a directly proportional way.
o Plants that are exposed to long periods of light photosynthesize for a longer time and as a result tend
to grow faster.
o When sunlight is less direct and of shorter duration, growing plants indoors is more successful if
additional lighting at appropriate intensity is provided to extend the period of natural light.

Growth and Development

▪ The general plant growth and development needs also influence the rate of photosynthesis.
o The photosynthetic rate is lower in a young expanding leaf than in a fully expanded one.
o As plant leaves begin senescence (an aging process involving degradation of proteins), the
photosynthetic rate in mature leaves declines and eventually stops in certain species

14 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Respiration
All biologically active organisms respire continuously. The process of respiration utilizes carbohydrates and
oxygen from photosynthesis and other assimilates. Carbohydrates are oxidized to carbon dioxide and oxygen is
reduced to water with concomitant release of heat and energy in the form of ATP molecules. This released energy is
used to fuel biological reactions needed for plant growth and development. It is also called dark respiration to
delineate from photorespiration in photosynthesis. Respiration is basically a slow process started in the cytoplasm and
completed in the
mitochondria. It can
also be viewed also as
opposite to
photosynthesis as
presented in the
equation and in Table
2.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6
CO2 + 6 H2O +
energy.

Three Stages of
Respiration

1. Glycolysis
▪ Glycolysis
(“sugar splitting”) occurs in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
▪ It involves the breaking down of
glucose into pyruvic acid.
▪ Series of reactions that occurs in
glycolisys:
▪ two, three-carbon sugar phosphates
are produced from one, six-carbon
glucose molecule.
▪ The sugar phosphates are then
converted to pyruvic acid (a
pyruvate), accompanied by the
production of ATP and the reduction
of NAD+ to NADH.
▪ The overall equation for glycolysis is
as follows:
▪ glucose 2NAD+ 2ADP 2Pi→2
pyruvic acid 2NADH 2H+ 2ATP
2H2O

2. Krebs cycle.
▪ The Krebs cycle occurs in the
mitochondrion, following the entry of
pyruvic acid from glycolysis.
▪ The series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions involved in this cycle constitute what is called oxidative
decarboxylation
▪ The reactions may be summarized by the following equation:
o oxaloacetic acid acetyl CoA + ADP + Pi 3NAD+ FAD →
o oxaloacetic acid + 2CO2 + CoA ATP + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2
o

15 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

3. Electron transport chain.
In electron transport chain, all of the energy in glucose is now in NADH and FADH2 and they were going to
transfer their electrons and go through in the electron transport chain and basically their moving to the series of
proteins and the energy is used to pump protons. Protons are gonna be hydrogen’s ion to the outside of the inner
membrane space that we called inner membrane space. Electrons is gonna be added to other protons and oxygen that
we breathe in is gonna make the by product, which is water. The oxygen that we breathe is moving in proteins (last
electron acceptor) and takes H or protons flow in protein called ATP synthase and those protons will combine with the
electrons in the oxygen and gonna make water (a by-product of the process). In all process we can have 34 to 36 ATP.

Factors affecting respiration

Species
▪ Azotobacter chroococcum -2,000,000 æl 02/gmdry weight
▪ Arum maculatum -15,600-31,800 æl 02/gram
▪ Valencia orange -20 mgm C02/kgm/24 hours
▪ Ripe tomato -70 mgm C02/kgm/24 hours

Age and nature of tissue – ex. leaf buds have higher respiration rate than those matured leaves; fruit with climacteric
characteristics such as banana and mango have higher respiration rate compared to its non-climacteric fruits such as
lanzones and rambutan
▪ Part of the plant-generally, plant parts that are highly protoplasmic and are actively involved in growth or
protein synthesis have higher respiratory activity.
▪ Physiological state- actively growing organs respire more compared to dormant organs or organisms
▪ Degree of hydration-tissues with higher moisture content respires more than drier tissues such as those in dry
seeds.
▪ Temperature-between 00C-350C, the respiratory rate increases at the rate or 2 to 2.5 times for every 100C rise
in temperature (Q10 or temperature coefficient is 2 or greater)
▪ Oxygen supply-with increasing 02, the aerobic respiration become more dominant. However, under limited
oxygen concentration (anoxia) or even in the absence of oxygen (hypoxia), it favors fermentation or anerobic
respiration and this phenomenrnal usally observed in waterlogged condition.
▪ Light, salts, injury, biologically active gases like ethylene-may increase respiration.
▪ Inhibitors like cyanide and high C02-may reduce or inhibit respiration.

Transpiration
It is the loss of water from the plants in the form of water vapor. This evaporative process is dependent on
energy, the heat evaporation which is required to convert water from liquid state to gaseous state. Transpiration is
also known as necessary evil as it keep cells hydrated and maintains favourable turgor pressure for the transport of
nutrients absorbed by the roots of the soil also serves as a cooling process.

Types of transpiration
▪ Cuticular transpiration – refers to the loss of water through the epidermis which is usually covered with a
cuticle.
▪ Lenticular transpiration – refers to the loss of water through numerous pores in the outer layer of a woody
plant stem, called lenticels.

16 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 ▪ Stomatal transpiration – loss of water through the stomata which account as much as 90% of the water loss
from plants.

Factors affecting transpiration

1. Relative humidity
2. Temperature
3. Wind velocity
4. Carbon dioxide concentration – higher concentration will close the stomata
5. Light intensity
6. Morphology of the leaf stomatal modification

Transpiration
It is the loss from the plants in the form of water vapour. This evaporative process is dependent on energy, the
heat evaporation which is required to convert water from liquid state to gaseous state.
Transpiration is also known as necessary evil as it keep cells hydrated and maintains favourable turgor
pressure for the transport of nutrients absorbed by the roots of the soil also serves as a cooling process.

Types of transpiration
1. Cuticular transpiration – refers to the loss of water through the epidermis which is usually covered with a
cuticle.
2. Lenticular transpiration – refers to the loss of water through numerous pores in the outer layer of a woody
plant stem, called lenticels.
3. Stomatal transpiration – loss of water through the stomata which account as much as 90% of the water loss
from plants.

Factors affecting transpiration

1. Relative humidity
2. Temperature
3. Wind velocity
4. Carbon dioxide concentration – higher concentration will close the stomata
5. Light intensity
6. Morphology of the leaf stomatal modification

Translocation
It is the movement of photosynthates through the plants. Photosynthates are the most needed in the roots,
flowers, fruits, seeds and to other parts of the plant through the xylem and phloem of the stem transpiration or loss of
water in plant is the cause of the movement. Sucrose is the main photosynthates being translocated from the source to
the sinks. Source is an organ that produces more assimilates than the requirement of the said organ for its own
metabolism and growth exporter organ. Sink is known as consumer of assimilate.

Factors affecting translocation

1. Temperature – rate of translocation increases with the temperature to a maximum and then decreases due to
hazardous effect of high temperature.
2. Light – carbon dioxide assimilation increases as light intensity increases.
3. Metabolic inhibitors
4. Concentration gradient
5. Mineral deficiencies – sucrose movement can be aided by boron.
6. Hormones – this is associated with the active parts, hence growing parts (sinks) greatly influence
translocation.

Nutrient Forms and their Mobility

Nutrients are chemical elements or compounds required by plants for normal growth and development.
Metabolic processes are mechanisms by which elements are converted to cellular materials or as sources of energy, or

17 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

to drive reactions. Plants need 16 essential elements for their growth and development. Nine of the elements are
termed as MACROBUTRIENTS (major nutrients), and these are needed by plants in large amounts C, H, O, N, P,
K, Ca, Mg, S and seven of the elements are needed by plants in smaller amounts and referred to as
MICRONUTRIENTS B, Zn, Mn, Cu, Fe, C1, Mo. Most of the essential nutrients except N are derived from
minerals while three of the elements are derived from air and water (C, H, and O).
Essential elements were proposed by Arnon and Stout (1939). There are three criteria that must be met for an
element to be considered essential:
1. A plant must be unable to complete its life cycle in the absence of the mineral element.
2. The function of the element must not be replaceable by another mineral element.
3. The element must be directly involved in plant metabolism.
▪ These criteria were set by plant nutritionists, and were arrived through series of experiments in culture
solutions as well as field studies
▪ Cobalt, vanadium, sodium and silicon were added as they are essential for specific plant and they are referred
to as beneficial elements.

The Mobility Concept

The mobility concept is considered as basic to the understanding of soil fertility. The deficiency of mobile
nutrients can be seen on older leaves (N, P, L, Mg, and Zn) however; the deficiency of immobile nutrients can be seen
on younger leaves (Cu, Mn, Bo, S, Ca and Fe).

The mechanisms of nutrient movement are mass flow, diffusion and contact exchange (interception).
1. Mass flow – the nutrients are carried by mass movements of water as water is absorbed by the roots. The
amount of nutrients absorbed depends on the amount of water and the rate of water flow to the roots and the
concentration of nutrients in the water (Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, B and Fe). Further, low amount of nutrients are absorbed
when absorption and transpiration of water by the plants is low.
2. Diffusion – the movement of ions from a zone of high concentration to a zone of low concentration. This
follows the Fick’s law. Most of the nutrients particularly P and K are supplied to the plant by diffusion.
3. Contact exchange (interception) – these are the direct exchange of ions between roots and soil colloids as
roots come in contact with the colloid.

18 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Mobile and Immobile Nutrients
▪ Mobile Nutrients: extracted by plants from a large volume of soil, even soil beyond the furthest extension of
their roots because as the plants extract water from around their roots, water from further away moves toward
the root and carries the mobile nutrient with it. Plants obtain mobile nutrients from a "root system sorption
zone" and are capable of using nearly all of the mobile nutrient (or mobile form of the nutrient) if the supply is
limited. According to Bray, the mobile nutrients are: Nitrogen, Sulfur, Boron, and Chlorine.
▪ Immobile Nutrients: Nutrients that are immobile in the soil are Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Iron, Zinc, Manganese, Copper and Molybdenum. These nutrients are not transported to plant
roots as soil water moves to and are absorbed by the root. These nutrients are absorbed from the soil and soil
water that is right next to the root surface, “root surface sorption zone”. Because of this, there is only a small
volume of soil next to the root surface that is involved in supplying immobile nutrients to plants.

Mobility of nutrients in the soil

▪ Very mobile (prone to leaching): nitrate (NO3-) Nitrogen, sulfate (SO42-) Sulfur, and Boron
▪ Moderately mobile (temporarily immobile): ammonium Nitrogen, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, and
Molybdenum
▪ Immobile (resistant to leaching): organic Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Copper, Iron, Manganese and Zinc Chelated
forms of Copper, Iron, Manganese and Zinc are mobile but resistant to leaching)

Nutrient mobility in plant body

▪ Very mobile (Deficiency symptoms appear first in older or lower leaves and quickly spread throughout the
plant): Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium & Magnesium
▪ Moderately mobile/ Mostly immobile (Deficiency symptoms first appear in new growth but do not readily
translocate to old growth): Copper, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum & Zinc; Sulfur (shows over the entire
plant).
▪ Very Immobile (Deficiency symptoms appear in new growth or newer/ upper leaves): Boron & Calcium;
deficiencies of others are very rare.
▪ Soils are often deficient

Assimilation
It is the process of utilizing food for growth and development. In early stage food substances are converted
into simpler compounds and used as building blocks for some complex substances however in the later stage, simple
and complex compounds are integrated into the living substances of the cells.

Factors that determine assimilate partitioning in a crop

1. Sink strength – the ability of the sink to accumulate assimilates and function of sink size and activity.
2. Proximity of the sink to the source organ – assimilates move preferentially toward sink leaves above and in
line with the source leaf. Lower mature leaves feed mainly the roots, the higher mature leaves feed mainly the
young leaves and the shoot apex.
3. Stage development – developing flowers and fruits become dominant sinks during the reproductive stage of
the crop. On the other hand, storage roots used as planting materials export assimilates to developing
vegetative organs.
4. Nature of vascular connections between source and sinks – each leaf is connected to the main vascular
system of the stem by a vascular trace, which divers from the vascular tissue of the stem into the petiole.

Plant movements
It refers to the movements of plants exhibit in response to the environmental stimuli. There are three steps min
plant movement as follows;
1. Perception – involves recognition of the environmental stimulus by the plant.
2. Transduction – involves biochemical and biophysical changes which occur in response to perceived stimulus
3. Response – shows the changes in the organ affected by the perceived stimulus

19 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Two categories of plant movements
1. Tropic movements (tropisms) – direction of the environmental stimulus determines the direction of the
movement.
a. Phototropism – response to light
b. Gravitropism – response to gravity
c. Solar tracking – flat blade of the leaf is always at nearly right angle to the sun throughout the day.
2. Nastic movements – movement may be triggered by an internal timing mechanism and the direction of the
stimulus may not be determined of the movement.
a. Hyponasty – bending up of leaves
b. Epinasty – bending down of leaves
c. Nyctinasty – folding of some leaves in response to light which usually assumes
d. Hydronasty – the folding and rolling of leaves in response to water
e. Thigmonasty – response to tough or mechanical trees
f. Seismonasty – response to shaking without contact to the organism

Crop adaptation
1. Morphological adaptation – exemplified by the presence of metamorphosed or specialized organs which
performs non-typical functions. Examples are the roots of trees growing in swamplands as breathing organs.
2. Physiological adaptation – exemplified by the closing of stomates of many bromeliads during the day to help
conserve water as well as abscission of leaves in deciduous plants to reduce the evaporative surface area
thereby conserving moisture and lowering of compensation point.
3. Biochemical adaptation – biochemical changes with some bearing on certain survival mechanisms such as
the increase in proline and abscissic acid and osmolytes in plants during period of moisture stress to regulate
increased water holding capacity of tissues for moisture as well as stomatal closure to conserve water.

Plant Growth Regulators

Plant growth regulators include plant hormones (natural and synthetic) but also include non-nutrient chemicals
not found naturally in plants that when applied to plants, influence their growth and development. These formed in
certain parts of the plant and which they usually are translocated to other sites where they promote, inhibit, or
otherwise modify physiological, biochemical and/or morphological processes.
In general, PGRs are promotive at relatively low concentrations but become inhibitory at relatively higher
concentrations. Endogenous PGRs are called plant hormones or phytohormones. There are five groups of natural plant
hormones and growth regulators and these are follows;
1. Auxin – is a generic term applied to growth regulators with the special capacity to promote cell elongation.
Naturally occurring auxins are the indole-auxins represented by indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). IAA is synthesized from
the amino acid tryptophan primarily in actively-growing tissues. It is also produced in mature leaves and root tips,
although at much lower concentration. IAA transport is cell to cell and is polar in nature. The basipetal transport to the
root and acropetal transport to the upper organs involves in vascular and non-vascular tissues.

Effects:
▪ Promotes cell enlargement and cell division
▪ Stimulates differentiation of phloem and xylem
▪ Stimulates root initiation in cuttings
▪ Induces ethylene biosynthesis at supra-optimal concentration
▪ Mediates the trophic bending responses of shoots and roots to gravity light and touch
▪ Promotes apical dominance
▪ Delays leaf senescence
▪ Delays leaf and fruit abscission
▪ Promotes fruit setting and fruit development
▪ Delay fruit ripening and flowering
▪ Induces femaleness in diocious flowers
▪ Induction of parthenocarpic fruit development
▪ Popularly used as herbicides (2-4-D)

20 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

2. Gibberellic acid (GA) – belong to a family of compounds based on the ent-gibberellane structure. These are
produced in the shoot apex primarily in the leaf primordial (leaf bud) and root system. They were first discovered and
finally isolated in 1938 from the fungus Gibberella fujikoroi, the causal organism of bakanae disease which had
devastated the rice economy of Japan in the early part of the 20th century.

Effects:
▪ Stimulate stem growth dramatically
▪ Stimulates cell division, cell elongation (or both) and control enzymes secretions.
▪ Involves in overcoming dormancy in seeds and buds
▪ Stimulating seed germination and seedling growth
▪ Increasing fruit size of seedless grapes

Induces maleness in diocious flowers

▪ Overcoming cold requirements for some seed
▪ Increase cell wall plasticity
▪ Bolting/flowering in response to long days

3. Cytokinin (CK) – Adenine derivatives which have the capacity to induce cell division in tissue culture. The most
common CK base in plants is zeatin, the first natural CK which was isolated from corn endosperm. The major site of
CK biosynthesis is at the root apical meristem although seeds and developing leaves have been shown to produce
significant amounts of CK. CK that is produced in the roots that is transported to the upper organs via xylem.

Effects:
▪ Cell division
▪ Morphogenesis (Shoot initiation/bud formation)
▪ Delay senescence or aging of tissues
▪ Mediates auxin transport throughout the plant
▪ Leaf expansion (cell enlargement)
▪ Affect internodal length and leaf growth
▪ Stomatal opening (some plants)
▪ Highly synergistic effect in concert with auxin
▪ Counter apical dominance (by auxin)
▪ Work in conjunction with ethylene for promotion of abscission
▪ Conversion of etioplasts into chloroplasts (chlorophyll synthesis)

4. Ethylene – is a gaseous hormone produced in the actively growing meristems of the plant, in senescing ripening or
ageing fruits and flowers, in germinating seeds and in certain plant tissues as response to bending, wounding and
bruising. Ethylene as a gas diffuses readily throughout the plants from the site of biosynthesis.

Effects:
▪ Promote leaf senescing, fruits and abscission (leaf fall)
▪ Induces femaleness in diocious flowers of some species
▪ Promote ripening of climacteric fruits
▪ Induces epinasty
▪ Induces lateral cell expansion
▪ Formation of adventitious roots
▪ Induces flowering in pineapple
▪ Promote shoot and root growth differentiation
▪ Releases tissues/organs of dormancy
▪ Enhances flower opening in some species

21 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

5. Abscisic acid (ABA) – synthesized from mevalonic acid in mature leaves particularly in response to water stress.
Seeds are also rich in ABA which may be imported from the leaves or synthesized in situ. ABA is exported from the
leaves in phloem. There are some evidences that ABA may circulate to the roots in the phloem and then return to the
shoots in the xylem.

Effects:
• Induces and or maintains dormancy in seeds and buds
• Counteracts the effect of gibberellins on a-amylase synthesis in germinating cereal grains
• Enhances stomatal closure (during water stress)
• Induces transport of photosynthates towards developing seeds and its subsequent uptake by growing embryos
• Promotes storage protein synthesis in seeds
• Promotes leaf senescence
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Congratulations! Now that you have already the knowledge on the concepts and principles on growth and
development of horticultural crops and factors affecting its physiological processes you can now move to the next
lesson which will tackle crop improvement. All the best!

22 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 Lesson 3 – Biotic, Genetic and Abiotic Factors
Learning Outcomes
▪ Discuss the importance of biotic and genetic factors on crop growth and yield
▪ Identify the criteria in selecting crop or variety for crop production

Abstraction

Biotic factors
Vigorous and healthy plants can often result to
greater output. Superior growth and yield are usually a result
of favorable soil and climatic environment including
abundance of beneficial organisms. However, if destructive
organisms (or pest) are abundant growth and yield can be
severely affected. Hence, preventive and control tactics have
to be employed. Knowing the pest attacking the crops and the
beneficial ones are some of the good practices for an effective
pest management.
Pest is a collective term that includes insect pests,
diseases, weeds, invertebrates and vertebrates. Pests are
major limiting factor in crop production. Their damage can
go as high as 100%,
Insects – are six-legged creatures with pair of
antennae and wings. They feed on plants; act as defoliators,
sap feeders, stemborers, and root feeders
Weeds – They are the “unwanted plants in a
particular place”. Weeds are very aggressive and competitive
for light, water, nutrients and other resources.
Vertebrate pests include birds, rodents, bats and
monkeys while invertebrates are slugs, snail and nematodes
Plant diseases are usually caused by microorganisms or pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes.
Fungi – it is usually called as molds, multi-cellular, primitive plants devoid of chlorophyll and relied on their
existence through assimilation of food from their hosts. They can quickly spread through the production of spores
which is carried by wind and other organisms. Some of the destructive fungi diseases include downy mildew,
anthracnose, rust diseases, rice blast and phytopthora diseases
Bacteria – are unicellular microorganism which can infect plants through plant openings such as cuts,
stomates, lenticels. They affect plants by secreting substances that can damage plant cell leading to wilting of plants.
Examples include soft rot and bacterial wilt.
Viruses – highly microscopic and parasitic organisms which can only live in other cells. Vectors that carry the
virus include insects, animals, planting materials, nematodes and humans. Examples of destructive diseases caused by
viruses are the abaca mosaic and tungro diseases.
Nematodes – these are tiny worms live in soil and feed usually on plant roots causing mechanical injuries and
can cause predispose secondary infection. Classical example is the root knot disease caused by Meloidogyne spp.
Physiological disorders/diseases – are often caused by mismanagement such as water stress and nutrient
deficiency or toxicity which can render plants susceptible to diseases.

Beneficial organisms provide beneficial effects on crops in many ways.

Pollinators – play an important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity conservation
Decomposers – play an important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in a crop production
system. Specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter. Soil microorganisms act both chemically and
physically. They digest crop residues and other organic matter enzymatically by chemically action. Physically they
move the residues from one place to another, mixing it with the soil, earthworms and other burrowing animals.

23 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 Certain beneficial fungi live in symbiotic association with plant roots: the fungus/root association such as
mycorrhiza and rhizobia.
Natural pest enemies and microbial bio-control agents against pest. Provide balance in a crop production
system particularly in the control of pests

Human Factors
This factor is often overlooked but probably the most critical
of all factors. From a system perspective, this is not only a factor but
rather the core of the system itself as this dictates all farming
activities and crop production output.
a. Farmer’s preference. This refers to the choice of crop
type or variety to plant. Decision should be based on farmer’s
objectives and aspirations. But this is often dictated by factors like
market and government policies
b. Farmer’s capability. This depends on resources and
competency of the growers or farmers. It is obvious that most
Filipino farmers are resource-poor and our culture is very rich in
indigenous knowledge particularly about farming.
c. Management. This is largely dependent on the factors a and b. It goes along with eco-social-political
realities.
d. Labor supply. Farm activities can be labor requiring at times. Hence, labor force must be available in
times of peak farming activities such land preparation, planting, harvesting and among others.
e. Peace and order situation. Presence of thieves, troublesome neighbors and the anti-government groups are
among the challenges faced farmers.
f. Others such as laws and regulations, peer pressure, tradition and beliefs

Genetic Factors
This factor is governed by genes, the unit of inheritance. It has been said that favourable environment cannot
cause a plant character to develop in the absence of necessary gene (Pava and Abellanosa, 2003). Hence, the success
in crop production can be attributed to proper selection of crop or variety at the start of farm operation. Below are
some factors to consider when selecting a crop/variety to plant.
a. Yield potential – this is the economic consideration as economic yield of crops is one of the indices
whether you are gaining or losing from your crop enterprise.
b. Adaptability – Not all the seed board or commercially available varieties may perform well in your
locality. Hence it is wise to test them in small scale or select, if possible, those that have been tested and shown to
perform well in your specific locality.
c. Resistant to pest and diseases – it is important that varieties selected are resistant to pest and diseases.
This can save you labor and other resources in managing pest.
d. Maturity – the growth duration of the crop will greatly affect the succession in farm operation. Therefore,
it is a wise move to select high yielding and early maturing cultivars.
e. Market demand – higher yield will become futile if you don’t have market of your product, hence the
needs of the buyer should be considered. Study the trend of demand in the market prior to the start of operation so that
you can take advantage of the premiums.

Some selection indices for selected crops

- Banana – disease resistance (bunchy top, sigatoka), plant height, large bunch and more uniform ripening
- Papaya –ringspot virus, crown rot resistant, fruit size, flesh color, texture, aroma, shelf life, seediness
,bearing regularity
- Durian - phytophthora resistance, aroma, flesh color and texture, drought resistance
- Tomato - bacterial wilt resistance, tolerance to rain, fruit size and color, dry matter content (processing
paste), puffiness
- Eggplant - bacterial wilt and fruit borer resistance, fruit quality

24 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 - Rice – disease resistance (tungro), pest resistance (BLH), bluck bug, maturity, yield, eating quality , drought
resistance
- Corn – disease resistance (downy mildew, stalk rot, ear rot), pest resistance (corn borer),drought resistance,
salt tolerance, yield

Abiotic factors
The growth of plants, aside from genetic control, is
largely affected by the environment. Some of these factors can be
partially controlled if not fully. Environmental factors are
difficult to manage such as light, temperature, water, relative
humidity (RH), atmospheric gases, wind and climatic stresses.
However soil factors can be managed to some extent.

Light factors
Light or solar radiation can be considered as the most
important factor that affects crop yield as this provides physical
energy, converted by chlorophyll into chemical energy (ATP), to
convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates
(photosynthesis).

Light utilization by Plants

The process of photosynthesis consumed only about 1% of light received
by the leaf of a plant. Thus if all other factors are favourable, a plant with high
percentages of light utilization has a high efficiency of converting light into dry
matter. There are techniques to enhance light interception by plants such as with
proper cultural and management practices, e.g. proper plant spacing, balance
fertilization, proper weed control, varieties with upright leaves or with high
harvest index.

Three aspects of light

▪ Light intensity
▪ Light duration or daylength
▪ Light quality or wavelength

Light intensity – this refers to the amount of light received by plants

usually expressed in foot candles (ftc) or lumens or lux. Photosynthesis can
proceed at very low intensity and become maximum at bright daylight. Most
of light reaching green leaves is reflected or transmitted at full sunlight or
middle of a day in which intensity can go as high as 10,000ftc. This is
favourable for sun loving plants like rice, soybean and corn that require 6,000
to 10,000ftc which can fix carbon at this time and condition. In contrast,
shade-loving plants can get light saturated more rapidly early morning below
1000ftc.

Types of plants based on light intensity requirements

• Heliophytes - known as sun-loving plants; light saturated at 5000
ft.c. e.g. banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cotton, cowpea, cucurbits, papaya,
peanut, sugarcane and various vegetables
• Sciophytes - known as shade-loving plants; light saturated at 500
ft.c., e.g. begonia, black pepper, coffee, ferns, ginger, philodendron, lanzones,
mangosteen, durian

25 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

 Light quality – this refers to the wavelength distribution or the ratio of UV-B, red, blue, far-red. The
biological window of light in the electromagnetic spectrum is between 300-1000 nm that has biological effect on
plants
b. Visible light : Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red (400-700 nm) → corresponds to photosynthetic
photon flux (PPF)
c. Red and blue lights are effective for photosynthesis
d. Factors affecting quality includes time of the day, season, location, atmospheric gases and moisture,
clouds, smoke, dust and other pollutants and plant factors.

Light Duration (daylength) – known as photoperiod which is the length of exposure of the plant to light (day
length every day). The flowering response of plants to light duration is called photoperiodism.
The farther the country from the equator such as North America, UK, the longer the day length, and hence the
effects of photoperiod is more pronounced. In the Philippines, no considerable effect because of its nearness to the
equator, but it is usually considered a short day from Sep – Jan and long day during summer months. Photoperiod
generally affects flowering, storage organ formation, pigmentation and other development processes.

Types of plants based on photoperiodic responses

• Day-neutral plants - flowering not regulated by
photoperiod – flowers over a wide range of daylength, e.g.
Kidney bean, banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato
• Short-day plants - plants that flower in short days
(↓CDL): ~8-12 hrs light/day, e.g. Chrysanthemums, pineapple,
coffee, rice, sesame, soybean, winged bean
• Long-day plants - plants that flower in long days
(↑CDL): ~13 to 16 hrs/day, e.g. Wheat, aster, castor oil, onion,
radish

Photoperiodic classification of some important crops

26 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Temperature
This amount of heat (cold, warm or hot) received by the plants.
Temperature affects almost all processes and development occurring in plants.
The rate of reaction increases by 2 times for each 10 degrees centigrade rise in
temperature until an optimum is reached. Temperature is very critical in
germination, breaking seed dormancy, flowering, and growth processes related to
translocation, absorption, transpiration and many others.
In the Philippines, the monthly average temperature is lowest in January around
22.5 ⁰C and highest in May at 28.2 ⁰C. At high elevations (1,200 m ASL
elevation) in the country (e.g. Bagiuo), the temperature ranges from 13.2 to 24.6
oC. In contrast at low lying area (22 m asl elevation) such as Laguna, it ranges from 23.3 – 31.5 oC. It is important to
note that about 0.6 oC decrease in temperature for every 100 m increase in elevation. For temperate plants, cold
temperature is needed to initiate flowering. The cardinal and optimum temperatures for most plants range 5 - 54 and
20 to 25 oC, respectively. For instance, corn has a maximum cardinal temperature of 45oC, a minimum of 10 oC and
optimum of 30-35 oC.

3 cardinal temperatures
a. Minimum temperature – temperature below which reaction
velocity becomes zero due to deactivation of enzymes. This is the
minimum temp. at which the photosynthesis (PS) starts. PS hardly starts
at 500C for tropical plants
b. Optimum temperature – temperature at maximum reaction
velocity. PS increases with rise of temp. up to 250C. Maximum PS
occurs at this range of temperature
c. Maximum temperature – temperature above which reaction
velocity becomes zero due to desaturation of enzymes. The highest temp.
at which PS can take place

Classification of crops based on temperature

a. Low temperature requiring crops - grow well between 7 and
130C. e.g. asparagus, cauliflower, cabbage, peas, potato, lettuce, broccoli
b. Moderate low temperature (13-180C). e. g. capsicums, carrots, radish, snapbeans, soybean
c. High temperature (19-300C). e. g. cucurbits, eggplant, okra, most legumes, taro and others

Vernalization
Is a technique of exposing seed at imbibed state or plants to low
temperature (1-50C) for the purpose of enhancing flowering, crop maturation,
and germination. e.g. Lettuce germination, flowering in Aster and other cool-
season crops.

Atmospheric gases
• CO2 – its concentration in the atmosphere is about ~0.03%. This is
an important raw material for photosynthesis
• 150 billion tons of carbon fixed by photosynthesis per year; 134 bil
tons of carbon from ocean; and 16 bil tons of carbon from land
• Oxygen (~21%) – is important in respiration to release ATP for plant
processes including absorption, translocation, germination process
• N2 (~79%) – the most abundant inert gas but it has little role on plant
growth not until it is fixed and converted to NH4 or NO3.

27 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Wind
A slight or mild moving air or wind is effective for pollination and beneficial in the exchanges of gases from
the leaf surfaces. However, strong wind can be destructive and can cause
crop lodging, subsequent yield reduction, grain shattering, hasten
transpiration, can cause straight, upright, curved growth, sterility due to
pollen loss, reduced CO2 levels especially in enclosed spaces and enhance
disease spores dispersal
In the Philippines, the average normal wind speed is 7.2 km/hr.
Three-fourth of Philippines area are prone tropical cyclone (63 to over 118
km/hr). The 31-41% of these cyclone most frequently hit in Northern and
eastern Luzon, Batanes, Northern Samar, Sorsogon and Masbate. Usually it
occurs more frequent from July to December.

Relative Humidity
This is defined as the percentage of moisture in the
air relative to the amount of moisture that the air can hold if
saturated at any given temperature. RH affects directly the
water relations, photosynthesis, pollination, occurrence of
diseases, postharvest handling, seed drying and storage, and
ultimately yield. For irrigation management, the lower the
RH, the more frequent watering is needed. Thus it is
important that growers maintain the RH levels at 50% or
more. In addition, it is important to note that dry atmosphere
(low RH) can result to higher transpirational loss of water
causing plants to wilt and shrink. Thus it would require
frequent irrigation schedules to compensate moisture loss
due to elevated evapotranspiration. On the other hand, higher RH makes fresh produce to be stored a little longer
under ambient condition. However, drying of seed grain can take longer while disease incidence can also be high.

Water
This is the greatest single factor that lowers yield of crops as this is
the major component of plant protoplasm, 90 to 95% on FW basis,
maintains turgidity of plant cell and a raw material for photosynthesis. It
affects the opening and closing of stomata and controls exchanges gases for
photosynthesis and regulating plant body temperature. It serves as solvent
for plant food and nutrients from the soil. Practically, it plays an important
role for land preparation, efficient utilization of fertilizer, seed germination,
and establishment of transplant, flowering and plant nutrition. Below are
stages of growth and development of some important crops considered to be
critical for drought stress. Likewise, a few listed below showing the typical
values of the amount of water needed to produce a certain economic
product.

28 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Sources of water for plants
a. Rainfall
a. primary source of water for irrigation
b. supplies 80% of cropland worldwide
c. Annual ave. in PH is 2553 mm
▪ Luzon – 2,724 mm
▪ Visayas – 2,391.7 mm
▪ Mindanao – 2,349.8 mm
b. Irrigation water
a. Artificially-made water source
(e.g. deep well or ground water, river and
impounded and others
b. methods include
flooding/furrow, sprinkler and drip
irrigation

Types of Philippine climate based on the

rainfall pattern
Type I – distinct wet and dry season
Type II – no dry season with pronounced
maximum rain period
Type III– short dry season and no
pronounced wet season
Type IV – evenly distributed rainfall

Climatic stresses that are destructive to any growing crops include the following
a. Typhoon - wind speed greater than 60 kph are destructive to any growing crops
b. Ozone Destruction - due to emission of CFCs & GHG
c. Global Warming - accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere
d. El Niño/La Niña - warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient rainfall or prolonged
drought in some areas, while heavy rains, storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of the globe
e. Acid Rain - sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from a natural sources and human activities
f. Lahar – a destructive thick mudflow from a slope of volcano

29 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Soil factors
The variations in soil conditions and mineral
content affects plant growth
Phases of soil system
• Solid – mineral + organic matter
• Liquid – soil solution
• Gas – various gases

Soil properties
a. Physical – this consists of the soil texture,
structure, bulk density, porosity, water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity)
b. chemical properties include the pH, CEC, base saturation,
salinity, toxic elements)
c. biological properties are the organic matter content and kind and
amount of microbial population present

Soil texture
• the relative proportion of primary soil particles (sand, silt and
clay)
• Soil texture influences water holding capacity and availability for
plants: Sand (>0.02 μ), Silt (0.02-0.002μ) and Clay (<0.002μ)
• Soil texture range: sand - <10% clay; Loam – equal proportion of soil particles; Clay - >4.5% sand
Loamy soil generally preferred for most crops. This is the blend
of the different soil particles which is moderately coarse-textured. It has
high nutrient- and water-holding capacity than sandy and yet it offers a
better drainage than clayey soil.

Soil Structure
• The arrangement of soil particles into aggregates
• How soil structure is formed?
- Natural structure called “Ped”
- Organic matter - binding agent
• Types of soil structure
- Blocky, granular, columnar, platey and structureless
• Importance of soil structure to crops
- Soil tillabilty may be related to structure. There are soils that are
relatively easier to break up because of their structure.
- Soil structure influences soil aeration which is critical during seed
germination and seedling emergence.

Soil pH
- Degree of acidity or alkalinity
- 7 is neutral, above 7 is alkaline and below 7 is acidic
- Influences the availability of essential nutrients
- Generally, crops can grow in soil with pH ranging from 5.0 – 7.5
pH effects
• Below 5.0: Al, Fe & Mn become toxic and Ca & Mo deficiency
• Below 5.5: Mo, Zn, K & S deficiency
• pH 6-7 (neutral): most nutrients are in available form
• Above 7.5: Salinity, Al, Zn & Fe toxicity
• Above 8.0; formation of Ca phosphates
• Above 8.5: salinity, Zn and Fe deficiency

30 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222

Cation Exchange Capacity
• Ability of soil to absorb and release cations through the soil solution
• How? – Soil particles can be colloidal (e.g., clay) and can contain excess (net) negative charges
• How it is measured? – Sum of exchangeable cations in a given wt. of soil expresses in me/100 g. soil

Soil organic matter

• This can be derived from plant and animal residues
• A fertile soil should contain 2-8% OM
• Helps prevent loss of nutrients
• Facilitates absorption and percolation of water into and
through the soil = increase WHC and reduce soil erosion
• Improves soil structure
• Improves root penetration

Soil fertility and nutrient elements

• Nutrients – are chemical elements or compounds required
by plants for normal growth
• Plant nutrition – the supply and absorption of chemical
elements or compounds required by the plant
• Soil fertility – the ability of the soil to supply essential
nutrients to plants in sufficient and balanced amount
• Soil productivity – the ability of the soil to produce desired
quantities of plant yield.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Congratulations! You have just concluded this module. Now that you have already the knowledge of the different
factors affecting crop production, you can now move to the next module which will discuss the
Crop improvement, and seed production and selection.

31 | P a g e MARA JEAN MARIELLE CALAPARDO – CS 222