Grade 8

Student’s Textbook

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 i

 Take Good Care of
This Textbook
This textbook is the property of your school. Take good care
not to damage or lose it.
Here are 10 ideas to help take care of the book:
1. Cover the book with protective material, such as plastic,
old newspapers or magazines.
2. Always keep the book in a clean dry place.
3. Be sure your hands are clean when you use the book.
4. Do not write on the cover or inside pages.
5. Use a piece of paper or cardboard as a bookmark.
6. Never tear or cut out any pictures or pages.
7. Repair any torn pages with paste or tape.
8. Pack the book carefully when you place it in your school
bag.
9. Handle the book with care when passing it to another
person.
10.When using a new book for the first time, lay it on its
back. Open only a few pages at a time. Press lightly along
the bound edge as you turn the pages. This will keep the
cover in good condition.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 ii

 SOCIAL STUDIES
GRADE 8
STUDENT TEXTBOOK

Authors:
Tilahun Atlabachew T/Giorgis (M.A.)
Melkamu Belay Tiruneh (B.A.)
Kassahun Demissie Worku (M.A.)
Mulugeta Dires Fetene (M.A.)

Editor s, Reviewers and Evaluators:

Belay Belete Birhanu (MA)
Solomon Wondimu Metaferia (MA)

Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 iii

PHOTO CREDIT:
While every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
authors and publishers’ apologies for any accidental infringement where copyright
has proved untraceable.

©Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau

First edition 2021

Addis Ababa

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 iv

Contents Pages
UNIT 1: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH…….………..1

1.1 Forces Shaping the Earth's Surface……………………………………...….2

1.2 Composition and Structures of the Earth’s Atmosphere…………….……13
1.3 Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate…………………………..17
Unit Summary……………………………………………………………...28
Glossary ………………………………………………………………...…29
Review Questions……………………………………………………….…30
Check List

UNIT 2: PEOPLE AND SOCIOECONOMIC ACTIVITIES………………...33

2.1 Cultural Diversity and Change……………………………………………...34

2.2. Major Economic Activities………………………………………………...42
2.3 Trade and Market as the Current National and Local Concern……...…49
2.4 Government Revenue and Tax…………………………………….………55
Unit Summary……………………………………………….…………61
Glossary …………………………………………………………….…62
Review Questions………………………………………………………63
Check List

UNIT 3: NATURAL RESOURCES AND SOCIOECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………….…66

3.1 Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources for Sustainable

Development…………………………………………………………..…67
3.2 Consequences of Unwise Utilization of Natural Resources……………...83
3.3 Resource Accessibility and Resource Based Conflicts…………..……….84

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 i

 Unit Summary…………………………………………………………87
Glossary …………………………………………………………….…88
Review Questions……………………………………………….….….89
Check List

UNIT 4: EARLY MODERN AND MODERN WORLD HISTORY……..…92

4.1 The Great Geographical Discoveries………………………………………93
4.2Renaissance, Reformation and Counter-reformation……………….…....99
4.3The Industrial Revolution………………………………………….………105
4.4 The Two World Wars……………………………………………………...107
4.5 The Cold War……………………………………………………………….120
Unit Summary…………………………………………………….......125
Glossary ………………………………………………………………127
Review Questions……………………………………………...…...…128
Check List

UNT 5: AFRICA SINCE THE 1500S……………………………………........132

5.1 Slavery and the Slave Trade…………………………………………….....133
5.2 Colonialism in Africa…………………………………………………...…..144
5.3 Independent African States and Moves towards Economic and Political
Integration……………………………………………………………….....151

Unit Summary………..…………………………………………...….157
Glossary…………………………..…………………………………..158
Review Questions……………………..…………………………...….159
Check List

UNIT 6: MODERN HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA………………………..…….162

6.1 Formation of Modern Empire State………………………………….…...163
6.2 Long Distance Trade and Medium of Exchange…………………..…..…171

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 ii

6.3 Ethiopia and the Outside World…………………………………………..174
6.4 The Unity of Ethiopians in Defense of their Sovereignty and Territorial
Integrity…………………………………………………………….…….…181
Unit Summary………………………………………………………...200
Glossary……………………………………………………………….201
Review Questions………………..…………………………………....202
Check List

UNIT 7: CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES……………………………206

7.1 Climate Change…………………………………………………………….207
Unit Summary…………………………………………………..…….223
Glossary ………………………………………………………………224
Review Questions…………………………………………..…………225
Check List

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 iii

 UNIT
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
1 THE EARTH

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Differentiate between internal and external forces shaping the surface
of the earth;
 Identify the types of land forms formed by the earth’s internal and
external forces;
 Describe the different thermal and compositional layers of the Earth’s
atmosphere;
 Distinguish the difference between weather and climate;
 Analyzes elements and controls of weather and climate.

Main contents
1.1 Forces shaping the Earth's surface.
1.2 Composition and structures of the Earth’s atmosphere
1.3 Elements and controls of weather and climate
Unit Summary
Review Questions

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 1

1.1 Forces Shaping the Earth's Surface

Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Describe internal and external forces shaping the surface of the earth;
 Identify land forms created by external and internal forces;
 Explain how the earth's internal and external force affect human life;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top ten words
 Anticline  Exfoliation  Fold mountains  Weathering

 Crater  Faulting  Magma

 Denudation  Fissure  Richter scale
More key words
 Block mountains  Lava  Seismometer
 Earthquake  Normal fault  Stalactite
 Epicenter  Reverse fault  Syncline
 Folding  Screes  Vent

1.1.1 Internal or Tectonic Forces and Resultant Landforms

What are the internal forces that affect the formation of landforms?
Internal forces are forces that come from the inside of the earth. These forces form
the ups and downs on the earth’s crust. These forces include folding, faulting,
volcanism and earthquakes.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 2

I. Folding
Folding is the bending of rock layers due to
earth movements from one or two sides. Folds
are most visible in rocks that contain layering
(sedimentary rocks). A monocline is a type of
fold in which all rock layers bend in the same

direction. If the layers of rock bend upward, it is Figure 1.1 Anticline and syncline

called anticline. If the layers of rock bend

downward, it is called syncline.

Fold Mountains
What are Fold Mountains?
List the major Fold Mountains of the world.
Fold Mountains are formed by crust which has been uplifted, and folded by
compressional forces. Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks
and are usually found along the edges of continents. This is because the thickest
deposits of sedimentary rock generally accumulated along the edges of continents.
The following are major Fold Mountains of the world:
1. Andes (South America)
2. Rockies (North America)
3. Alps (Europe)
4. Himalayas (Asia)
5. Atlas (North Africa)
6. Cape Ranges (South Africa)
7. Australian Alps (Australia)
Figure 1.2 Major Fold Mountains of the world

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 3

II. Faulting

What is faulting?
Describe the major features formed by faulting.
Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks. These cracks are
called faults. Faults occur from both tensional and compressional forces. Tension
causes a normal fault, and compression causes a reverse fault.

Figure 1.3 Normal and reverse fault

Rift valleys and block/Horst/ mountains are major features formed by faulting.

Figure1.4 Rift valley and Block Mountain

Rift Valleys
What is rift valley? How is it formed?
A rift valley is formed when the land between two parallel faults sinks down.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 4

The largest rift valley in the world is the East African Rift Valley. It extends 7200
km from Syria to Mozambique, passing through the Red Sea; it touches Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, DR Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. It is as long as 5600
km in Africa.

Figure 1. 5 The Great East African Rift Valley

The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the East African Rift Valley. It extends from
northeast to south west. Features found in the Rift Valley include active
volcanoes, lakes, hot springs and fumaroles.
Block (Horst) Mountains
What is Block Mountain? How is it formed?
Block Mountains are formed by the uplift of land between two parallel faults. In
many parts of the world block mountains are found closer to fold mountains.

III. Volcanism
What is volcanism?
What are the landforms formed by volcanism?

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 5

Volcanism is the process by which molten rock (magma) is forced out to the surface
of the earth. The high temperature inside the earth changes rocks into molten
magma. The magma that reaches the surface is called lava.
The lava may come out on the surface through a single hole called a vent or
several cracks called fissures.
When a hole is formed at the top of the cone of a volcano it is called crater. If the
hole or crater is very wide, it is known as caldera. A lake formed in a caldera is
known as Crater Lake. Mount Zequala is a very good example of cone-shaped
volcanic mountain with a crater lake.
Volcanic activities may result in extrusive and intrusive landforms. These are:-
A. Extrusive landforms: form on the surface of the earth. They include volcano,
crater, caldera and lava.
B. Intrusive landforms: result from magma solidifying before reaching the
surface of the earth. When magma collects in the crust, it forms batholiths,
laccoliths, dykes and sills.
Batholith: is a very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust.
Laccolith: is a mushroom shaped body of intrusive igneous rock smaller than a
batholith.
Dyke: is formed when magma solidifies in a vertical or near-vertical crack.
Sill: is a near horizontal intrusion of igneous rock between two rock layers.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 6

 Figure 1.6 Major volcanic features

Types of volcanoes
Volcanoes have three types. These are:
i. Active volcanoes:- these types of volcanoes have a recent history of
eruptions; they are likely to erupt again.
ii. Dormant volcanoes:- they have not erupted for a very long time but may
erupt at a future time.
iii. Extinct volcanoes:- they are dead volcanoes that are not expected to erupt in
the future.

Effects of volcanism on human life

Volcanic eruption has both negative and positive impacts on human life. Let us
look at these impacts as follows:-

i. Disadvantages of volcanic eruption

Volcanoes emit hot, dangerous gases, ash, lava, and rock that are powerfully
destructive. Volcanic eruptions can result in additional threats to health, such as
floods, mudslides, power outages, drinking water contamination, and wildfires. It

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 7

 also results in infectious disease, respiratory illness, burns, injuries from falls,
and vehicle accidents related to the slippery, hazy conditions caused by ash.

ii. Advantages of volcanic eruption

Volcanic eruption has the following advantages. It:-

 Provides hot water for bathing

 Helps to generate geothermal energy
 Provides fertile soils that is good for farming
 Creates dramatic scenery that can attract tourists
 Forms hard and expensive minerals used as jewelry
 Provides hard rocks for building, etc.
IV. Earthquake

What is an earthquake?
Where do earthquakes frequently occur?
Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust. They are caused by
internal movements deep down inside the earth. Earthquakes are frequently
associated with faults. They take place along fault lines where the earth’s crust is
weak. When an earthquake occurs, vibrations from the center spread out in the
form of waves in all directions.
The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus. The point on
the earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicenter. The
intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a seismometer, and
is recorded on a seismograph. The scale which gives the magnitude is called the
Richter scale. It ranges from 0 to 9. Readings to 5 indicate minor or light; 5 to 7
moderates to strong; 7 to 8 major and 8 or more is great earthquake. The Ring
of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 8

Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The majority
of Earth’s volcanoes (75%) and earthquakes (90%) take place along the Ring of
Fire.
Effects of Earthquakes
 Loss of life and destruction of property
 Displacement of parts of the earth’s crust vertically or laterally
 Landslides and deep cracks in surface rocks
 The devastation of cities, fires and diseases
 The rise or lowering of the sea floor

Activity 1.1 A
A. Questions based on facts
1. Define the following terms:
a. Folding c. Earthquake e. Epicenter
b. Volcanism d. Syncline
2. What means by internal force?
3. What is the difference between anticline and syncline?
4. What are the major features formed by faulting?
5. What are the three types of volcano? How do they differ from each
other?
6. What is the difference between magma and lava?
7. What are the impacts of internal forces on human life?
B. Group work
1. Show the location of the Great East African Rift Valley on the map of
Africa and list down the countries touched by this rift valley.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 9

1.1.2 External or Gradational Forces and Resultant Landforms
 What means by external forces?
External forces are the forces that act upon the earth’s surface from the outside.
These forces level the ups and downs of the earth’s surface. This process occurs in
two ways: denudation and deposition.
Denudation: is the lowering of the land by wearing away of the surface of the
earth. It consists of weathering and erosion.

1. Weathering
Weathering it refers to the breaking down of rocks into smaller particles. There
are two types of weathering. They are physical (mechanical) and chemical
weathering.
i. Physical weathering: it is the process by which rocks are broken into smaller
pieces. Its main agents (causes) are temperature change, frost action and plant
and animal action.
a. Temperature change: The temperature variation between day and night
causes rock to expand and contract. Due to this process the rock layers peel
off and fall to the ground. The process of breaking rock layers because of
changes of temperature is called exfoliation (Onion skin weathering).

Figure 1.7 Exfoliation (left) and Frost action (right)

b. Frost action: Rain water fills the cracks and pores of rocks, and expands on

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 10

 freezing, exerting a great pressure on the rocks. The alternate thawing
(warming) and freezing in time break up the rocks into pieces. These
fragments pile up at the bottom of the main rocks forming screes.
c. Plant and animal action: The roots of some plants may enter the cracks of
rocks and push the rock apart. This leads to the breakdown of the rocks. Some
animals make holes into the ground to find food and shelter. This also breaks
up rocks.
ii. Chemical weathering: it is a process which causes complete change in the
internal structure of rocks. Its main agents are rain action and plant and animal
action.
a. Rain action: When rain water passes through the atmosphere, it takes in carbon
dioxide and forms carbonic acid. When carbonic acid comes in contact with
limestone, it dissolves the limestone and forms caves. The cave contains
features such as: stalactites, stalagmites and pillars.
Stalactite: is a limestone column that hangs down from the roof of the cave.
Stalagmite: is a limestone column that grows upwards from the floor of the cave.
Pillar: is formed when stalactite and stalagmite join together.
b. Plant and animal action: Bacteria in the presence of water break down certain
minerals in the soil. Plants absorb minerals, and decaying vegetation produces
organic acid which cause a further breakdown of minerals.
2. Erosion
What is erosion?
What are the major agents of erosion?
What are the major types of erosion?
Erosion is the movement of broken rock and soil particles from one place to
another by running water, wind, moving ice or sea waves.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 11

 A. Erosion by Running Water

How does running water cause erosion?

Rivers are the most important of all natural agents which help in shaping the
earth’s surface. The work of running water includes eroding, transporting and
depositing eroded material.
There are three types of running water erosion:
Sheet erosion: occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow.
Rill erosion: occurs when surface water cuts relatively small channels.
Gully erosion: occurs when floods cut deep wide gorges.
B. Wind erosion
Wind is the strongest force of erosion in deserts. As it blows across the desert
surfaces, it picks up and transports grains of sand from one part to another part of
the desert. Wind erosion and deposition form different landforms such as:
 Sand dune is a small hill of sand formed by the action of the wind.
 Barchan is a sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape.
 Loess deposit is a deposition of fertile soil in the desert by wind.

Activity 1.1 B
A. Questions based on facts
1. Define the following terms:
a. Weathering c. Denudation e. Screes
b. Erosion d. Loess deposit f. Barchan
2. What are the agents of erosion? Which one is more significant in desert areas?
3. What are the types of landforms formed by wind erosion and deposition?
4. What is the difference between physical and chemical weathering?
5. What are the causes of physical weathering?
B. Things to do:
Social studies Textbook Grade 8 12
1. Prepare diagrams representing major landforms of your nearby environment.
Finally, show your work to the class.
1.2 Composition and Structures of the Earth’s Atmosphere

Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to

 Describe the different layers of the earth's atmosphere and
their characteristics

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five terms
 Aerosol  Ionosphere  Ozone
 Atmosphere  Mesosphere
More key terms
 Exosphere  Rare gases  Troposphere
 Meteorite  Stratosphere

1.2.1 Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere

What is atmosphere?
The air that surrounds the earth is called the atmosphere. It is an envelope of
transparent, colorless, tasteless and odorless gases found above the earth’s surface.

The earth’s atmosphere is composed of gases, suspended dust particles and

condensed moisture droplets which are collectively known as aerosols. It extends
outwards several thousand kilometers. The gases are different in their volume.

Nitrogen and oxygen are major gases of the earth’s atmosphere while argon and
carbon dioxide are minor gases. The remaining gases are often referred to as trace
gases.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 13

 Figure 1. 8 Composition of the Atmosphere

Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the earth’s atmosphere. It makes up 78 percent
of the Earth’s atmosphere. It enters the atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when
dead plants and animals decay. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas in Earth’s
atmosphere, is primarily produced by plants. Among gases of the earth’s atmosphere,
oxygen is the most important for living things to exist on planet earth.

1.2.2 Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature variation.
They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
Troposphere: it is the lower portion of the atmosphere. It extends from sea
level to 8/16 km. It contains three-fourth of the atmospheric mass. All kinds of
weather changes take place only in this layer. It has uniform temperature decrease
with an increase of altitude. The top boundary is known as the tropopause, which
is characterized by jet streams (high velocity winds).

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 14

Stratosphere: it extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km. Here, temperature
is nearly constant upward to about 20 km. Then after, it increases owing to
absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone. It has high concentration of ozone
gases. Its upper limit is called the stratopause.
Mesosphere: it extends up from the stratopause to about 80/85 km. In the lower
mesosphere, temperature changes slowly with an increase in altitude. However, it
decreases to nearly –100oC at the top of the mesosphere. It is the coldest part of the
atmosphere. Its upper surface is known as the mesopause. Also, it is the layer of
strongest winds whose velocity is nearly 300 km/hour. Most meteorites burn and
disintegrate because of friction in this layer.
Thermosphere: it is the upper most layer of the atmosphere. This layer is of
extremely low density. It is characterized by a direct relationship between
temperature and altitude. Temperatures get up to 725°C - 1,225°C. The extreme outer
fringe is believed to extend as far as 1000 km above the surface of the earth.
Gradually, it is taken over by vacuum and very little heat can be absorbed, held or
conducted. Thermosphere can be further subdivided into ionosphere and exosphere.
i. Ionosphere it extends from roughly 80 km to somewhere around 500 to 700
km above the earth’s surface. It is a layer of electrically charged particles.
These electrons and ions are useful for communication because they reflect
radio waves.
ii. Exosphere: it is the outermost fringe of the atmosphere. It lies beyond about
500-700 km and is characterized by increasing hydrogen and helium content.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 15

 Figure 1.9 Structure of the atmosphere

Activity 1.2
A. Questions based on facts
1. What are the components of the atmosphere?
2. What are the major gases of the atmosphere?
3. Which layer of the atmosphere contains ozone? What use does it have?
4. Which layer of the atmosphere is the coldest?
5. Put the atmospheric layers in ascending order from the lower to the upper.
6. Explain the main characteristics of the layers of the atmosphere.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 16

1.3. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Distinguish the difference between weather and climate;
 Outline climatic controls and climatic elements;
 Compare and contrast variations of rainfall and temperature
between different locations such as highlands and lowlands agro-
climatic zones of their locality;
• Collect, summarize and present diurnal and seasonal variation of
weather data available at their nearby meteorological stations;
 Draw climatic graphs.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top ten words
 Convection  Lapse rate  Precipitation
 Sublimation  Diurnal range  Radiation
 Conduction  Deposition  Conduction
 Evapotranspiration
More key words
 Air pressure  Equinox  Weather
 Insolation  Ocean current  Wind
 Hydrological cycle  Rainfall

1.3.1 Definition of Weather and Climate

Are weather and climate the same?

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 17

Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time. Weather
includes daily changes in precipitation, air pressure, temperature, wind, etc.
Climate is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period of
time. These conditions include average temperature, air pressure, humidity, and
days of sunshine for a period of 30 years. Climate tells us what it is usually like in
the place where we live. Climate refers to what is expected to happen in the
atmosphere rather than the actual conditions. It is possible for the weather to be
different from that suggested by the climate.

1.3.2. Elements of Weather and Climate

The major elements of weather and climate are temperature, rainfall, winds, air
pressure, clouds, sunshine, humidity etc.
I. Temperature
What is temperature?
Temperature is the amount of hotness or coldness of an object. The sun is the
primary heat source for the earth and its atmosphere. The sun’s energy is called
insolation or solar radiation, and this turns into heat energy at the earth’s surface.

How is energy transferred in the atmosphere?

Not all the energy that originates from the sun reaches the earth’s surface. Heat
transfer takes place in three ways. These are: radiation, conduction and
convection.
Radiation is the transfer of energy from one body to another by means of
electromagnetic waves. The sun warms the earth through radiation of
electromagnetic waves.
Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through molecular contacts within and
between bodies. The process of conduction is more important in solids. Air and water
are poor conductors of heat.
Social studies Textbook Grade 8 18
Convection is the transfer of heat due to differences in density. Convection is
the method by which heat moves through gases or liquids.

II. Rainfall
What is rainfall?

Rainfall is liquid precipitation. Any moisture that falls from the clouds towards the
earth’s surface is called precipitation. Precipitation is part of the water or
hydrological cycle. The process of hydrological cycle is powered by solar energy
and is repeated continuously.

Figure 1.10 The hydrological cycle

Evaporation: is the process by which liquid water is converted into gases.
Transpiration: is the transfer and change of water from plants to water vapor in the
air.
Evapotranspiration: is the combined loss of water through the process of
evaporation and transpiration.
Condensation: is the process by which vapor becomes liquid.

Sublimation: is the process in which ice changes directly into water vapor.

Deposition: is the process in which water vapor changes directly into ice.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 19

Types of rainfall
There are three main types of rainfall which occur very frequently in the world and
depend on a variety of factors. Here are the three main types of rainfall:
i. Relief /Orographic/ Rainfall: occurs when moist air is forced to rise over
mountains. As it rises, it cools, then condenses and falls as rain.
ii. Convectional Rainfall: occurs when the energy of the sun heats the surface of
the Earth, causing water to evaporate to form water vapor. It is common in
humid areas where temperature is high throughout the year.
iii. Frontal/Cyclonic/ Rainfall: occurs when two air masses (warm and cold) meet
together. It is common in the middle and high latitudes.
III. Air Pressure

What is air pressure?

Atmospheric or air pressure is the weight exerted by air on a unit of area of the
Earth’s surface. Air pressure is measured with barometers. Air pressure is 1,013
millibar at sea level, which translates into 760 millimeters. Air pressure is not
uniform across the planet, however. Pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
Pressure also decreases with an increase in temperature.

IV. Wind
What is wind?
The horizontal movement of air is called wind. Winds have speed and direction. Winds
blow from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. Wind speed is measured with
anemometer. Winds are named according to the compass direction of their source.
For example, a southerly wind comes from the south and blows to the north. Wind
direction is measured by an instrument called wind vane.
1.3.3 Controls of Weather and Climate
Controls of weather and climate are factors that affect elements of weather and

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 20

climate. They make the distribution of the elements of weather and climate over the
earth’s surface uneven. The major controls of weather and climate include:
 Latitude  Cloud cover  Wind
 Altitude  Ocean current  Air pressure
 Distance from the sea

A. Latitude
What is latitude?
What is the effect of latitude on temperature?
On a global scale, latitude is the most important factor determining the strength of
heat reaching the earth’s surface. Latitude indicates the distance places have from the
equator. A place’s latitudinal location affects the amount of incoming solar radiation
the place receives, and thereby its temperature.
At the equator, the overhead sun is high and of high intensity insolation is received.
At the poles, the sun’s rays are slanting (oblique), so the amount of insolation is
low.The sun is overhead in tropical areas in the zone between the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn. The sun is never overhead outside of the tropics. The sun is
directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on June 21 (the June solstice) and at the
Tropic of Capricorn on December 21 (the December solstice). At March and
September equinoxes, the sun is directly overhead at the equator.

Focus
Equinox is the moment at which the center of the visible sun is directly
above the equator. This occurs on March 21 and September 23.

Solstice is either of the two times a year when the sun is at its greatest
distance from the celestial equator.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 21

B. Altitude

How altitude affects temperature?

Air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The normal decrease of

temperature with height is 6.4oC per 1000 m. This is known as the normal lapse
rate. The normal lapse rate is the average rate or proportion at which temperature
changes per unit of altitudinal change. The highland areas of Ethiopia are good
examples of places that demonstrate the effect of altitude on temperature.

C. Distance from the Sea

How distance from the sea affects temperature?

Land warms up and cools down more quickly than the sea. This is because of the
transparency of water reflections from water surfaces, evaporation, mixing and
currents in water. All these conditions result in greater and more rapid temperature
changes on land than in the seas.
D. Cloud cover

How cloud affects temperature?

Cloud reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface and the
amount of radiation reflected from the earth’s surface. When there are no clouds both
types of radiation will be at a maximum level.
E. Ocean Current

What is ocean current?

What are the two types of oceancurrent?
Ocean current is the horizontal movement of ocean waters caused by winds and
differences in temperature. It influences the climate of coastal areas. There are two types
of ocean current: cold or warm.
Cold ocean currents have cool temperatures and low moisture content, whereas warm

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 22

ocean currents have high temperatures and high moisture content.

Figure 1.11 Ocean currents of the world

1.3.4 Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Weather

The temperature of the air changes from time to time. We use words like average and
range to indicate the variations.

Daily (diurnal) range of temperature: is the difference between the maximum and
minimum temperatures in a day.

Daily average (mean) temperature: is obtained by adding the maximum and

minimum temperatures of a day and dividing the sum by two.

Monthly average (mean) temperature: is calculated by adding all daily averages

and dividing the sum by the number of days of the month.

Annual march (range) of temperature: is the difference between the temperatures

of the hottest and coldest months in a year.

Annual average (mean) temperature: is obtained by adding the average monthly

temperatures and dividing the sum by 12.
Social studies Textbook Grade 8 23
Variation of Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia

Diurnal and Seasonal Variation of Temperature

During the winter season of the northern hemisphere, Ethiopia experiences the ‘Bega’
season. During this season, days have clear skies. Thus, the incoming solar rays are
intense. As a result, temperature increases in the day time. On the other hand,
temperature decreases at night, because of clear sky. This, therefore, results in high
diurnal range of temperature.

Every part of Ethiopia experiences vertical rays of the sun twice in a year. The first is
between April and June and the second is between June and September. However,
the apparent movement of the sun brings about less significant difference between the
length of the day and night. As a result, there is a regular receipt of solar radiation
throughout the year. Therefore, there is low annual range of temperature.

Seasonal Variation of Rainfall

During the summer season of the northern hemisphere, Ethiopia experiences the rainy
season. Most highlands of Ethiopia receive the summer rains. The lowlands of
Ethiopia do not get the summer rains.

In the autumn and spring seasons of the northern hemisphere, the ‘little rains’ are
experienced in Ethiopia. The southern and southeastern lowlands enjoy these rains.
The central parts and eastern escarpments of the north-western highlands get the
spring and summer rains. Though unreliable, the north-eastern fringes of Ethiopia get
winter rains. The western part of Ethiopia, experiences all year rainfall.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 24

Ethiopia’s Agro-climatic Zones

What means by agro-climatic zone?

Agro-climatic zone is defined as a land unit represented in terms of major climate

and growing period, which is climatically suitable for certain range of crops. Based
on altitude-temperature relationship, there are five traditional agro-climatic zones in
Ethiopia. These include Bereha, Kola, Woina Dega, Dega and Wurch.

Table 1.1: Ethiopia’s agro-climatic zones

Altitude Mean annual Name of the agro-climatic zone

(in meters) temperature (in ) Local Global
3,300 and above 10 Wurch/Kur Alpine
2,300 3,300 10 – 15 Dega Temperate
1,500 2,300 15 – 20 Woina Dega Sub-tropical
500 1,500 20 – 30 Qolla Tropical
Below 500 30 Bereha Desert

The Bereha zone is a lowland area

which has the hottest temperature.
Kola is largely lowland area with
warm to hot semi-arid climate.
Woina-Dega is a midland with
moderate climate. The Dega zone is
highland area with low temperature.
The Wurch zone is the coldest and has 1.12 Agro-climatic zones of Ethiopia
the highest altitude.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 25

Activity 1.3

A. Questions based on facts:

1. Define the following terms:
a. Weather c. Sublimation e. Air pressure
b. Climate d. Radiation
2. What are the major elements of weather and climate?
3. Describe the major controls of weather and climate.
B. Individual work:

Table 1.2: Climatic data for a hypothetical station

Month J F M A M J J A S O N D

Temp 13 17 20 25 26 27 27 25 23 20 18 16
( )
R.F(mm) 11 26 55 84 116 160 243 285 137 61 14 8

By referring to Table 1.2,

1. Calculate the annual range of temperature of the station.

2. Calculate the mean annual temperature of the station.
3. Calculate the total annual amount of rainfall of the station.
4. Draw line graph showing the temperature and bar graph showing the
rainfall.
C. Things to do:
1. Draw a sketch map that shows the five agro-climatic zones of Ethiopia.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 26

 Summary
 Internal forces are forces that come from the inside of the earth. These forces include
folding, faulting, volcanism and earthquakes.
 Folding and faulting are processes that create landforms when a force inside the earth
causes rock in the crust to bend (folding) and break (faulting).
 Volcanism is the process by which molten rock (magma) is forced out to the surface of
the earth. Volcanic activities may result in different extrusive and intrusive landforms.
 Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust. They are caused by internal
movements deep down inside the earth. Earthquakes are frequently associated with
faults.
 External forces are the forces that act upon the earth’s surface from the outside.
 Erosion is the movement of broken rock and soil particles from one place to another
by running water, wind, moving ice or sea waves.
 The earth’s atmosphere is composed of gases, dust particles and moisture droplets
which are collectively known as aerosols.
 The earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature variation.
They are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
 Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time. Climate is the
average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period of time.
 The major elements of weather and climate are temperature, rainfall, winds, air
pressure, clouds, sunshine, humidity, etc.
 The major controls of weather and climate include: latitude, altitude, wind,
ocean current, distance from the sea, air pressure, cloud cover, etc. These controls
result in diurnal and seasonal variation of weather.
 Agro-climatic zone is defined as a land unit represented in terms of major climate and
growing period. Based on altitude-temperature relationship, there are five traditional
agro-climatic zones in Ethiopia.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 27

 Glossary

Aerosols: are liquid or solid Focus: the point below the earth’s
particles suspended in air. surface along which initial
Caldera: a basin-shaped volcanic earthquake tremors occur.
depression; such large depressions Folding: the bending of rock layers
are typically formed by the subjected to tectonic stresses.
subsidence of volcanoes. Insolation: light and heat from the
Crater: a steep-sided, usually sun.
circular depression formed by Lapse rate: the rate at which air
either explosion or collapse at a temperature changes with altitude.
volcanic vent. Lava: magma which has reached
Deposition: a process in which the surface through a volcanic
layers of a substance form eruption.
gradually over a period of time. Magma: molten rock beneath the
Earthquake: sudden, strong surface of the earth.
shaking of the earth’s surface, Mesosphere: layer of the
caused by movement of the rocks atmosphere that lies above the
in the earth’s crust. stratosphere.
Epicenter: a point on the earth’s Rift valley: a deep, linear, steep-
surface directly above the focus of sided trough produced by sinking
an earthquake. of land between two faults.
Equinox is the moment at which Volcanism: process involving the
the center of the visible sun is transfer of molten rock material
directly above the equator. either from one subsurface
Fissures: elongated fractures or location to another, or its
cracks on the slopes of a volcano. explosion onto the surface.

Social studies Textbook Grade 8 28

 UNIT 1 REVIEW QUUESTIONS
I. True or False Item
Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is wrong.
_____1. The East African Rift valley is the largest valley in the world.
_____2. The highlands of Ethiopia receive reliable winter rains.
_____3. Land absorbs and loses heat more quickly than water.
_____4. Cold ocean currents make coastal lands drier and cooler.
_____5. Fold Mountains are formed from metamorphic rocks.
II. Matching Item
Instruction: Match the features under column ‘B’ with their descriptions
under ‘A’
A B
_____1. A sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape A. Rift valley
_____2. Piles of loose rock fragments B. Barchan
_____3. Magma which has reached the earth’s surface C. Screes
_____4. A depression between two parallel faults D. Lava
_____5. Elongated cracks on the slopes of a volcano E. Fissure

III. Multiple choice Item

Instruction: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
_____1. Which of the following is the effect of earthquake?
A. The rise or fall of the sea floor C. Shortening days and nights
B. Diversification of plant species D. Surplus food production
_____2. Which fold mountain is found in South Africa?
A. Himalayas B. Atlas C. Alps D. Cape Ranges
_____3. The bending of the land surface due to internal forces is
A. faulting B. folding C. volcanism D. earthquakes
29
_____4. Which of the following is an internal force that changes the earth’s surface?
A. weathering B. earthquake C. erosion D. denudation
_____5. The emission of molten rock to the earth’s surface is caused by:
A. faulting B. folding C. landslide D. volcanism
_____6. A very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust is known as:
A. batholith B. laccolith C. dyke D. sill
_____ 7. Which type of force forms rift valley?
A. folding B. faulting C. erosion D. volcanism
_____ 8. The point at which an earthquake originates is known as:
A. epicenter B. vent C. fissure D. focus
_____9. By volume, the major gas of the atmosphere is known as
A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. argon D. helium
_____10. The largest rift valley in the world extends from _________ to __________.
A. Syria, Mozambique C. Jordan, Tanzania
B. Israel, Angola D. Bahrain, Zambia
IV. Fill in the Blank Item
Instruction: Fill in each of the blank spaces with appropriate words.
1. An upward and convex fold is called _____________, while a downward fold is
called _____________.
2. The difference between the highest and lowest temperatures in a day is known
as _____________________.

30
Check List

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform.

I can

1. Describe internal and external forces shaping the surface of

the earth.

2. Identify land forms created by external and internal

forces.

3. Explain how the earth's internal and external forces affect

human life.
4. Describe the different layers of the earth's atmosphere
and their characteristics.

5. Distinguish the difference between weather and climate.

6. Outline climatic controls and climatic elements.

7. Compare and contrast variations of rainfall and temperature

between different locations such as highlands and lowlands
agro-climatic zones of their locality.

8. Collect, summarize and present diurnal and seasonal

variation of weather data in their locality.

9. Draw climatic graphs.

31
UNIT
PEOPLE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
2 ACTIVITIES

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Explain how peoples’ culture develop and change through time.
 Appreciate global and local cultural diversity;
 Discuss the impacts of population movement on human
settlement and economic activities.
 Explain the concept of trade and increasing global
interdependence.
 Analyze the condition of consumers’ right and supply problem
using their local examples.

Main contents
2.1 Cultural diversity and changes
2.2. Major Economic Activities
2.3 Trade and market as the current national and local
concern
2.4 Government revenue and tax
Unit Summary
Review Questions

32
2.1. Cultural Diversity and Changes

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the processes that lead to the development of culture.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top four terms
 Culture  Non-material culture
 Material culture  Artifacts

2.1.1 The Development of human culture?

Startup questions
 What is culture?
 What are the processes that lead to the development of culture?

Culture is defined as the symbols, language, religion, beliefs, norms, values, and
artifacts that are part of any society. Cultural processes include all procedures
through which people transform the world as it is into a world of their own. This
includes all group specific norms and rules, values and ideas, information and
knowledge in the process of communication. The development of culture has
already been underway for thousands of years and will continue in the future.
Societies began to form particular cultures, ideas, customs, and social behaviors
that make one society distinct from another.

Culture is developed from changes in socially transmitted beliefs, knowledge,

customs, skills, attitudes and languages. Culture is affecting people’s behavior that
they acquire from other members of the society through teaching, imitation and
other forms of social transmission.

33
Cultural components can be classified as material and non-material culture. This
classification is expressed as follows:-

1. Material culture includes tools and technology, houses, factories, raw

materials, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. Example, rock
hewn churches of Lalibela, obelisks of Axum
2. Non-material culture also known as symbolic culture includes the values,
beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society. Example :- traditional
dances, songs, rituals , folks, etc

2.1.2. Major Cultural elements Language, Religion and the Human race

Competencies: after studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Discusses language, religion and human race as a cultural elements

 Elaborate the cultural diversity of people in terms of language ,religion and
human races

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top five terms

 Cultural identity  Human Race

 Language  Religion
 Multiculturalism

Cultural Diversity

What is cultural diversity?

Cultural diversity is also known as multiculturalism. This refers to a group of

diverse individuals from different cultures or societies. Usually, cultural diversity
34
can be expressed in terms of nationality, language, religion, race, health difference,
sexual orientation, gender, age, disability and ethnicity. This diversity consists of
all the different factors that make up an individual, including age, gender, culture,
religion, personality, social status and sexual orientation. Society benefits and
shares various values from cultural diversity through the harmonious coexistence
of different cultures.

Ethiopia is the home of peoples that have cultural diversities who are living
together in the same community. In this diversified cultural environment, its people
retain, pass down, celebrate, and share their unique cultural ways of life,
languages, art, traditions, and behaviors.

Ethiopia is a country with multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country. Ethiopians share

a deep pride in the country’s legacy and defend the sovereignty of their country.
The country has its own unique culture that defines beauty with a variety of
cultures.

Religion is one element of culture that influences the life of Ethiopians. Its
population is followers of Christianity, Islam, and other religions.

The country uses its own calendar. Ethiopia was the birth place of coffee. Coffee is
a national drink and its drinking takes place together with neighbors. The people
are well known for being welcoming, considerate and cooperative. Amharic
language serves as the government's official language and the majority of the
people speak the language.

Ethiopians share many things together. For example, hospitality, respecting elders,
standing together for the sovereignty of their country, tolerance, patriotism and
celebrating cultures together. On the other hand, there are differences in religion,

35
language, race, marriage ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, way of dancing, dressing
style and greeting style. Some of these elements are discussed below.

1. Language

 What are major cultural elements?

 What is language?
 Why we use language?

Language is defined as a system of communication which consists of a set of

sounds and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular country or
region for the purpose of talking or writing.

Language involves the use of speech, written characters, numerous symbols and
gestures of non-verbal communication. Language helps us to share our ideas,
thoughts, and feelings with others.

Multilingual features of the Ethiopian people

Most of the languages that are spoken in Ethiopia belong to Afro-asiatic language
family. The Ethiopian languages are divided into four major language groups.
These are Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan. Let us see the four major
language families:

Semitic languages: are spoken in northern, central and eastern Ethiopia (mainly in
Tigray, Amhara, Harar and the northern part of the Southern Peoples regions).

The Semitic languages include Amharic, Tigrigna, Ge'ez, Guragigna, siltigna and
others.

 Cushitic languages are mostly spoken in central, southern and eastern

Ethiopia (mainly in Afar, Oromia, Somali regions and Sidama). The
Cushitic languages include Afarigna, Agewigna, Afan Oromo, Sidamigna,
Somaligna, Hadyigna, Kambatigna, Gedeogna, Alabigna and others.
36
 Omotic languages are predominantly spoken between the Lakes of southern Rift
Valley and the Omo River. Example: Welaytta, Gamo,Gofa, Basketto, konta and
others.

Nilo-Saharan languages are largely spoken in the western part of the country
(mainly in Gambella and Benshangul regions). Example: Agnuak, Berta, Gumuz
and others.

2. Religion

 What is religion?

Religion is defined as a set of organized beliefs, practices, and systems that relates
to the belief and worship of God or another super-natural being. It includes cultural
beliefs, worldviews, holy books, prophecies, revelations, and morals that have
spiritual meaning to members of the particular faith. Religion gives a source of
comfort and guidance, basis for moral beliefs and behaviors, provides a sense of
community and connection to tradition and health.

Importance of religion

a. Cultural Identity: Religion plays a crucial role for a person in giving a cultural
identity. Each religion has cultural ceremonies, traditions, which are part of the
tangible and intangible heritages.
b. Values and Ethics: Religion helps in creating an ethical people and keeps the
values of the society in day to day life. This helps in character building values of a
person like love, empathy, respect, harmony and acts as to strength socialization.

3. Human race

Human race is defined as a category of people that is socially constructed, shares

certain distinctive physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, and

37
 stature. Race refers to physical differences that groups and cultures consider
socially significant.

Factors for cultural change

i. Globalization: -it brings increasing interconnectedness among different people

and cultures. This lead to cultural change.
ii. Environment: the way of usage natural resources in the community threatens
the cultural identities of indigenous people.
iii. Technology: the advancement of technology leads to cultural change. For
example, the invention of cars, computers, internet, etc.
iv. Contact with other cultures: the contacts between one society with another
society results in sharing of culture. This leads to cultural change.

2.1.3 Globalization and dynamics of social and cultural values.

Competencies: after studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Debate in the classroom on the effect of globalization as an agent

cultural change.
 Respect humanity and indigenous knowledge.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top five terms

 Cultural imperialism  Technology

 Cultural invasion  Indigenous culture
 Satellite TV

Globalization? Startup questions

 What do you understand by the word globalization?

 Identify the opportunities and challenges of globalization.

38
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnections among individuals across
nations and their people. It refers to a remarkable exchange and sharing of
information, culture, economic resources and technology which leads to strong
interdependence among peoples of different nations of the world.

The cultural dimension of globalization is seen in the presence of western

entertainment and mass media. The influence of mass media especially
entertainment channels leads to loss of local identities. Currently globalization is
leading to cultural imperialism.

In Ethiopia, currently domestic cultures are dominated by a host of additional

cultural forms from abroad, leading people with a confusing way of lifestyle
options from which to choose. Different western based satellites Television (TV)
programs, which deliver most part of western cultural and entertainment products
could negatively affect indigenous cultures of Ethiopia.

Now a day individuals and

groups trying to annex Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting
their cultures with new and imposing a culture of a politically powerful
global practices based on nation over a less powerful society and alienating
what they have seen from people from their indigenous culture.
mass media worldwide. As
a result, Ethiopian cultures and values are highly changing over time and become
more dependent on western cultures. Over the years the youth have tried to be
fashionable and have exhibited clothing which is influenced to a large extent by
foreign fashion in the wake of globalization. The extent of this influence affects the
youth and the local fashion industry negatively.

39
In addition, the youth left the Ethiopian clothing style and has become an
adaptation of western fashion trends. European and American influence has
become so widespread and so invasive across almost every activity; from
education, religion, politics, social change, and fashion is no exception. The youth
should be proud of their cultures.

Lesson 2.1 Review

Activity 2.1

A. Questions Based on Facts

1. Define the following terms

a. Culture b. Language
c. Material culture d. Religion
e. Non material culture f. Human race
2. What is cultural diversity?
3. Explain the process of cultural development.

B. Group discussion

1. How the youth mitigate the effect of globalization on cultural change?

Discuss in your groups and present your findings to your classmate.

40
2.2 Major Economic Activities

Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Explain the major types of economic activities;
 Relate major economic activities with countries levels of
development;
 Compare and contrast agriculture of the developed and
developing countries;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words
 Forestry  Manufacturing  Tourism
 Industry  Mining
More key words
 Agriculture  Fishery  Communication
 Arable farming  Pastoral farming  Transportation

2.2.1 Primary Economic Activities

Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources from the
environment. They involve the production of food stuffs and raw materials. The
main types of primary activities include:

 Agriculture  Fishing

 Forestry  Mining

41
Let us look at the major primary economic activities of the world as follows.

I. Agriculture

What is agriculture?
Why is agriculture an important primary economic activity?

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of the soil and the rearing of
livestock for either local consumption or commercial purposes. It is one of the
most important activities of human beings, because it provides them with the most
basic necessity. It provides foodstuffs for the population and raw materials for
industries. Agriculture forms the basic livelihood for the majority of the Ethiopian
people. Agricultural activities are broadly grouped into two. They are: crop
production (arable farming) and animal husbandry (pastoral farming).

II. Forestry

What is forestry?

Forestry is one of the primary economic activities, which involves the extraction
of forest products for different purposes by people. Forestry is practiced
in plantations and natural stands.

Forestry is important in the provision of timber, fuel wood, biodiversity

management, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management and recreation. It
also plays a significant role in preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

III. Fishery

What is fishing?

Fishing is a primary economic activity concerned with the catching and harvesting
of fish and other marine creatures. It is one of the oldest occupations of

42
humankind. Ethiopia has a number of lakes, reservoirs and rivers rich in fish
resources. However, fishing as an activity is not well developed.

IV. Mining

What is mining?

Mining is the process of obtaining useful minerals from the earth's crust. It is
closely linked to manufacturing, which is a secondary type of activity. Some
examples of substances that are mined include coal, gold, or iron ore. Mining
provides different types of minerals for construction, jewelry making, and raw
materials for industries.

2.2.2 Secondary Economic Activities

What is secondary economic activity?

What is manufacturing?
Is there any difference between
manufacturing and industry?
Manufacturing is the activity
Secondary activities pertain to adding
which turns raw materials into
value to already existing products by
products by using labor, energy
changing their form via processing,
and equipment.
etc. It includes manufacturing,
construction and power production. But, industry refers to the place

Manufacturing uses machines, tools where manufacturing takes place.

and labor to make things for use or Manufacturing activities take place

sale. The term may refer to a range of in factories. It is the activity of

human activities, from handicraft to making articles.

the use of high technology.

43
However, it is most commonly applied to the creation of industrial products in
which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale.

2.2.3 Tertiary Economic Activities

What is a tertiary economic activity?

Tertiary activities help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors.
These activities, by themselves, do not produce goods, but they are an aid or a
support for the production process. So they are also known as support services.
Transport, communication, trade, tourism, health, education and administration are
important examples of tertiary activities. Let us briefly look at the following
sectors:-

I. Transportation

What is transportation?
What are the major modes of transport?
Transportation is the movement of goods or people from one location to another.
Nowadays, the types and quality of transportation have made much progress. This
has enabled people to travel longer distances in shorter times than ever before.
Also, the flow of ideas, beliefs and innovations has become faster and wider.

The rapid progress in transportation and other forms of communications have made
places all over the earth functionally closer to each other. The major modes of
transportation include: land transport, water transport air transport.

A. Land transport: it includes road and railway transport.

i. Road transport

Road is the most common mode of transport. It is relatively cheap to construct and
maintain. Motor vehicles can climb quite steep hills and turn around sharp curves.

44
Transportation by motor vehicles is easily available. Carts and trucks are much
cheaper to buy than locomotives and ships.

ii. Railway transport

Railway is an important means of transportation on land since the carrying

capacity is very high. Railways can carry bulky products such as iron-ore, coal,
petroleum and steel overland. The major problems of railway transport are that it
cannot easily cross mountainous terrain and requires huge capital.

B. Water transport

Water transport is cheap and convenient for transporting bulky goods over long
distances. It does not require heavy construction like roads and railway lines. Ships
are made to transport people, goods and petroleum.

C. Air transport

Air transport is the latest and fastest mode of transport. Valuable and low weight
goods are carried by air transport. It is very little affected by ground conditions. It
is the most expensive type of transport.

II. Communication

What is communication?

Communication is the sharing of information between different individuals. It

includes the sharing of ideas, concepts, imaginations, behaviours and written
content. Communication is simply defined as the transfer of information from one
place to another. This transfer of information can be conducted in different ways.
The major channels of communication include: mail, telephone, radio, television
fax, e-mail and internet.

45
III. Tourism

What is tourism?

Tourism is the movement of the people from their normal place of residence to
another place for leisure, business and other purposes.

Tourism is a source of both job opportunities and income. It is known as a

‘smokeless industry’. The main tourist attractions include natural and human-made
features. Some of the reasons for tourism include: site-seeing, conferences, sport
activities, health purposes, research and religious ceremonies.

2.2.4 The Effect of major Economic Activities on Countries Economic

Development
Economic basis of developed and developing countries
The developed countries have a large share of the manufacturing industries.
Nowadays, wages in these areas are getting very high. To overcome this problem,
they tend to produce more sophisticated products which depend on high
technology. Whereas, in the developing countries, wages are lower and therefore,
they often produce simple goods for lower market prices.

In the industrialized countries, a large number of people are employed in secondary

(manufacturing) activities and only a few workers in primary activities. On the
other hand, in developing countries, the great majority of people still work in the
agriculture sector because governments cannot invest more on secondary activities.
Developing economies are basically agrarian in their character.

In developing countries, the number of people engaged in agricultural sector is

many but the production is little. Since developed countries are practicing modern
methods, they can produce large amount using few number of manpower. That

46
means people engaged in agricultural sector are very few but production is in
surplus.

The share of agriculture in both employment and output is tiny in the developed
countries. However, its share in output and employment in developing countries is
quite substantial. In many developing countries, agriculture accounts for more than
a quarter of their national output.

Activity 2.2

A. Questions based on facts

1. Define the following terms:
a. Agriculture c. Manufacturing e. Communication
b. Forestry d. Transportation f. Tourism
2. Describe the main types of primary activities.
3. What is the difference between manufacturing and industry?
4. Compare and contrast agriculture in developed and developing
countries.
5. Explain the three major types of economic activities.
B. Group work
1. Visit your locality and identify the economic activities that people are
engaged. Then, present your findings to the class and invite the class
for further discussion.

47
2.3 Trade and Market as the Current National and Local Concern

Competencies: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Describe the various flow patterns of goods, services and
information;
 Analyze the contribution of trade to the Ethiopian economy
 Explain the major types of trade;
 Evaluate the contribution of different economic sectors to
Ethiopian export trade;
 Explain that the interaction of supply and demand
determines price;
 Use graphs to show the market equilibrium point;
 Explain what conditions must exist for “perfect
competition” to occur;
 Discuss the trade-off between consumer right and market
supply;

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top ten words
 Competitive market  Producers  Retail trade
 Consumers  Entrepot trade  Supply
 Demand  Market equilibrium
More key words
 Export trade  Internal trade Import trade
 External trade  Market Wholesale trade

48
The concept and historical development of trade and market

Trade

What is trade?

Trade is the process of buying, selling, or exchanging of commodities. The earliest

form of trade was bartering, which is the exchange of one article for another of
equal value. The emergence of trade is related to the unequal distribution of
resources that are essential to satisfying human needs.

Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money.

As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of
money (and letter of credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly
simplified and promoted trade.

Market

What is a market?
A market is a place where buyers and sellers can gather to facilitate the exchange
of goods and services. The market may be physical like a retail outlet, where
people meet face-to-face, or virtual like an online market, where there is no direct
physical contact between buyers and sellers.

Key benefits of trade

Trade is critical to a nation’s prosperity. Some of its benefits are described below.
 Bigger variety of products for the local population
 Higher level of competition with decreasing prices
 High level of technological progress and efficiency
 Low production costs
 Specialization and division of labor

49
  Interdependence and cooperation among trade partners
 Higher tax revenue
 Countries may refrain from serious conflicts due to economic interests

Types of trade

What are the types of trade?

Trade is classified into two categories - Internal and External Trade. These types of
trade are also further classified into various types.

1. Internal trade is done within the same country, that is, within the same
geographical boundary of a country. It is further classified into different categories
as follows:

a. Wholesale trade involves the purchase and selling of goods in large quantities.

b. Retail trade is an action of selling goods directly to consumers by retailers.

2. External trade- is also referred to as international trade. As the term denotes

this trade occurs between two different countries. External trade is further
classified into three categories as follows:

Import trade: refers to the purchasing of goods or services manufactured in

foreign countries.

Export trade: refers to the selling of domestic manufactured goods to another

country.

Entrepot trade: refers to the import of foreign goods for re-exporting them to
foreign consumers.

50
Ethiopia’s export trade

Ethiopia’s export trade is dominated by agricultural products. At present, the major

export products of Ethiopia include coffee, livestock products (leather, live animals
and meat), oil seeds and pulses, fruits, vegetables and flowers, textiles, natural
gum, spices and mineral products.

Market forces: supply and demand

An exchange of a product takes place when buyers and sellers can agree upon a
price. Price is dependent on the interaction between demand and supply
components of a market. Demand is the amount of a good that buyers are willing
and able to purchase. Supply is the amount of a good that sellers are willing and
able to sell. The point where the supply and demand curves intersect is called
market equilibrium.

Focus
Surplus (Excess supply): is a situation in which quantity supplied is
greater than quantity demanded.
Shortage (Excess demand): is a situation in which quantity demanded is
greater than quantity supplied.

51
Major actors of the market

The major actors of the market are buyers (consumers) and sellers (producers).
Buyers (consumers): are people who buy products for their personal or family
use. They buy goods not for other purposes but for consumption.
Sellers (producers): are people and organizations that convert raw materials to a
more useful product for users. They supply for sale the products and services that
are demanded by consumers.
The idea of competitive market

A competitive market is a market in which there are so many buyers and so many
sellers that each has a negligible impact on the market price. Because buyers and
sellers in perfectly competitive markets must accept the price the market
determines, they are said to be price takers. The following conditions must exist for
perfect competition to occur:

 Each buyer knows that there are several sellers from which to choose.
 Sellers know that each buyer purchases only a small amount of the total
amount sold.
 The goods being offered for sale are exactly the same, so they have uniform
price.
 The buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buyer or seller has any
influence over the market price.
 Buyers and sellers are free to enter or leave the market at any time they like.

Consumer right and supply problem

In Ethiopia, there are supply problems which are caused by several factors. These
problems highly affect consumers depressing availability of goods from quantity,
quality, time and price aspects. Some of the supply problems include:

52
  Malpractices by suppliers: like black marketing, hoarding, profiteering,
unethical advertising, etc.
 Wrong weight and measures
 Problem of duplicate goods
 Health and safety hazards: example, selling products after the expiry date
 No proper return for money (price paid): due to inferior quality, less
durability, adulteration, unsatisfactory packing, etc.
 Low level of market infrastructure
 Poor storage facilities
 Shortages due to irregular supply, etc.

According to the Ethiopian Trade Practice and Consumers’ Protection Authority

Proclamation Number 685/2010, any consumer shall have the right to:

1. get sufficient and accurate information or explanation on the quality and type of
goods and services he purchases.
2. selectively buy goods and services
3. not to be obliged to buy for the reasons that he looked into quality or options of
goods and services or he made price bargains.
4. be received humbly and respectfully by any business person and to be protected
from such acts of the business person as insult, threat, frustration and
defamation.
5. submit his complaints to the Trade Practice and Consumers’ Protection
Authority for adjudication; and
6. be compensated for damages he suffers because of transactions in goods and
services.

53

Activity 2.3

A. Questions based on facts

1. Define the following terms:
a. Consumers d. External trade g. Trade
b. Demand e. Market h. Shortage
c. Export trade f. Producers i. Supply
2. What are the key benefits of trade?
3. How internal trade differs from external trade?
4. What are Ethiopia’s major export items?
5. What conditions must be fulfilled for the occurrence of perfect
competition?
6. What are the major actors of the market?
7. What rights do people have as consumers in Ethiopia?

2.4. Government revenue and tax

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning of government revenue and tax.

54
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top three terms

 Government revenue
 Tax
 Taxation

The Meaning and basic concept of government revenue and tax? Startup
questions

 What is government revenue?

 What is tax?

Government revenue refers to all the income of the government from taxes and
non-tax sources. These funds are used for government expenditure. Government
revenues and spending are important parts of fiscal policy of the government. Let
us see one source of government revenue as follows:

Tax

Tax is defined as a mandatory fee or financial charge levied by any government on

an individual or an organization to collect revenue for public works providing
facilities and infrastructure. Tax revenues finance government activities, including
public works and services as roads and schools, or programs like Social Security
and Medicare. Taxation is a system of raising money to finance government
expenditure.

55
The benefits of the government revenue and tax

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 List the main benefits of revenue and tax.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson.

Top two terms

 Economic stability
 Capital accumulation

The Benefits of the government revenue and tax

 What are the benefits of government revenue and tax?

In order to render various economic and social activities, government requires

large amount of revenue. Government revenues have the following benefits:-

 Removal of inequalities in income and wealth:-The welfare state aims at

the removal of inequalities in income and wealth.
 Ensuring economic stability:-Taxation affects the general level of
consumption and production. It can be used as an effective tool for achieving
economic stability.
 Reduction in regional imbalances:-To remove regional imbalances, the
government can use tax measures.

56
  Capital accumulation: Capital accumulation is essential for the promotion
of industrial development.
 Creation of employment opportunities: More employment opportunities
can be created by giving tax concessions or exemptions to small
entrepreneurs.
 Beneficial diversion of resources: Resources utilized for the production of
goods may be diverted in to the production of other essential goods.
 Encouragement of export: Now a day export oriented industries are
encouraged by way of providing various exemptions like100% relief from
income tax, free trade zones etc.

Historical development of government revenue and tax in Ethiopia

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Discuss the historical development of revenue and tax in Ethiopia.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top two Terms

 Income tax  Rental income tax

The Historical development of government revenue and tax

The traditional taxation provides for taxes on crops, livestock and livestock
products such as wool, butter and milk. The tax on wool was particularly levied on
mountainous areas of the country. Hunting taxes were imposed on elephant hunters

57
in the form of ivory taxes. In the Axumite kingdom there was a practice of
traditional taxation. In the reign of King Zera yacob (1434 -1468) the first tax
system was introduced. The first important reform carried out by Emperor Menelik
II towards the end of the 19th century resulted in the establishment of a fixed tithe
rather than the undefined and essentially arbitrary system of agriculture taxes.

A. Taxes during Haileselassie regime (1942-1974)

The elements of the tax system of this regime comprise personal income tax,
business income tax, agricultural income tax, land tax, education tax, health tax,
road tax, salt tax, tobacco tax, alcohol tax, cattle tax, stamp duties and custom
duties.

B. Taxes during the Derg regime (1975-1991)

The political upheavals of 1975 brought about the abolition of the feudal tenure
land system and the revoke of land taxes and the tithe. The health and education
taxes were also cancelled and the remaining types of taxes were extensively amend
and restructured. The then government had two proclamations that were enacted to
collect income tax.

Income tax

Proclamation number 77/1976 and proclamation number 152/1978 were aimed at

changing the income tax structure levied on agricultural activities. Thus the rate of
rural land use fee was as follows:-

 Every farmer who was a member of agricultural producers cooperative paid

birr 5
 Any individual peasant who was not a member of an agricultural producers
cooperative paid birr 10

58
  Every state farm paid birr 2 per hectare under its possession.

C. Taxes during the transitional government of Ethiopia (1991-1995)

Income tax

Personal income tax with proclamation number 30/1992,the first birr 105 monthly
personal income was exempted from the payment of income tax .Marginal tax rate
was ranged from 10% to 50%. Proclamation number 30/1992 amended by the
income tax amendment proclamation number 107/1994, which exempted the birr
120.

Rental income tax

The rate ranges from 10% to 45% and bellow birr 1200 of annual income were
exempted. The marginal rate ranges from 10% to 30%.

Lesson 2.4 Review

Activity 2.4

A. questions based on facts

1. Define the following terms.

a. Government revenue b. Tax

2. List the benefits of government revenue and tax.

3. Explain the historical development of government revenue and tax in

Ethiopia.

59
Summary

 Culture is defined as the symbols, language, religion, beliefs, norms, values,

and artifacts that are part of any society
 Cultural diversity refers to a group of diverse individuals from different
cultures or societies.
 Religion is defined as a set of organized beliefs, practices, and systems that
relates to belief and worship of a controlling force to a personal God or
another supernatural being.
 The cultural dimension of globalization is seen in the presence of western
entertainment and mass media.
 Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources
from the environment.
 Secondary economic activities include manufacturing, construction and
power production.
 Manufacturing is the activity which turns raw materials into products by
using labor, energy and equipment.
 The tertiary sector involves the provision of services to other businesses as
well as to the final consumers.
 The developed and developing countries have different economic basis.
 Trade involves the exchange of goods or services. It is classified into two
categories - Internal and External Trade.
 A market is a place where two parties can gather to facilitate the exchange of
goods and services.
 Government revenue refers to all the income of the government from taxes
and non-tax sources. Tax is defined as a mandatory fee or financial charge
levied by a government.

60
 Glossary

Bartering: is trading goods for goods. Human race: is defined as a category of

Competition: a situation in which many humankind that shares certain distinctive
producers offer the same good or service physical traits.
for sale to many consumers. Industry: a place where manufacturing
Consumers: are people or individuals activity takes place.
who buy products for their personal or Producers: are those people and
family use. organizations that convert inputs to a
Cultural diversity: is the existence of a more useful product for users.
variety of cultural groups within a Supply: the quantity of a good or service
society. that firms will offer for sale at each
Culture: is the characteristics and possible price.
knowledge of a particular group of Tax: is a financial charge or other levy
people, encompassing language, religion, imposed on an individual or a legal
social habits, music and arts. entity.
Demand: is the quantity of a product Tourism: practice of travelling for
that consumers will purchase at each recreation.
possible price. Trade: the activity of buying and selling;
Forestry: the science of caring for or sometimes bartering of goods.
forests, and the trees and other plants Transportation: the movement of
which grow in them. people and goods from one location to
Globalization: refers to increasing another.
interconnections among individuals
across nations and their people.
Government revenue: refers to all the
income of the government from taxes
and non-tax sources.

61
 UNIT 2 REVIEW QUUESTIONS
V. True or False Item
Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is wrong.

______1. Material culture refers to the values, beliefs and language of the society.
______2. Agriculture involves crop production and livestock rearing.
______3. Tourism is a type of secondary economic activity.
______4. Wholesale trade is an action of selling goods directly to consumers.
______5. In a perfectly competitive market both buyers and sellers are price makers.
VI. Matching Item
Instruction: Match the concepts under column ‘B’ with those under ‘A’.

A B
___1. A type of internal trade A. Surplus
___2. A type of external trade B. Shortage
___3. Excess demand C. Entrepot trade
___4. Excess supply D. Retail trade
___5. Smokeless industry E. Tourism
VII. Multiple choice Item
Instruction: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
____1. Which one of the following is a primary economic activity?
A. Manufacturing B. Trade C. Forestry D. Construction
____2. What is globalization?
A. The attempt to colonize planets in space
B. The growing global economic, cultural and political interaction
C. Protecting the markets in your country by raising tariffs
D. The call for a one world government

62
____3. Which type of trade involves the purchase of goods manufactured in
foreign countries?
A. Entrepot trade B. Import trade C. Export trade D. Local trade
____4. The amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell is called
A. supply B. demand C. surplus D. stock
____5. What is the major export product of Ethiopia?
A. Tea B. Textile C. Coffee D. Cereal
____6. Which of the following refers to a tertiary economic activity?
A. Processing raw materials C. The extraction of resources
B. Producing final goods D. The provision of services
____7. A market which has very large number of buyers and sellers that each
has a negligible impact on the market price is known as
A. imperfect competition C. pure monopoly
B. perfect competition D. moderately competitive
____8. A system of communication which consists of sounds and written symbols
is
A. Religion B. Language C. Human race D. Ethnicity

V. Short answer item

1. What is material culture?
2. What are the major economic activities that are categorized under:-
a. primary economic activity?
b. secondary economic activity?
c. tertiary economic activity?
3. Explain some of the supply problems that consumers are facing these days.
4. What are the two types of internal trade?
5. Mention the four major language families which are spoken in Ethiopia.

63
Check List

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform.

I can

1. Explain the processes that lead to the development of culture.

2. Discusses language, religion and human race as a cultural elements
3. Elaborate the cultural diversity of people in terms of language,
religion, and human races.
4. Debate in the class room on the effect of globalization as an agent of
cultural change.
5. Respect humanity and indigenous knowledge.
6. Explain the different types of economic activities.
7. Relate different economic activities with countries levels of
development.
8. Compare and contrast agriculture of the developed and developing
countries.
9. Describe the various flow patterns of goods, services and information.
10. Analyze the contribution of trade to the Ethiopia economy.
11. Explain the major types of trade.

12. Evaluate the contribution of different economic sectors to Ethiopian

export trade.
13. Explain that the interaction of supply and demand determines price
14. Use graphs to show the market equilibrium point

15. Explain what conditions must exist for perfect competition to occur.
16. Discuss the trade-off between consumer right and market supply.
17. Explain the meaning of government revenue and tax.

18. Discuss the historical development of revenue and tax in Ethiopia

19. List the main benefits of revenue and tax.

64
 UNIT NATURAL RESOURCES AND SOCIO
3 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Unit Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyze the role of natural resources for socioeconomic

development;
 Explain the concept of sustainable resource utilization and
development;
 Describe the way natural resources are utilized in your locality;
 Value indigenous resource-based conflict resolution efforts in your
locality;

Main contents

3.1 Conservation and utilization of natural resources for sustainable

development

3.2 Consequences of unwise utilization of natural resources

3.3 Resource accessibility and resource- based conflict

Unit summary
Review Questions

3.1. Conservation and Utilization of Natural Resources for Sustainable

Development

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Analyze the use of natural resource for socio -economic

development.

65
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top three terms

 Natural resource  Non renewable

 Renewable

3.1.1 Resource Utilization and Economic Benefits? Startup questions

 Define natural resource.

 What means by conservation of resources?
 Explain the importance of natural resources.

Natural Resources

Natural resources are the resources which exist without any actions of human
being. Resources which consist of water, coal, iron, sunlight, atmosphere, soil,
minerals, vegetation and animal life are examples of natural resources.
A. Classifications of Natural Resources
Natural resources are mainly classified into two different categories:
 Renewable and
 Non-renewable natural resources

1. Renewable natural resources: are the resources that can be generated again
once they are used. Example:- sunlight, water, soil, plants, air and wild animals.
2. Non-renewable natural resources: are resources that exhaust after their
frequent usage and it takes a long time for them to regenerate. Example: -natural
gas, coal, iron, copper and petroleum. Most of these non-renewable natural
resources cannot be recycled. So it is important to conserve these natural resources.

66
B. Natural Resources and their Conservation
Natural resources are the resources that are naturally available on the Earth. These
resources are important for all living things on Earth. However, many natural
resources are destructing fast because of several reasons. So we have to conserve
natural resources for survival of human beings on earth.

The measures on conservation of natural resources include:

 Use an alternative source of energy like solar and wind energy.

 Plant more trees.
 Use pipelines for transporting oil.
 Treat and recycle the industrial sewage and waste.
 Reduce emissions.
 Practice the method of crop rotation.
 Construct water reservoirs.
C. Economic benefits of natural resources
Human beings depend on natural resources in their daily lives. Almost everything
that humans utilize on a daily basis comes from the natural resources.

Natural resources are important for maintaining the overall environmental balance
and satisfy their needs. In addition, natural resources are important for
development of a country. For example, coal and iron are required for the growth
and development of the iron and steel industry which is vital for the development
of a country. Other mineral fuels like petroleum and uranium are of economic
importance. This contributes for fiscal revenue and income; provides job
opportunities and leads to poverty reduction.

Sustainable utilization of natural resources is the proper management of natural

resources for the benefit of the people. Sustainable utilization of natural resources

67
is important for sustainable development. The main aim of sustainable
development is to provide resources for present generations without compromising
the needs of future generations. Natural resources are finite, limited, and capable of
being destroyed by unsustainable use and this can be a limiting factor on
sustainable development. Conservation of natural resources improves, maintains
and protects the natural environment and its resources for the benefit of the people.

3.1.2. Factors of Natural Resource Utilization

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe factors influencing the utilization of natural resource.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top two terms

 Ecosystem
 Utilization

Factors influencing the utilization of natural resources

 What are the factors influencing the utilization of natural resource?

Sustainable utilization of natural resources involves proper use of land, water, air,
minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna resources. Natural resources
provide the ecosystem balance for better quality of human life. Ecological
processes maintain soil productivity, nutrient recycling, clean air, water, and
climatic cycles. But there are several factors that affect the utilization of natural
resources. The rapid population growth and overuse of natural resources led to
several socio-economic and environmental problems. Some natural resources are

68
 available in a fixed quantity. This creates unbalanced demand between population
and resource. The main factors that affect the utilization of natural resources are:

i. Overpopulation

There is a consistent increase in the number of population and this has been a
critical factor in accelerating the destruction of natural resources.

An increase in the population expands the need for resources and conditions
necessary to sustain it.

ii. Poor Farming Practices

A poor irrigation practice is a key contributing factor to salinization and

alkalization of the soil. Poor soil management practices and the use of heavy
machinery for farming purposes destroy the soil structure and inhibit for plant
growth.

iii. Overconsumption of Natural Resources

The overexploitation of resources results several problems like global warming,

food insecurity, drought, desertification, climate change, and mineral depletion.

iv. Pollution

Rapid population growth is a major contributor to the disposal of pollutants into

the natural environment. The water bodies, the atmosphere and the soil are being
contaminated with sewage, radioactive materials, agricultural fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides and other chemicals.

v. Industrial and Technological Development

69
Technological and industrial advancements, agricultural expansion and rapid
urbanization lead to the release of different toxins that cause water, air and soil
pollution.

3.1.3. The Changing importance of resources over time

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain how the consumption patterns of resources are

changing through time.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top two terms

 Consumption
 Environmental impact

Changing importance of resources over time ? Startup questions

 How the consumption patterns of resources are changing through time.

Humans demand for consumption of natural resources is dramatically increasing.

Humans need to interact with the environment to obtain food, water, fuel,
medicine, soil, building materials and many other things. Technological
advancements have made great contribution for exploitation of natural resources.
This overutilization of resources induced pollution which is a cause for
environmental damage. This also creates environmental problems that affect
humans’ health and socio-economic development.

70
Environmental impacts of high levels of consumption are confined to the local area
and country. For example, the use of fossil fuels for energy to drive cars, heat and
cool houses has an impact on global CO2 levels and resulting environmental
effects. Humans are the main causes for environmental damage. The impact of
humans on the environment depends on the consumption level of resources such as
land, food, water, air, fossil fuels and minerals. The consumption patterns of
resources cause air and water pollution, waste, and global warming. Changing
consumption patterns combined with population increase and food insecurity
concerns could lead to challenges in terms of sustainability for the environment.
When consumption behaviors change, they generally shift towards products that
are not commonly available or are not produced in the required quantities in the
area.

Lesson 3.1 Review

Activity 3.1

Questions based on facts

1. What are the factors affecting the utilization of natural resource?

Explain by giving examples.
2. Describe how the consumption patterns of resources are changing
through time.
3. What are the environmental impacts of consumption of natural
resources?

3.1.4. Resource Conservation and Sustainable Utilization

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the ideas of Resource Conservation and sustainable

71
utilization.
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top six terms

 Conservation  Shelter belt

 Sustainable use  Strip cropping
 Terracing  Crop rotation

A. Meaning of conservation? Startup questions

 Define the ideas of resource conservation and sustainable utilization.

 What are the mechanisms to conserve and sustainable utilization of soil,
water, forest and wild life?

Conservation is a careful, efficient, wise use and sustainable use of natural

resources. It helps to secure the availability of renewable and non-renewable raw
materials. In addition, it is useful to maintain soil fertility and the supply of clean
drinking water.

Sustainable use of resource means the use of resources that does not lead
to the long term degradation of the resource and maintaining its potential
to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations. In
other words, it is defined as the use of the environment and its resources at
a rate that does not exceed its capacity for replacement of the resource.

72
B. Soil Conservation and Sustainable Utilization? Startup questions
 Explain the methods of soil conservation?
Soil conservation is the set of techniques and practices which involves the
protection of soil from erosion, soil degradation, so as to maintain soil fertility and
productivity.
The following are some of the methods in the conservation of soil:-
1. Terracing: constructing stair like structures along hillsides to reduce the speed of
water flows down the slope. Study the case study presented on the Konso cultural
landscape.
2. Afforestation: planting new trees where none existed before.
3. Crop Rotation: the planting of a serious of different crops in the same field over
a period of years.
4. Reforestation: trees must be replaced wherever they are cut down.
5. Shelter belts: are trees planted at the edge of farmlands to protect the soil from
wind erosion.
6. Check Dams: are small dams to trap silt washed from hills.
7. Strip cropping: involves the planting of two or more crops in the same field, the
crops may differ in height, time of harvest and use of nutrients.

73
 Case study
The Konso Cultural Landscape

The Konso Cultural Landscape has been added to the official list of World
Heritage sites by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO). This landscape is an arid property of stone walled
terraces and fortified settlements in the Konso highlands of Ethiopia. It
constitutes a spectacular example of a living cultural tradition stretching
back more than 400 years and adapted to its dry hostile environment. The
terraces retain the soil from erosion, collect a maximum of water, discharge
the excess, and create terraced fields that are used for agriculture. The
terraces are the main features of the Konso landscape and the hills are
contoured with the dry stone walls, which at places reach up to 5 meters in
height.
Farmers in Konso practiced a terracing activity that consistently provides
bountiful harvests. For centuries, the Konso have succeeded in sustainably
growing millet, sorghum, corn, cotton and coffee, chat, beans, moringa, and
many varieties of trees in their fields. They also raise cattle, sheep and goats
that serve as important currency to exchange with other communities.
Source: - https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1333/

Soil conservation increases productivity of soil, mitigates erosion, gives food and shelter
for wildlife and promotes purification of water.
Figure 3: 4 shows the location of Ethiopia’s soil. Look at the distribution of each soil type.

74
 Figure 3.2 soil of Ethiopia (Source: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Meron-Eshetae)

C. Water conservation and sustainable utilization? Startup questions

 What are the methods for water conservation?
Water conservation refers to the wise use, control and development of water
bodies, and prevention of pollution. The following methods are useful to conserve
water:-

a. Protection of water from pollution: A large portion of fresh water is polluted

due to increasing economic activities and urbanization. This creates water
scarcity and conflicts. Protection of water from pollution helps to conserve
water and to enhance water supply.
b. Rational use of groundwater: groundwater utilization should be only in
proportion to its recharging capacity.

75
c. Renovation of traditional water harvesting methods: traditional water harvesting
methods have been able to meet the demand of drinking water. Water stored in
traditional methods has been used for both purposes, agriculture as well as for
drinking. These methods should be renovated to conserve more water.
d. Use of modern irrigation methods: Sprinkler and drip irrigation methods save
more water than traditional irrigation method. Thus, improved modern
irrigation methods are useful for conservation of water.
e. Increasing forest cover: Forest cover has been destroyed due to various
reasons. As a result of it, rain water flows away very fast to the rivers.
Reforestation and afforestation are helpful in recharging water sources.
f. Conserving water in industries: Industries consume water to a large extent for
cooling their plants and discharging wastes. Some industries pollute water
bodies. This waste water should be treated and the water bodies have to be
protected from pollution. Industries should also re-use water after processing to
conserve water.
g. Water conservation by municipal bodies: Municipal bodies should manage both
individual demand and supply of water as well as conserve water. Municipal
laws should provide for collection of rain water from roof tops and implement
it. Individual awareness is very important in water conservation.

Benefits of Water Conservation

It is important to conserve water because:-

a. It minimizes the effects of drought and water shortages: the demand for fresh
water is increasing due to population and industry growth. The water returns to
the Earth through the water cycle. So people must conserve water resources in
order to reduce drought and water shortage.

76
b. It reduces political conflict: the problem on conservation of water lead to lack
of adequate water supply. These include water scarcity, reduced food supplies,
health hazards, and political conflict.
c. It helps to preserve our environment: Reducing over water consumption in
homes, businesses, farms, and communities, helps to reduce pollution.
d. It makes water available for recreational purposes: conservation of water is
important for recreation purposes.
e. It builds safe and beautiful communities: many people use water in hospitals,
gas stations, hotels, industries and restaurants require large amounts of water to
provide services to the community. So reducing the over consumption of water
creates safe environment for the communities.

(Source:https://www.researchgate.net/figure/River-basin-map-of-Ethiopia)
Figure 3.3 river basin of Ethiopia

Forest conservation and sustainable utilization? Startup questions

 Explain the Forest conservation and the importance of forest.
Forest

77
conservation is the practice of planting and maintaining forest areas for the benefit
and sustainability of forest resources for the people. Forest conservation
is essential to mitigate climate change.
Importance of forest resources
Forests are important for:-
1. Economic development:-Forest provides wood to the people and industry.
2. Environmental quality:-the forests enhance the quality of environment by
absorbing greenhouse gases.
3. Maintaining ecological balance:-the forest check pollution of air through
increasing oxygen content of the air.
4. Supply of raw material:- forest provides wood for fuel, industries (pulp, paper,
and board), timber for furniture and preparing matches.

(Source:-https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Forest-cover-of-Ethiopia_fig1_322897569)
Figure 3.4Forest cover of Ethiopia

Wildlife conservation and sustainable utilization

 What are the measures taken to conserve wildlife resources?

78
Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting plant and animal species and
their habitats. Wildlife resources include all animals and birds which grow
naturally without any human interference. Wild animals live in wild without any
friendly association with human being.

Wildlife is important to balance ecosystem, provide food, tourism, source of

medicine, recreational purposes and for the development of the economy.

The major factors that affect wild life are:

1. Deforestation: removal of forest results destruction of their habitats
2. Illegal hunting: seeking for meat, skin, fur, horn, ivory etc.
3. Overgrazing: keeping domestic animals over the carrying capacity of the
grazing land.
4. Burning of forests: setting fire on forests, bushes and grasslands.
5. Drought and famines: wild animals die or migrate when food and water
sources get scarce.
Measures of wildlife conservation
1. Educate the people about wildlife and ecological conservation, tree planting.
2. Laws should be made to punish persons who are killing of wild animals.
3. Establishing National parks, game reserves and sanctuaries.
4. Conservation of endangered species of wild animals.

3.2. Consequences of unwise utilization of natural resource

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the consequences of unwise utilization of natural

resource.

79
 These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top two terms

- Depletion - Extinction

The consequences of unwise utilization of natural resources

? Startup questions
 What are the consequences of unwise utilization of natural resources?

Throughout the world, forest areas are deforested, soils are ploughed, waters put in
to use. This happens because of a continuous improvement in the life style of
people. Resources are also misused and as a result they become smaller and
smaller. Natural resource exploitation, exploration, mining and processing have
caused environmental degradations. Unwise utilization of natural resources
resulted in:-

1. Water shortages:-Poor farming practices, deforestation, and pollution are

major causes of water resource depletion. This causes lack of potable water,
lowering of the underground water level, water pollution, and the destruction
of aquatic life. Water shortage contributes to famine and food insecurity.
2. Loss of forest cover:-The devastating effects of deforestation include soil
erosion and an increase in the greenhouse gases leading to global warming,
loss of biodiversity, desertification, drought and famine.
3. Depletion of minerals: -over exploitation of minerals such as phosphorus,
gasoline, copper, iron and zinc leads to depletion of minerals.

80
4. Extinction of species: -resource over exploitation and habitat degradation
leads to changes in environment. As a result, some species may extinct.
Forests serve as a habitat for a wide variety of animals. But the removal of
forests is destroying forest habitats. This leads to ecological disturbances,
destruction of natural flora and fauna.

Activity 3.2

A. Questions based on facts

1. Define the following terms:

a. Conservation b. Sustainable use
2. Describe the methods of soil conservation.
3. What are the benefits of forest conservation?
4. Describe the importance of proper use of soil, water and forest
resources.
5. List the factors that affect wild life resources.
6. Mention the main benefits of wild life conservation in Ethiopia.
B. Group discussion
1. Discuss on the water and soil conservation methods of your
locality. What measures must be taken to conserve water and soil?
C. Individual work
1. Investigate the natural resources of your locality and evaluate
the conservation measures taken for sustainable utilization of
natural resources.
2. Sketch the physical map of Ethiopia and show the location of
river basins and forest distribution, then share your findings to
your classmate.
81
3.3. Resource Accessibility and Resource Based Conflicts

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Evaluate how their society uses resources and how dispute over
resources.
 Take part in events that promote resource conservation practices in
their community.
 Discuss on indigenous knowledge related to resource conservation.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson

Top four Terms

 Hydro-politics  Upper course

 Water conflict  Lower course

Hydro-politics of Abay River

? Startup questions

 Explain how the society use resources and how dispute over resources is
resolved.


 Have you participated in events that promote resource conservation
practices in your community? Explain to the class.

82
 Hydro politics is the study of inter-state politics regarding the
management of shared water resources. W
a
ter conflict arises from various kinds of claims over water access or rights. The
disputes may arise often between groups or regions and neighboring states. As the
demand on access to water and use on fresh water supplies rises due to population
growth, economic development and pollution are the causes for conflict. The
construction of a dam or the channeling of the river flow leads to international
conflict.

The Nile River is one of the most politically significant rivers in Africa. The upper
and lower stream countries (Ethiopia, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda,
Burundi, democratic republic of Congo, Eritrea, Tanzania, and south Sudan) have
significant interest over the water of this basin. The upper course countries are
those that contribute the water for the river and are found at higher altitude where
the major tributaries of the Nile originate. On the other hand, the lower course
countries, namely Sudan and Egypt, are found at lower elevation where the water
of the river flows gently over vast plains.

The hydro-politics of the Nile is therefore related with the degree to which the Nile
River is utilized in its upper and lower courses.

Historically, the two countries (Egypt and Sudan) have been the most benefited of
all the countries in the Nile basin. On the other hand, the upper course countries
have been the least benefited. This unbalanced and unfair utilization of the river
between the upper and lower course countries has been a great area of interest. The
countries of the basin are now coming in a situation where they have about
equitable utilization of the river.

83
 Lesson 3.3 Review
Activity 3.3
A. Questions based on facts
1. Explain the consequences of unwise utilization of natural resources.
2. Define water conflict.
3. What is hydro politics?
B. Group discussion
1. Write a short essay on the hydro politics of Abay River.

Summary

 The conservation and utilization of natural resources satisfy the principles of

sustainable development.
 A natural resource is the physical supply of something that exists in nature,
such as soil, water, air, plants, animals, and energy.
 Conservation is the careful maintenance and wise use of a natural resource
to prevent it from disappearing.
 Sustainable use of resource means the use of the environment and its
resources at a rate that does not exceed its capacity for renewal in order to
ensure its availability for future generations.
 The soil conservation measures include terracing, afforestation, crop
rotation, strip cropping, reforestation, shelter belt, etc.

84
 Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities to
sustainably manage the natural resource of fresh water, to protect the
hydrosphere, and to meet the current and future human demand.
 Forests provide wood for fuel and construction, raw materials for industries,
medicinal plants, and habitat for wild animals, beauty or aesthetic value to
the natural environment.
 The major factors that affect wild animals include deforestation, illegal
hunting, overgrazing, burning of forests, drought and famines.
 Natural resource exploitation, exploration, mining and processing have
caused different types of environmental damages which include ecological
disturbances, destruction of natural flora and fauna, pollution of water and
air, soil degradation ,desertification and global warming.
 The Nile River is one of the most politically significant rivers in Africa.

Glossary

Afforestation: the act or process of Hydro-politics: examines conflicts

establishing a forest especially on and cooperation in countries over
land not previously forested. shared water resources.

Conservation: careful use of National park: an area of

resources so that future generations countryside, or occasionally sea or
can obtain as many benefits from fresh water, protected by the state
them as we now enjoy. for the enjoyment of the general
public or the preservation of
Deforestation: the process of
wildlife.
removing the trees from an area of
land. Natural resource: a naturally
occurring exploitable material that

85
 a society perceives to be useful to which leaves the environment in
its economic and material good order for future generation.
wellbeing.
Terracing: constructing stair like
Sanctuary: an area of birds or structures along hillsides to reduce
animals where they are protected the speed at which water flows
and cannot be hunted. down the slope.

Sustainable use: is an activity Wildlife: living things, especially

which does not deplete or damage mammals, birds, and fishes that are
natural resources irreparably and not domesticated by human being.

Unit Three Review Questions

I. True / False item

Instruction: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the
statement wrong.

____ 1. Natural resource is the supply of resources that exist in nature.

____ 2. Legal hunting is one of the major factor that affect wild animals.
____ 3. Forest conservation is essential to stop climate change.
____ 4. Natural resources conservation is important for development.
____ 5. Renewable resources are resources that cannot be replaced.
II. Matching item

86
Instruction: Match the method of soil conservation in column “B” with their
definitions in column “A”

A B
___ 1 Planting many types of crops on the same farm A. Shelter belt
___ 2 Planting different crops alternately on a farm B. Afforestation
___ 3 Building stair like structures along hillsides C. Strip cropping
___ 4 Planting trees in a line to reduce wind erosion D. Crop rotation
___ 5 Planting trees in new areas E. Terracing
III. Multiple choices
Instruction: Choose the right answer and write the letter of your choice on
the space provided.
_____1.Which one of the following is not the benefit of water conservation?
A. Minimize drought C. increase pollution
B. preserves environment D. useful for recreation
____2. Soil conservation is the process where:
A. soil is protected against erosion C. soil is polluted
B. soil is destructed. D. soil lacks basic nutrients
____3. Which one is the consequence of unwise utilization of natural resources?
A. wildlife protection C. forest conservation
B. water shortage D. soil fertility
____4. Which one of the following is non -renewable resource?
A. Water B. Soil C. Air D. Coal
____5. The burning of forests increases the amount of
A. carbon dioxide B. oxygen C. nitrogen D. water vapour
_____6. Rotation of crops is essential for:

87
 A. increasing fertility of the soil C. increasing quality of protein
B. increasing quality of crops D. getting similar crops.
_____7. Forests control drought by:
A. preventing soil erosion C. increasing humidity and rainfall
B. increasing oxygen D. preventing floods
IV. Fill in the blank item
Fill in the blank space with appropriate words.
1. The wise use of natural resource is called___________________.
2. The removal of forest cover of an area without replacement refers to_______.
V. Short answer item.
Give Short Answer to Each of the Following Questions.
1. Define sustainable use of a resource.
2. Why we conserve forest?
3. Briefly explain the consequences of unwise utilization of natural resource?
4. What are the countries that are located in the Nile basin?

88
Check List
Put a tick( )mark in each of the boxes for activities you can
perform
I can
1 Analyze the use of natural resource for socioeconomic
development
2 Describe the factors influencing the utilization of
natural resources
3 Explain how the consumption patterns of resources
are changing through time in their locality
4 Explain the ideas of resource conservation and
sustainable utilization
5 Evaluate how their society use resources and how
dispute over resources is resolved in their
communities.
6 Take part in events that promote resource
conservation practices in their community
7 Discuss on indigenous knowledge’s related to resource
conservation

89
 UNIT 4 EARLY MODERN AND
9 WORLD HISTORY
MODERN

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
 Explain the process of the great geographical discoveries;
 Analyze basic issues of renaissance, reformation, and counter-
reformation;
 Elaborate the features of industrial revolution;
 Describe the nature of the two world wars;
 Discuss main characteristics of the cold war era

Main contents
4.1. The Great Geographical Discoveries
4.2. Renaissance, reformation and counterreformation
4.3.The industrial revolution
4.4.The two world wars
4.5.The cold war
Unit summary
Review Questions

90
4.1 The Great Geographical Discoveries

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Locate the routes of the great geographical discoveries.

There are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top six words
 Discovery  Circumnavigate  Sailed
 Explore  Continent  scientific Progress

Motives for discoveries

 What were the factors that inspire for great geographical discoveries?
During the medieval period the geographical knowledge of Europeans was limited
to Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. However in the 15 th century Western
Europe nations- first Portugal and Spain, then Holland, Britain and France sent
explorers to discover the new areas in Africa and the Far East, as well as the New
World.
Trade with the East, European Interest about the Far East and scientific Progress
were the main factors that encouraged these discoveries.
Major Discoverers & their routes
 Have you heard about major discoverer before? Please state some of
them?

91
  Which countries were the pioneers for the great discovery?
Contribution of Portuguese
Prince Hennery the Navigator: inspired Portugal began to search for an all water
route around Africa to the East. As a result, gradually Portuguese sea captains
pushed southward along the Atlantic coast of Africa.
Bartholomew Diaz: some Portuguese sailors visited parts of the western African
Coast along the Atlantic in the time of Henry the Navigator. In 1487 he tried to
reach India by way of West Africa. He sailed as far as the Southern tip of Africa.
In 1488 he was forced to return before reaching India because a storm nearly
destroyed his ship. He called the Southern tip of Africa the “Cape of Storms”. The
King of Portugal was very happy and changed the name to “Cape of Good Hope”.

He hoped that India could be reached through the new route.

Figure 1 the route of Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama

92
Vasco Da Gama: Ten years after the voyage of Bartholomew Diaz, the King of
Portugal sent another explorers called Vasco da Gama through the same route.
Vasco da Gama sailed round the continent as far as East Africa. In East Africa he
found an Arab sailor who showed him the way to India across the Indian Ocean.
He landed in Calicut and exchanged goods with the people there.

Figure 2 the route of Christopher Columbus

Contribution of Spain

Christopher Columbus: He was a sailor from Genoa in Italy. For twenty years he
went on travelling to various places. In 1492, Isabella, Queen of Spain, gave him
money to go exploring. She also gave him letters for the ruler of the Chinese
Empire. He left Spain with three ships and 88 men. He sailed many weeks without
seeing any land.

Finally, he reached a group of Islands called the Bahamas near the coast of North
America. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. He

93
thought that he had reached the Islands of Asia. He called the people “Indians”.
This is why the old inhabitants of America are today called the West Indies.

Amerigo Vespucci: At the beginning of the sixteen century another Italian

traveler, Amerigo Vespucci, who served sometimes Portugal and sometimes Spain,
sailed to the New World. He found out that what Columbus had discovered was
not Asia but a new continent. The New World was thus called America after
Amerigo.

Figure 3 the route of Amerigo Vespucci

94
Ferdinand Magellan: In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese sea captain, led
several ships from Spain. He rounded the southern tip of South America and

Figure 4 the route of Ferdinand Magellan

crossed the Pacific. In 1522 one ship arrived in Spain, thereby completing the first
circumnavigation of the word. This heroic navigational activity, covering about
44,000 miles, proved concretely that the world is round.

Results of Great Geographical Discoveries

What were the results of the great geographical discoveries? What new for
European unknown before the great geographical discoveries?

Some of the results of the discoveries were: Progress was stimulated in Europe and
other parts of the world. Different peoples, different religion and different cultures
came in contact with each other. Plants and animals spread to other parts of the
world where they were not known before. Potatoes and tomatoes, for example,
came from America. Coffee spread from Ethiopia to Arabia and then to America.
Horses were also introduced to the New World.

95
The trade wealth of Europe increased as a result of the discoveries of new routes
and lands. They brought the raw materials from Asia, Africa and America and
manufactured them in Europe. Thus, the traders, manufacturers and bankers
became very rich.

Activity 4.1
A. Question based on facts:
1. Answer the following questions
 What were the factors that inspired the great geographical
discoveries?
 Which nation was the first to establish trading posts in India?
 Who inspired Portugal began to search for an all water route around
Africa to the east?
2. Things to do:
 Indicate the route of the following important discoverers on the world
map.
 Bartholomew Diaz  Amerigo Vespucci
 Vasco Da Gama  Ferdinand Magellan
 Christopher Columbus

 Locate the following places on the world map:

 Portugal  Cape of Good Hope
 India  Spain
 America  Philippines Islands

3. Group discussion:
 Can we say great geographical discoveries played a pivotal role for
European advanced economy and the present great civilization?

96
4.2 Renaissance, Reformation and Counter reformation

Competency: After studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Pinpoint the main features of the renaissance, reformation and
counterreformation;

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words
 Renaissance  Counter Reformation  Worldliness
 Reformation  Ninety Five Theses
More key words
 Simony  Sale of indulgences Nepotism

The Renaissance

What is Renaissance? Where it began? Why? How it expanded to other

countries?

Renaissance is rebirth or revival. It was a period of approximately 300 years

marking the transition between medieval and modern period in Western Europe.
The Renaissance was began with the rediscovery of the Greco-Roman civilization,
which had been generally neglected by the religious minded Christian medieval
world, emphasized reason, a questioning attitude, and free inquiry-in contrast to
the medieval concern with faith, authority, and tradition, and featured great
achievements in literature, art, and science.

97
The Renaissance arose in Italy because: Italy was the center of Greco-Roman
culture and contained sculpture, buildings, roads, and manuscripts that excited
interest about classical civilization. And also located on the Mediterranean as a
result absorbed stimulating new ideas from the advanced Byzantine and Muslim
worlds.
In the 15th century Renaissance ideas began to spread from Italy to France, the
German states, Holland, and England. This cultural diffusion resulted from
religious, military, and commercial contacts. Also, many scholars traveled to Italy
to absorb Italian art and learning.
Renaissance Achievements
What were the achievements of Renaissance?
Printing Machine
When and where was printing invented? What was its importance?
Johannes Gutenberg: About the year 1450 printing with movable type was
invented by a German, Johann Gutenberg. Within a few years, printing presses
were set up in Germany, in Rome, in Venice and in fact all over Europe. As a
result Bibles, prayer books, papal letters, the writing of classical authors and all
kinds of books were turned out by the thousand.

In Literature

Nicola Machiavelli (1469-1527), an Italian, wrote about ethics and government in

his book The Prince. It describes how rulers maintained their power by methods
that ignored right or wrong.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616), an Englishman, is often considered as the

greatest poet and playwright of all time. With beautiful understanding and
excellent dramatic technique, he searched deeply into human character.

98
Shakespeare’s best-known plays include Romeo and Juliet, A Mid-summer Night’s
Dream, Hamlet, Julius Caesar, and Macbeth.

In Arts
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the ideal Renaissance man, he was painter,
sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, and scientist. He studied anatomy
systematically and from his observations of animals sketched a parachute and a
flying machine. He painted such masterpieces as The Last Supper and the Mona
Lisa.
Michelangelo (1475-1564) was another many-sided Renaissance genius, talented
as a painter, Sculptor, poet, and architect. He painted beautiful Biblical scenes and
figures on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican; showing the dead Christ
and His mother marry; carved massive statues of Old Testament figures, David and
Moses; and designed the dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.
In Science

Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543, was a pole, he concluded that the sun is the center
of our solar system, and the earth is one of several planets revolving about the sun.
(Copernicus’s conclusions disproved the Ptolemy theory, which claimed that the
earth is the center of the universe.)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), an Italian astronomer and physicist, propounded the
law of falling bodies and greatly improved the telescope. His observations of the
heavens confirmed the Copernican theory.
The Reformation
What is reformation?

The Reformation was a religious revolt, started in 1517, against the Roman
Catholic Church. The Reformation established many Protestant sects. Thus, in

99
Western Europe, the Reformation shattered Catholic religious unity and led to
diversity in Christianity.
Causes of the Reformation
What were the causes of Reformation?
The medieval Church gave great service to civilization in many ways - as a bond of
union among Christians, in the relief of suffering and distress, in the preservation
of culture and learning and in the setting up of worthy ideals of living. But toward
the early modern period the great Church organization showed some signs of
weakness. These Church Abuses were worldliness, Nepotism, Simony, and Sale of
indulgences.
Martin Luther Starts the Reformation (1517)

Who was Martin Luther and how did he break away from the Catholic Church?

1. Luther’s Background: Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German, received an

excellent education and entered a Catholic monastic order. At age 25, Luther was
appointed professor of Christian theology at the University of Wittenberg.
2. Luther Attacks the Church: Luther condemned the sale of indulgences and
denounced Papal agents selling them in Germany. In 1517 Luther nailed to the
door of the church at Wittenberg a statement of his religious beliefs, the Ninety-
Five Theses. He was excommunicated by the Pope and faced punishment from
Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor but the Northern German rulers protected
him and accepted Luther’s ideas as a new religion, Lutheranism.

100
Counter-Reformation
What is counter-reformation?
Who was Ignatius Loyola why do Catholics regard him as a hero?
To defend itself against the Protestant movement, the Catholic Church took a
number of actions, known as the Counter Reformation.
1. The Council of Trent (1545-1563): This Church council reaffirmed such basic
Catholic doctrines as Papal supremacy and exclusive Church abuses-nepotism,
simony, and sale of indulgences, and required the clergy to renounce worldly
pleasures.
2. The Society of Jesus: This monastic order was founded in 1534 by Ignatius

Loyola. Its members, called Jesuits, became the leading spiritual soldiers fighting
Protestantism. By serving as priests and teachers, they helped preserve Catholicism
in Poland, southern Germany, and Belgium. They also won new converts in India,
China, Japan, and North America.

Results of the Reformation

What were the immediate effects of the rise of Protestantism?
1. End of Religious Unity: The religious unity of Western Europe had been
destroyed. Henceforth, Europe was divided according to their religion, as follows:
Predominantly Catholic were Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, Ireland, southern
Germany, Austria, Poland, and Hungary.

Predominantly Protestant were England, Scotland, Holland, northern Germany,

Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Protestant world at first
consisted of the Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican denominations. Later,
Methodists, Baptists, and other Protestant sects arose.

101
Religious wars: In the 16th and 17th centuries Europe endured a serious of Civil
Wars in Germany, Dutch war against Spain, Spanish Naval War against England,
Civil Wars in France and also thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).

Activity 4.2
A. Questions based on facts:
1. Answer the following questions:
 What is Renaissance? Reformation? Counter Reformation?
 Where and when the Renaissance and Reformation began?
2. Describe the following important personalities
 Johann Gutenberg  Michelangelo  Martin Luther
 Leonardo Da Vinci  Galileo Galilee  Nicola Machiavelli
 William Shakespeare  Nicolas Copernicus  Ignatius Loyola
B. Things to do:
 Locate the following places on the map of Europe:
 Italy  France  German
 Greek  Holland  Poland
 Rome  England

102
4.3Industrial Revolution

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Point out basic issues of the Industrial Revolution.

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top four words
 Domestic  Factory
 Industry  Revolution

The beginning of Industrial Revolution

How would you define the “Industrial Revolution”? Why is it called a
“Revolution”?

The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change in the way goods were
produced, from human labor in home to with machines in factory. The more
efficient means of production and higher levels of production caused far changes to
industrialized societies
Stages of Industrial Revolution
What are the differences between the first and the second industrial revolutions?

1. The First Industrial Revolution (1750-1870): The first phase of the Industrial
Revolution consisted of the invention of the first complex machines and the
building of the first factories, the development of steam as a source of power and

103
its application to manufacturing and transportation, the expansion of the output of
basic materials-coal, iron, and steel, and the introduction of new methods of
transportation and communication.

2. The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-still Continuing): In the second

Industrial Revolution, inventions came in greater number and brought even more
extensive changes to industry and society. This phase, still continuing, consists of
the use of new sources of power electricity, petroleum, and atomic energy-which in
turn makes possible new industries, the invention of newer and faster means of
transportation and communication such as the airplane and radio, and the placing
of space vehicles in orbit around the earth and on flights into the solar system.
Mankind has entered the space age.
Industrial Revolution Start in England because England had domestic and overseas
markets, good harbors to facilitate trade, valuable raw materials, government
levied relatively fair and light taxes, and maintained a stable administration in a
unified country.
Consequences of Industrial Revolutions
 What were the consequences of industrial revolution in social, economic and
political aspects?
Economic: - expansion of world trade, factory system expanded, mass production
of goods manufactured and increased standards of living
Political: - decline of landed aristocracy, growth and expansion of democracy,
increased power of industrialized nations, and nationalism and Imperialism
stimulated.
Social: - development and growth of cities, population increases, and science and
research stimulated.
Problems: - economic insecurity, unemployment and urban slums
104
 Activity 4.3
A. Question based on facts:
 Compare and contrast the First and Second Industrial Revolutions.
 In which country did the Industrial Revolution begin? When? Can you
explain why?
 Compare and contrast the domestic and factory methods of production.
 Did the Industrial Revolution come to an end? If so, when?
Reading Assignment

By reading books which are discussing about industrial revolution give a

short summary on the effects of industrialization on society.

4.4 The Two World Wars

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Write essay on major events of the two world wars;

There are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top six words
 Nationalism  Militarism  Triple Alliance
 Imperialism  Triple  Maginot line
Entente
More key words
 Luftwaffe  Blitzkrieg  Scorched earth policy

105
The First World War, 1914-1918
Fundamental Causes
What were the Fundamental and immediate causes of the First World War?
The major causes were the following:
1. Nationalism: France was determined to recover the French in habited provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine. Serbia wanted Austro-Hungarian territory inhabited by
Yugoslav peoples. Subject nationalities Yugoslavs, Czechs, Slovaks, and Poles-
sought independence, even at the price of war. Intense patriotism assured popular
support for warlike measures.
2. Imperialism: France and Germany clashed over Morocco. Russia and Austria-
Hungary were rivals in the Balkans. England and Germany, both highly
industrialized, competed for imperialist control in Africa and the Middle East, and
for world markets.
3. Alliance Formation: The Triple Alliance linking Germany with Austria-
Hungary and Italy. It was signed in 1882. The Triple Entente, which was made up
of Britain, France, and Russia, concluded by 1907. The increasing German
aggression led to Britain and France ending their colonial differences. The rivalry
between Austria-Hungary and Russia in the Balkans pushed Russia into the
alliance.
4. Militarism: - European states produced new and automatic military equipment,
allocated huge money for military purposes in their national budget and millions of
young men recruited in to national armies to be prepared. Arms races also
inevitably developed. The most famous of these was the rivalry in navy
construction between a Germany and Britain.

106
Immediate Cause of World War I
Which country did Germany invade in August 1914, causing Britain to declare
war?
August 1914: War Erupts
The immediate cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand with his wife Sophie, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne
assassinated by a Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip in the Bosnian City of
Sarajevo. As a result, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. Germany also declared war
on France on August 3. The German plan to crush France quickly was such that it
could succeed only by crossing Belgium. England declared war on Germany on
August 4.
Courses of the War
On which side did Italy fight?
Explain the contribution of the Eastern Front in the course of the war.
Eastern Front: From 1914-1917 Russia forces suffered crushing defeats, inflicted
chiefly by German armies. In 1917 Russia under a Communist government,
withdrew from the war in early 1918 after accepting the harsh Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk.

107
Figure 5 the main actors of the war

Southern Front: By 1917 the Central Powers had overrun most of the Balkans but
had won no decisive battle in Italy. In 1918 an Allied force won back much of the
Balkans, and an Italian offensive compelled Austria-Hungary to surrender.
Western Front: In 1914 German armies overran Belgium and northern France
until halted by desperate French and British resistance at the battle of the Marne.
Then the opposing armies dug into the ground for trench warfare; the western front
became deadlocked.
In 1916 the Germans attempted to smash the Allied defenses but were thrown back
at Verdun and the Somme. In 1918 Allied forces were reinforced by fresh
American troops and unified under the command of the French Marshal Foch.

German Surrender: By late 1918 the German High Command under Generals
von Hindenburg and Ludendorff realized that the German armies, although still
fighting on foreign soil, had lost the war. Germany took legal action for peace and
on November 11, 1918, ended hostilities by accepting an armistice.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919)
What were the decision which made by Versailles treaty? Who suffered
much? Why?

108
 The victorious countries signed different peace treaties with each of the various
defeated nations, for instance by the Treaty of Versailles with Germany under the
following clauses.
Territorial clauses: France regained Alsace and Lorraine, Eastern territories were
annexed by Poland which caused East Prussia to become territorially isolated.
Danzig former German city were declared free cities, Denmark annexed northern

Schleswig-Holstein, Germany lost all of its colonies and the victors annexed them.

Military clauses: Drastic limitation of the German navy and dramatic reduction of
the Army (only 100,000 troops, prohibition of having tanks, aircraft and heavy
artillery), demilitarization of the Rhineland region.
War Reparations: The treaty declared Germany and its allies responsible for all
'loss and damage' suffered by the Allies and as a consequence they were forced to
pay war reparations to the victors.

Results of World War I

What were the consequences of the First World War?

109

Figure 6 the conference at Versailles

1. Social: Almost 10 million soldiers were killed and over 20 million wounded.
Millions of people died as a result of the hostilities, famine, and disease. The world
was left aflame with hatred, intolerance, and extreme nationalism.
2. Economic: Paying for the war brought heavy taxation and lower living
standards to European peoples. International trade suffered because nations raised
tariffs and sought economic self-sufficiency.
3. Political: The United States emerged as a leading world power. Four major
European dynasties were dethroned: the Hohenzollerns of Germany, the Hapsburgs
of Austria-Hungary, and the Romanovs of Russia. The League of Nations was

established to solve
international problems and advance world peace.
The Second World War (1939-1945)

What were the Axis & Allied powers?

The countries that joined the war were on one of two sides: the Axis and the Allies.
The Axis Powers at the start of the war were Germany, Italy and Japan. The Allied
Powers were Britain, France, In June 1941, the Soviet Union joined the Allies,

110
after Germany attacked it. On 11December 1941, four days after Japan attacked at
Pearl Harbor, the United States joined the Allies.

Figure 7 Adolf Hitler of Germany Benito Mussolini of Italy and Emperor Hirohito of Japan

Basic Causes the War

What were fundamental and immediate causes of the WWII?

Totalitarianism: With Japan ruled by the military and Germany and Italy each
dominated by a Nazi and Fascist parties respectively, the Axis nations were
totalitarian dictatorships.
Militarism: The Axis nations spent vast sums on armaments, devised new
weapons and battle techniques, built huge military organizations, and
psychologically prepared their peoples for war. They proclaimed war a glorious
adventure and death for the Fatherland the highest honor.
Nationalism: Japanese Shinto teachings, Italian dreams of a revival of the Roman
Empire, and German “master race” doctrines all
fostered a narrow and bigoted nationalism. The
Axis nations considered themselves superior and destined to rule over “lesser
peoples.”
Imperialism: Japan expanded into Manchuria and China proper to establish
Japanese dominated “New Order in Asia.” Italy enlarged her African empire and
planned to make the Mediterranean an “Italian lake”. Germany annexed Austria
and Czechoslovakia as first steps toward European domination and eventually,
perhaps, world domination.
Immediate Cause of the War

111
On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland; two days later, England
and France honored their guarantee to Poland and declared war on Germany.
World War II had started.
The courses of War (1939-1945)
German invasions (1939-1940)
Against Poland: German armies, employing massive air bombings and tank
assaults, unleashed a new “lightning war,” or blitzkrieg. Germany annexed western
Poland.

Figure 10 German Conquests in Europe

Against Denmark and Norway: Nazi armies next overran neutral Denmark and
Norway. Germany thus gained valuable submarine bases on the Atlantic Ocean

Against France: Nazi armies invaded northern France in 1940 by going through
the plains of neutral Holland and Belgium. Nazi armies by passing the Maginot
Line easily defeated the Allied defenders. The British retreated to Dunkirk and

112
miraculously evacuated most troops to England. French resistance collapsed, and
French forces fled southward. With Mussolini confident that victory was already
won, Italy entered the war. As the German forces continued their advance
southward, France surrendered.
Against Britain: Hitler ordered his Luftwaffe (air force) to soften England for
invasion. For three months England was subjected to devastating air attacks. The
Royal Air Force (RAF), however, drove off the Luftwaffe. By maintaining control
of the airlines, the RAF compelled the Nazis to shelve their plans for an invasion
of England. Instead, the Nazis turned southward, overrunning the Balkans and
placing an army in North Africa to support the Italians.

Figure 11 Russia scorched all things

113
Against Russia: Hitler ordered a blitzkrieg against Russia (June, 1941) to acquire
the grain, coal, and iron of the Ukraine and the oil of the Caucasus. Hitler expected
a quick victory, but the Nazis occupied much territory, stretching their supply
lines, but were unable to crush the Soviet armies because Soviets responded with a
so called scorched earth policy – destroy all things.
Japanese Attack upon the United States: On December 7, 1941, Japan attack
upon the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, forcing the United States
actively into the war. The Japanese government planned to destroy the United
States military base and assure Japanese domination of eastern Asia. Japan’s Axis
partners (Germany and Italy) immediately declared war on the USA.

War in Europe (1942-1945)

What were the reasons for the defeat of Germany in Europe?

Figure 12 Japan attack at Pearl Harbor

114
From North Africa to Italy: In October, 1942, a British army under General
Bernard Montgomery defeated the Germans and Italians at El Alamein, Egypt, and
began pursuing them westward. In November, 1942, an Anglo-American army
under General Dwight D. Eisenhower invaded French North Africa and moved
eastward. In 1943 the Allies crossed the Mediterranean and invaded Sicily and
southern Italy. Mussolini’s Fascist government collapsed, and Italy surrendered
unconditionally.
Russia Counter-offensive: In early 1943, following a six-month battle, the
Russians annihilated a 300,000-men Nazi army deep inside the Soviet Union at
Stalingrad. Following this victory Russian armies drove the Nazis. In 1945 the
Russians reached eastern Germany and stormed into Berlin.
Anglo-American Invasion of France: On June 6, 1944, American and British
forces, commanded by General Eisenhower, crossed the English Channel and
landed in Normandy in northern France. Finally the Allied forces pushed back the
Nazi army and drove the Germans from France.
Surrender of Germany: In 1945 Anglo-American armies crossed the Rhine River
in Germany and continued to the Elbe. After Hitler committed suicide, Germany
surrendered unconditionally. President Harry S. Truman, along with British Prime
Minister Churchill, officially proclaimed victory in Europe on May 8, 1945-V-E
Day.
War in the Pacific (1942-1945)

What were the reasons for Japanese defeated by the Allied forces?

Allied Counter-offensive: In August, 1942, General Douglas Mac Arthur moved

the Allied forces northward in offensives on the road to Japan overcoming fierce
resistance.

115
Figure 13 the destruction of Nagasaki by Atomic Bomb

The Allies wanted Japan to surrender with no terms, but Japan refused. This
resulted in the United States dropping two atomic bombs over Hiroshima (6
August 1945) and Nagasaki (9 August 1945). On 15 August 1945, Japan
surrendered to the Allies.
Consequences of the War

What were the consequences of the war?

1. Economic: The war-the most costly in history-extended military expenditures of

over and caused property damage.
European and Asian nations, ravaged by military action, faced difficult problems
of economic recovery.
2. Social: The war-the most destructive in history-huge number of servicemen and
civilians were died and wounded. Several million refugees and uprooted by the
war.
3. Political: Germany, Italy and Japan totalitarian systems were overthrown. The
United States and Russia emerged as the major world powers. Great Britain and

116
France declined as world powers. To preserve peace, the Allies formed a new
international organization, the United Nations.

Activity 4.4
A. Question based on facts:
 Which event is generally considered to be the first belligerent act of WWI
&WWII respectively?
 Which two countries were the first to declare war on Germany in WWI &
WWII respectively?
 What was the reason for the joining of USA in the Second World War?
 Which countries were member of triple Alliance and triple Entente?
 Which dynasties were dethroned in Europe as a result of the First World
War?
B. Individual work
 Do you hear before about atomic bomb? If your answer is yes, what is it?

117
 C. Things to do.
 Draw the map of the world on A4 size paper and show the member of
 Triple Entente
 Triple Alliance
 Axis powers
 Allied powers
D. Group discussion
 Do you agree that the death of one individual became the cause for the death
of million people as the death of Archduke Francis Ferdinand? If your
answer is no. why the death of him became the cause for the death of million
people?
 Do you agree that all problems can be solved by war? If your answer is no,
what kinds of problems can solve by war?
 Identify and discuss the three most significant factors leading to the outbreak
of WWI.

4.5. The Cold War

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Discern the main features of the Cold War era.

118
 There are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words
 Glasnost  Missiles  Ideology
 Space  Nuclear
More key words
 Capitalism  Communism  Propaganda

Two Blocs of Contending Nations

 What is meant by ‘Cold War’?
The Cold War was the competition between the super powers that lasted from
1945-1991. From the destruction of World War II, two “super powers” the U.S.
and the Soviet Union led two blocs of contending nations: the capitalist bloc, led
by the United States, and the communist bloc, led by the Soviet Union. The two
blocs had fundamental differences for organizing government, society and the
economy.
The cold war has been fought by propaganda, diplomacy, scientific and economic
competition, and espionage.

Categorization by Ideology
Capitalist blocs:-USA, Britain, France, West Germany, South Korea and Japan
Communist blocs:-Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Cuba, North Korea, North Vietnam and
China.

119
The Main Features of the Cold War Era

Foreign Aid

What were the purposes of the Truman Doctrine and Marshal plan? Why
Russia oppose them?

The Truman Doctrine: In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist
guerilla bands, and Turkey was under pressure from Russia. In order to stop
Communist expansion to the eastern Mediterranean President Truman announced
United States economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey.

The Marshall plan: In 1947 Secretary of State George C. Marshall offered

American economic aid to all European nations (including Russia and her
satellites) to enable them to recover from the destruction of World War II.

Russian Opposition: Russia condemned the Marshall Plan as a scheme of

American capitalists to gain economic and political control over Europe and
announced that she would exert every effort to defeat the Plan. Russia and her
European satellite nations refused American’s offer of Marshall Plan aid. Russia
initiated an economic aid program of her own, by name of Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (CMEA). His program competed with the Marshall Plan by
bringing about closer economic relations between Russia and her satellites.

120
Military Alliances

What were the NATO & the Warsaw Pacts? Why were they formed?

1. The NATO Alliance: In 1949 twelve nations strengthened themselves against

Communist aggression by authorizing “an integrated military force adequate for
the defense of the freedom of Europe,” that is, a NATO army.
1. Warsaw Pact: In 1955 Russia and her European satellites formed an alliance
providing for a unified Communist military command. This was designed as a
counterweight to NATO, which had been strengthened by West German
membership.

Figure 14 Member of NATO, Warsaw and non-Allied countries

Arms Race
Nuclear Energy Developments

What is Nuclear Weapon? Why Nations developed it?

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth. One can destroy a
whole city, potentially killing millions, and jeopardizing the natural
environment nations possessing nuclear power. The United States led the way in

121
developing nuclear energy, exploding the first atomic bomb in 1945. Other nations
followed: Russia in 1949, Great Britain in 1952, France in 1960, and Communist
China in 1964.
Missile Developments
What is Missile? Why nation develop it?
Missile is flying weapon exploding when hitting target. Since World War II the
United States and Russia have developed rocket propelled missiles capable of
delivering conventional or nuclear missiles. The smallest are tactical missiles-
short-range, low-yield-used, for example, as battlefield artillery for close support
of troops. The most significant missiles are the intermediate range ballistic missile
(IRBM), the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), and the antiballistic missile
(ABM).
Space Competitions
What were the significant of Space competition? Why they compete?
Russia
As part of the program, the United States and Soviet Russia each announced plans
to orbit rocket-launched satellites equipped with recording instruments. The Soviet
Union was first to fulfill this promise. In 1957 Russian scientists placed into orbit
around the earth the first man-made satellite.
America
In 1958, from Cape Canaveral (now called Cape Kennedy), Florida, the United
States orbited its first satellite.
The End of the Cold War
 Who became the leader of the Soviet Union in 1985, and why did he
attempt to end the Cold War?

122
The cold war ended as a result of the two successful
meetings between President Ronald Reagan of the
USA and president Mikhail Gorbachev of the USSR.
Michael Gorbachev promised to improve living
standards of the people and industrial efficiency of
Russia, and he began to fallow a policy called
glasnost, in which he allowed more freedom of

speech and the press. Finally by 1991, the Cold War Figure 15 the end of the cold war

was clearly over.

Activity 4.5
A. Questions based on facts
 What were the main features of the cold war?
 Which nations were the members of North Atlantic Treaty Organization and
the Warsaw treaty Organization?
 Which Nation possessed Nuclear weapon for the first time?
 Mention types of missiles?
 Which country placed the first satellite into the orbit around the earth?
B. Things to do:

Locate the following on the world map

 Communist blocs & capitalist blocs

123
 Summary
 In the 15th century, Portugal and Spain began the great discovery. The main
factors that encouraged these discoveries were trade with the east, European
interest about the Far East and scientific progress. The routes were to the Far
East, tip of South Africa, East Africa and South and North Africa.
 Renaissance was a period of approximately 300 years. It began with the
rediscovery of the Greco-Roman civilization. The Renaissance spread from
Italy to other European countries. A well-known individual were played a
pivotal role in arts, science and literature.
 Reformation was a religious movement against the Roman Catholic Church.
The causes were worldliness, nepotism, simony and sale of indulgences. In
1517 Martin Luther condemned the sale of indulgences and denounced papal
agents selling them in Germany but the church tried to defend itself by the
council of Trent and established the Society of Jesus.
 Industrial revolution was began in England around 1750. It has two stages.
There were great achievements in machine, production, transportation,
communication, and new energy sources.
 The fundamental cause of the WWI were nationalism, Imperialism, alliance
formation and militarism. The immediate cause was the assassination of
Archduke Ferdinand by Serbian nationalist. Finally, German and her Allies
were defeated and lost many things in the Versailles treaty.
 The Second World War started by Axis powers. The fundamental causes of
the war were totalitarianism, militarism, nationalism and imperialism. The
immediate cause of the war was the invasion of Poland by Germany. Finally,
German and her allies Italy and Japan were defeated in 1945.
 The Cold War was the war by propaganda, diplomacy, scientific, economic
computation and espionage between capitalist bloc and communist bloc.

124
 Glossary

 Blitzkrieg also called ‘lightning  Glasnost: - mean increased

war’: - a military tactic employed openness and transparency in
by the Germans in WWII, which government institutions and
was especially successful in activities in the Soviet Union
campaigns against Poland, (USSR).
France, and Russia.  Ideology:- is a set of beliefs or
 Capitalism: - a system of philosophies attributed to a person
economic organization, based on or group of persons,
market computation, under which  Imperialism:-is the state policy,
the means of production, practice, or advocacy of extending
distribution and exchange are power and dominion, especially
privately owned and directed by by direct territorial acquisition or
individuals or corporations. by gaining political and economic
 Circumnavigate: - is the complete control of other territories and
navigation around an entire peoples
island, continent, or astronomical  Luftwaffe:-(German: “air
body. weapon”) component of the
 Communism: - a social and German armed forces tasked with
political ideology advocating that the air defense of Germany and
authority and property be vested fulfillment of the country's
in the community. airpower commitments abroad
 Discover :- find something to be  Maginot line:- a line of defensive
the first person to become aware fortifications built before World
that a particular place or thing War II to protect the eastern
exists · border of France

125
 Missiles:-an object which is  Renaissance: -is a term used to
forcibly propelled at a target, describe a period in European
either by hand or from a history marking the transition
mechanical weapon from the middle Ages to
 Nepotism: - appointing relatives modernity and covering the 15th
to church offices regardless of and 16th centuries.
ability. Revolution: - a forcible overthrow
 Ninety Five Theses: - is a list of of a government or social order or
propositions for an academic long lasting culture in favor of a
disputation written in 1517 by new system.
Martin Luther, professor of moral  Sale of indulgences: - accepting
theology at the University of money for church pardons, called
Wittenberg, Germany. indulgences, without requiring
 Nuclear:-is released in significant true repentance. These pardons
amounts in processes that affect were granted to reduce
atomic nuclei, the dense cores of punishment in the hereafter for
atoms certain sins.
 Reformation:-a 16th-century  Simony: -selling appointments to
movement for the reform of Church offices.
abuses in the Roman Church  Worldliness: - he luxurious and
ending in the establishment of the materialistic life of certain Popes
Reformed and Protestant and high clergy.
Churches

126
 REVIEW QUESTION

I. True or false item

sInstruction: write true if the statement is correct or write False if it is wrong.

1. The Portuguese sea captain who first reached at the tip of South Africa was
Prince Henry the Navigator.
2. The immediate reason for Luther’s protest against the Catholic Church was
Simony.
3. The Marshal plan was to limit European armaments.
4. The beginner of the great discovery was Portugal.
5. During World War I Japan was joined with Germany.
II. Matching Item

Instruction: match items in column B with items in column A.

A B
___ 1. Vasco da Gama A. Romeo & Juliet
___ 2. Ferdinand Magellan B. Mona Lisa
___ 3. William Shakespeare C. The Society of Jesus
___ 4. Leonardo da Vinci D. Landed at India
___ 5. Ignatius Loyola E. Circumnavigated the World

127
III. Multiple Choice Item

Instruction: choose the correct answer for the following questions

1. An important feature of the Renaissance was

a. The teaching of Jesus c. The literature of Greece & Rome
b. The discovery of new world d. The Greece invasion of Far East
2. The authority of the Catholic church was strengthened by
a. the translation the Bible c. the assassination of Catholic leaders
b. the election of new Pope d. the Council of Trent
3. Which nation was the first to establish trading post in India?
a. England c. Holland
b. Spain d. Portugal
4. A chief reason for England’s leadership in the industrial revolution was her
a. Iron & coal resources c. Lack of good harbors
b. Losses of her American colonies d. Nearness a large supply of cotton.
5. In a totalitarian state
a. Industry is owned by the government& individuals
b. The state controls every aspect of the lives of its people
c. The state guarantees civil liberties to royal citizen
d. A complete revolution occurs about every twenty years
IV. Fill in the blank Spaces

Instruction: fill in the blank spaces with suitable words

1. The main factors that encouraged the great discoveries were _____________,
__________________ and ______________________.
2. About the year 1450 printing with movable type was invented by
____________________.

128
3. In 1917 Russia withdrew from the war after accepting the harsh treaty of
______________.
4. On 6 & 9 August 1945, the USA dropping two atomic bombs over
______________& ________________respectively.
5. The Russian president who ended the cold war was ________________.
V. Short Answer Item

Instruction:- Give short answer to each of the following questions.

1. Why Renaissance arose in Italy?

2. Which countries were predominantly protestant and Catholic after
Reformation?
3. What were the consequences of the WWII in political aspect?
4. Why did the USA enter WWI?
5. Who were the leaders of Axis powers during WWII?

129
Check List

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform

I can

1 Discuss the process of the great geographical discoveries;

2 Analyze basic issues of renaissance, reformation, and

counter-reformation;
3 Elaborate the essence of the industrial revolution;

4 Describe the nature of the two world wars;

5 Discuss main characteristics of the cold war era

130
 UNIT
AFRICA SINCE THE 1500S
5

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
Outcomes:

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 Describe the essence of slavery and slave trade;
 Explain basic issues of the colonial experience in Africa;
 Analyze the struggle of the African peoples for independence,
economic and political integration.

Main contents
.5.1. Slavery and the slave trade
5.2.Colonialism in Africa
5.3.Independent African states and moves towards economic and
political integration
 Summary
5.1. Slavery And The Slave Trade
 Review questions

131
 5.1. Slavery And The Slave Trade

Competencies: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Develop strong sense of anti-colonialism
Show readiness to fight against slavery and slave trade

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top six words
 Abolition  Exploitation  Human traffic

 Amerindian  Fraternity  Voyage

More key words

 Slavery  Indigenous  Wooden cages

 Trans-Atlantic
slave trade  Slave  Plantation

What is slavery and slave trade?

What is slavery and slave trade?
Slave is a human being who is the property of another person. When Africans were
captured, sold and shipped to the new world they were enslaved for their entire
lives their children also enslaved. Slave trade is the capturing, selling, and buying
of enslaved persons.

132
 Figure 2 African Slaves

Actors of Slave Trade

Which countries were the main actors in the African slave trade?

At first the Portuguese and the Spanish were the main organizers of the trade, but
by the second half of the seventeenth century the countries of north-west Europe
were becoming involved. During the eighteenth century, Britain was the foremost
slave-trading power, alongside the French, the Dutch, the Portuguese, and the
Spanish, all of whom had colonies in the New World.

Portugal: During the 14th and early 15th centuries the plantation system for
growing sugar cane had been developed in Mediterranean islands, in southern
Spain and Portugal. At the beginning the slave labor for these plantations was
drawn from North Africa and the Slavs of southern Russia.

Spain: Meanwhile, as Portuguese projects traded with West Africans and sought
an eastern route to India, her neighbor, Spain was opening up the transatlantic
route to the Americans and the Caribbean.

133
Other Europeans: From the 1630s, first the Dutch and then the French and
England became involved in the rapid expansion of sugar cane, coffee, tobacco and
cotton plantation in Brazil, in Caribbean Islands, and in the southern part of
America. Most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the number and size of plantations
were constantly expanding. This meant that an ever-greater demand for new slaves.
The origins of Slaves

Why did Europeans choose Africans for slavery?

The plantation owners first used the local indigenous Amerindian population but
they quickly died by the harsh treatment of the colonizer and unfamiliar European
diseases. By the end of the first century of European contact 90 percent or more of
the Amerindian population of the Caribbean islands had been wiped out.
The second alternatives were Criminals and outcasts from Europe who transported
to the Americas in the early 16th century. But their numbers were limited and they
did not long survive attacks of tropical disease.
Faced with these problems, the European colonizers of central and South America
turned to Africa for their slave labor force. Because Africans had developed a
certain level of immunity to some tropical diseases and also they had experience
and skills in metal-working, mining and tropical agriculture. As a result the first
African captives to be taken directly across the Atlantic Ocean and sold into
slavery were transported in 1532.

Political and Commercial elites of Africa were the main agents of slave trade in
Africa. But they rarely sold people from their own society, except unwanted
criminals and outcasts. On the other hand, small societies, the weak states and
‘stateless’ village communities, the neighbors of the large expanding states,
undoubtedly suffered greatly. Some disappeared altogether, their lands taken over
by other more powerful neighbors.

134
Figure 3 Sources of Slaves

Thus the forest state of Benin, the highlands of Sierra Leone, Guinea states of Oyo,
Western Nigeria, Ashanti, Angola and Congo were slave areas of Africa.
Generally, it varied from one region to another, but all areas of western sub-
Saharan Africa were seriously affected at some time or other during the 17th and
18th centuries.

With the rapid expansion of slave exports in the 18 th century every part of the
Atlantic coastline from Senegal to southern Angola became involved in the human
traffic. The greatest concentration of European trading forts, were along the so-
called ‘Gold Coast’, the coastline of the modern state of Ghana, the ‘Slave Coast’
(the western coast of modern Nigeria) and Angola.

The Nature of Slave Trade

What were the natures of slave trade in Africa, the Middle Passage and in the
New World?

135
In Africa: When a person was captured in the interior and dispatched to the coast
for sale, it marked the beginning of a short remaining life of terrible, humiliation
and suffering. Slaves were no longer treated as human beings but rather as
property, like domestic livestock. They were chained together and marched to the
coast where they were locked up in wooden cages to await the arrival of the next
European trading ship. They were then stripped naked, men and women together,
and examined minutely to see if they were fit, strong and healthy. Once a deal had
been ended between African and European slave merchants the most terrible part
of their voyage began.

Figure 4 Slaves in Africa

On the Middle Passage: On board ship they were chained together in rows and
forced to lie on specially constructed ‘ducks’ which were arranged like shelves
barely half a meter one above the other. This made it impossible for a person to sit

136
up straight or to move freely. They lay like this for weeks on end, suffering in the
stretch of their own extract and urine and given barely enough food and water to
keep them alive.

Figure 5 Slaves flight on the middle passage

Those that died were simply thrown overboard. On average between 15 and 30
percent could be expected to die from disease, maltreatment or exhaustion during
the three to six weeks of the transatlantic crossing.
In America: Life on the plantations of the New World was hard and short. Some
never survived the trauma and depression of leaving Africa and the transatlantic
voyage. One third of the population died within the first three years and few
survived beyond ten years. The main causes of death were underfeeding and
overwork.

137
Figure 6 Slave exploitation in the New World

The Triangular Trade

What was triangular slave trade?

Triangular Trade is trade routes between Africa, Europe and the Americas during
the Atlantic Slave Trade.

From Europe to Africa: A single ship setting out from Europe completed three
main stages in its voyage. The first stage carried manufactured goods from Europe
to Africa. The principal European imports to Africa were cheap manufactured
goods-mainly glass, cotton cloth, metal hardware and cheap and substandard guns.

From Africa to New World: slaves were sold for two or three times what they
had cost on the African coast. Sometimes they were sold for cash which was then
used to buy plantation crops. At times, especially on the sugar-producing islands,
slaves were directly bartered in exchange for sugar, which was then sold in Europe.

From New World to Europe: The main export plantations to Europe were sugar
cane and coffee from Brazil, sugar cane from the Caribbean islands and tobacco
and cotton from the southern part of North America.

138
Figure 7 the Triangular Trade

The Abolition of the Slave Trade

What were the factors that led to the abolition of slave trade?

Political factor: The American War of independence against Britain (1776-83)

and the French Revolution (1789) in the name of ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’
provided important stimulation for the abolitionist cause. There was a growing
belief among European intellectuals in the universal right of human beings to
freedom and equality, which finally led to abolition.
Economic Factor: European manufacturers found that cheap wage labor in
European factories was more efficient and less expensive than plantation slavery.
As a result, the manufacturers and their bankers were soon seeking new markets
abroad and they looked again at Africa. As a result, from the early 1800s onwards,
Europeans and their governments began to regard Africa as a source of raw
materials and a market for manufactured goods rather than simply as a source of
slave labor.
Slave Resistance: From the very beginning of the slave trade, captive Africans
had, to the best of their ability, resisted their enslavement. Their attempts were
often desperate and almost suicidal. In different slave owner plantation sites revolts
were common. An example of successful early revolt and resistance occurred in

139
the French island colony of St. Dominque (modern Haiti). Under the leadership of
Toussaint L’Ouverture, the slaves of St Dominque rose against and killed their
white French masters in 1791 and established the independent ‘Republic of Haiti’
in 1803. In the 18th and early 19th centuries frequent slave revolts made the
institution of slavery increasingly unsafe and expensive to maintain.

Figure 8 slave revolt in the new world

End of slavery: Slavery was finally abolished by law in 1834 in British colonies,
1848 in French ones, 1860 in Cuba, 1865 in the southern United States and 1888 in
Brazil. It has been estimated that a further 1.3 million Africans were transported
into slavery across the Atlantic between 1807 and 1888.
Back to Africa: The foundation and growth of Sierra Leone and Liberia were
direct results of the abolition of slavery and the slave trade.
To Sierra Leone: It had been founded in 1787 as a settlement of four hundred free
blacks from England. It was organized by members of the British abolitionist
movement. Thereafter the Anti-Slavery troops used it as a base for settling freed
blacks whom they released from captured slaving ships.

140
To Liberia: The neighboring settlement of Liberia was founded in 1822 by freed
blacks from the USA. In 1847 they declared their colony the independent republic
of ‘Liberia’.

Impacts of Slave Trade

What were the impacts of slave trade in Africa?

Africa was affected socially, politically and economically.

Socially: Increased insecurity, distrust and high level of conflicts among African
groups occurred as the Africans were capturing and selling their own people into
slavery. The languages of many African tribes were mixed with European
language. They lost their cultural beliefs or practices over a period of time.

Political: It contributed to the instability, the distribution of ammunition in central

and West Africa which helped with the military and political supremacy of tribes,
some kings were prospered.

Economically: Africans’ most important resources were robbed, human were

exploited, creating insecurity and instability in the economy of Africa, affected
agriculture and mining sectors, Strained most productive man power (ages 15-35),
Increased dependency on European goods.

141
 Activity 5.1

 Answer the following questions

1. When African slaves were first brought to the Caribbean?
2. Who was responsible for the slave trade in Africa?
3. What items were shipped from Europe to Africa?
4. What were the economic factors for the abolition of slave trade?
 Things to do:

Draw the map of the world into your exercise book to show

 Monrovia Congo  Haiti  Sierra Leon  South America,

 Nigeria Gold coast  Dahomy  Slave Coast  Britain,

 Angola Guinea  Senegal  West Indies  North America

Writing task
Imagine you are slave on the middle passage. Describe what your life looks like.

142
 5.2. Colonialism In Africa

Competency: After studying this lesson, you will be able to:

 Develop strong sense of anti-colonialism

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words

 Colonialism  Conference  Propaganda

 Partition  Effectively occupied

More key words

 Assimilate  Resistance  Powerful nation

 Violent  White Settlers  Backward nation

Colonialism

What is colonialism?

Colonialism means a back ward or weaker nation control by a powerful nation.

The powerful nation has an advanced economy, strong government, and
considerable military strength; the backward area has underdeveloped natural
resources, primitive economy, weak government, and limited military power.
The causes of colonialism were the desired of European nation to provide raw
materials, Markets and cheap labor force for their industry.

143
Partition of Africa

What was the main purpose of the Berlin Conference of 1884 85?
The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) was an international European agreement
about the partition of Africa that was already under way. It settled two important
principles the first it recognized the Congo basin as the legitimate authority of
Belgian king, Leopold. In return the king agreed to allow European traders and
missionaries’ free access to the area. Second they agreed that European claim in
Africa would be recognized by other European governments if it was ‘effectively
occupied’ by that particular European power.

Scramble for Africa

Which countries of Africa were colonized by European countries?

By 1914, British dominated South Africa, Rhodesia, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan and
Egypt. After World War I England acquired the former German East Africa or
Tanganyika.
By 1847 the French had controlled Algeria. Between 1881 and 1912 France added
Tunisia, Morocco, West Africa, Equatorial Africa, and Madagascar to the French
Empire.
By 1914 Germany possessed several African colonies. But after Germany’s defeat
in WWI, these colonies were distributed as mandates: Tanganyika to England;
Togoland and most of the Cameroons to France; South-West African to the Union
of South Africa.
By 1914 she controlled Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, and Libya. In 1936 Italy
attempted to colonize Ethiopia but Italy was defeated at the battle of Adwa. After
WWII, Italy surrendered her African possessions.
Portugal retains control over the African territories of Portuguese Guinea, Angola,
and Mozambique.

144
 Figure 9 Africa under the foreign rule in 1914

By the early 20th century Spain controlled Spanish Morocco, opposite Gibraltar,
and Spanish Sahara on the Atlantic coast of Africa.
In 1876 King Leopold II and a group of Belgian capitalists managed the Congo
region. But in 1908 the Belgian government took control of the Congo.
Ethiopia and Liberia were the only remaining independent states in Africa
The Nature of Colonial Administration
 What were the systems of administration used by colonialist states?
Direct rule: This means that the colonizers wanted to ‘assimilate’ their colonial
subjects into cultural Frenchmen, without their skin color. They had full legal and
political rights of French citizenship, including the right to send representatives to
the French parliament in Paris. France, Germany, Portugal, Spanish and Italy used
direct rule.
Indirect rule: British used a theory of colonial administration called Indirect Rule.
Unlike the French, the British used Africans’ law to judge local civil disputes and

145
minor criminal cases, but not serious criminal cases or any dispute involving
between European.
Consequences of Colonialism upon Africans
 What are the consequences of colonialism?
Colonialist nation drained wealth from the colonies, discouraging colonial
manufacturing, exploited the native workers by requiring long hours for little pay,
expected an attitude of racial and cultural superiority of colonialist, discriminated
against the colonial peoples, and degraded their native cultures.

African Independence
 What were the forms of colonial struggle of Africans before and After the
WWII?
Early Resistance to Colonial Rule in Africa 1900-1939
During this period the struggle for national liberation had three different forms.
Religious Forms: Such forms included: Kimbanguism (1921) in Belgian Congo,
Kitawala Movement in East Congo, Nigro Mission Movement in Lower Congo,
Watch Tower Movement in Nyasaland and the Ethiopianism movement - in South
Africa after the Ethiopian victory of Adwa.
Traditional (Native) Association-These were: The Young Baganda Association
in (1918) and the Bataka Association (1921) in Uganda.The Young Kikuyu
Association and the Central Kikuyu Association of Kenya.
Resistance to Colonial Rule after WWII
Which African countries got their independence through bloodiest struggle?
National liberation movement took mainly two courses: violent & non-violent.
Non-violent: in different African states independence was achieved fairly
smoothly. The main reason for this was that these African states had no white
settlers. For example - by 1960 all West African French colonies were achieved
full independence.

146
Violent: as a result of the existence of white settlers the following colonies
achieved their independence after violent and long armed struggle.
French colonies: after the bloodiest wars of independence against the French on
July 1, 1962 Algeria became independent. The first president was Ahmed Ben
Bella.
Portuguese colonies: Mozambique achieved independence in June 1975 under
Samora Machel’s. November 1975 Angola became independent by Augustino
Neto.
Britain: Kenya achieved its independence in 1963. Jomo Kenyatta became the
first president. In March 1957, the Gold Cost achieved independence and adopting
the new name Ghana. The first president was Kwame Nkrumah. Nigeria was
independent in October 1960. The first president was Nnamdi Azikwe.

Factors That Helped African Independence

What factors helped African nations win independence?

Africans got lesson from World War I, USA Influences and Communist
Propaganda, Effects of WWII, lesson got from Newly Independent Asian Nations,
and important decision of United Nations and Changing World Attitude about
colonialism were Factors that helped African independency.

147
Figure 10 African independency year

148
Activity 5.2

A. Question based on facts

Identify the following important personalities

 Ahmed Ben Bella  Augustino Neto  Kuwame Nkrumah

 SamoraMachel  Jomo Kenyatta  Nnamdi Azikwe

Answer the following questions

1. What decisions and rules were made during the Berlin Conference of 1884
1885?
2. What were the only two African countries to remain independent?
3. What is the difference between direct and indirect rule in the context of the
colonial relationship?
B. Things to do
 On a world map locate the following
 Spain  England  Germany  Portugal

 Belgium  France  Italy

 Lists the colonialists countries

 Discussion
 How Africa come together in political & economic aspect?
 Did colonialism help Africa? Argue with your class students by providing
some evidences.

149
 5.3. Independent African States and Moves towards Economic and Political
Integration

Competency: after studying this lesson, learners will be able

to:
 Show respect for the independence, integration, and
interaction of African peoples.

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words
 Independent  Organization  Cooperation
 Integration  Sovereignty
More key words
 Apartheid  Harmonize  Welfare
 Empowerment  Global  Charter
 Extraordinary  Declaration  Submit

Economic and Political Integration

What is economic and political integration?

Political integration is a process whereby the political actors in the various states
were "persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations, and political activities
towards a new center", on the other side economic integration is a process whereby
countries cooperate with one another to reduce or eliminate barriers to the
international flow of products, people and capital.

150
The Organization of Africa Union

 What is the main purpose of the African Union?

The OAU was formed in 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, by the 32 African states
that had achieved independence at the time. A further 21 members joined
gradually, reaching a total of 53 by the time of the AU’s launch in 2002. In 2011,
South Sudan became the 54th Member State, and, in 2017, Morocco became the
55th Member State.

Figure 11 the founding fathers of OAU

The OAU’s main objectives: were to: promote the unity and solidarity of African
states; coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life
for the peoples of Africa; safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
Member States; avoid the continent from colonization and apartheid; promote
international cooperation within the United Nations framework; and harmonize
members’ political, diplomatic, economic, educational, cultural, health, welfare,
scientific, technical and defense policies.

151
Establishment of Africa Union

 Why was Organization of African Unity changed to African Union?

The creation of the AU shifted its focus from supporting liberation from
colonialism and apartheid to Africa’s development and integration. The vision for
the Union included accelerating the process of integration in Africa; supporting the
empowerment of African states in the global economy; addressing the multifaceted
social, economic and political problems facing the continent; and promoting peace,
security, stability, democracy, good governance and human rights.

Figure 12 Kwame Nkrumah and Emperior Haile Selassie

The historical foundations of the African Union originated in the First Congress of
Independent African States, held in Accra, Ghana, from 15 to 22 April 1958.
President Nkrumah of Ghana urged a strong union similar to that of the United
States. He argued that, single African state can powerful enough to stand by itself
152
economically and militarily, Africa must unite or die. Emperor Haile Selassie of
Ethiopia pointed that the vast differences - linguistic, racial, economic, and
political - among the African nations and recommended a loose organization. Haile
Selassie’s views overcame.

Figure 13 states of Africa

Three summits were held in the lead up to the official launch of the AU, the:

 Sirte Summitin Libya, (Extraordinary Summit 6–9 September 1999), which

adopted the Sirte Declaration calling for the establishment of the AU
 Lomé Summitin Togo, (10–12 July 2000), which adopted the AU
Constitutive Act
 Lusaka Summitin Zambia, (9–11 July 2001, the last OAU submit), which
drew the roadmap for implementation of the AU.

153
The African Union (AU) was officially established on 9 July 2002 in the Durban
Summit, South Africa, following a decision in September 1999 to create a new
continental organization.

Africa Moves towards Economic and Political Integration

 What are the core visions of African Union?

The AU vision is: An integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own
citizens and representing a dynamic force in the global arena. Agenda 2063,
officially adopted by the AU Assembly in 2015, provides a collective vision and
roadmap to build a prosperous and united Africa based on shared values and a
common destiny.

Objectives of the OAU

What are the objectives of Africa Union conserving integration and cooperation in
political and economic aspects?

The Union’s objectives are to:

 Achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and the
peoples of Africa
 Accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent
 Promote and defend African Common Positions on issues of interest to the
continent and its peoples
 Encourage international cooperation, taking due account of the United
Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Right
 Promote sustainable development at the economic, social and cultural levels
as well as the integration of African economies
 Promote cooperation in all fields of human activity to raise the living
standards of African peoples

154
 Coordinate and harmonize policies between the existing and future Regional
Economic Communities for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the
Union

Lesson Review

A. Questions based on facts

Answer the following questions
1. When the Organization of African Unity was founded?
2. What were the main objectives of OAU?
3. What is the guiding African Union vision for Agenda 2063?
4. What were the argument of Kwame Nkrumah and Emperor Haile
Selassie

Choose the correct answer for the following questions.

1. The OAU was formed in

a. Addis Ababa c. Alexandria
b. Monrovia d. Khartoum
2. Which conference adopted the Au Constitutive Act?
a. Lomé Summit c. Sirte Summit
b. Lusaka Summit d. Durban Summit
3. Where was the idea of the African Union originated at
a. Addis Ababa c. Casablanca
b. Monrovia d. Accra

Discussion
In your thinking will Africa ever be united politically and economically?
Write half a page and discuss with your classmates.

155
 Summary

 During the 14th and early 15th centuries the plantation system of growing
sugar cane was started by Portugal and followed by Spain, Dutch, French,
and England. Those states started importing slaves from West and South
West Africa to the New World.
 The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was terrible, humiliated and suffering
because slaves in Africa, the Middle Passage and the New World were no
longer treated as human. Gradually, because of different factors slave trade
was abolished by law. However, Africa was much affected socially,
politically and economically.
 Because of the need of raw material, market and cheap labor European
countries, like Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Belgium, German and Italy
agreed in the Berlin conference to divided Africa for their own interests. As
a result, in the early 19th century all African states were colonized except
Ethiopia & Liberia.
 The colonialists administered African through direct and indirect rule. But
African oppose and struggled them by established their own religious forms
and tradition associations. Finally, After the WWII all African countries
became independent. Then, they founded their own organization like OAU
& AU. Now they move from anti-colonial movement to economic and
political integration and cooperation by establishing different regional
organizations.

156
 Glossary

The abolitionist movement: was the of discrimination and segregation

movement to end slavery. separating African from the rest of
African society.
Exploitation: the action or fact of
Apartheid: racial segregation
treating someone unfairly in order to
against the nonwhite majority in the
benefit from their work
Republic of South Africa.
Human traffic: the use of force,
fraud, or coercion to obtain some type Effective occupation: if countries

of labor they had treaties with local leaders, if

Amerindian: Native American they flew their flag there, and if they
established an administration in the
Partition: the invasion, occupation,
territory to govern it
division, and colonization of most of
Africa by seven Western European Cooperation: an act or instance of

powers working or acting together for

common purpose or benefit.
Assimilate: to turn African natives
Slavery: condition in which one
into Frenchmen by educating them in
human being was owned by another.
the language and culture and to make
Indigenous: relating to the earliest
them equal French citizens
known inhabitants of a place.
Violent: using or involving physical
Trans-Atlantic slave trade: The
force intended to hurt, damage, or kill
transportation by slave traders of
someone or something
various enslaved African people,
Integration: the goal of an organized mainly to the Americas.
movement to break down the barriers

157
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

I. True or False Item

Instruction: write True if the statement is correct, Write False if the statement is
incorrect.
1. Slavery was finally abolished by law in 1834 in British colonies.
2. The first president of independent Algeria was Samora Machel’s.
3. The last African country which became the OAU member was South Sudan.
4. The principal European imports to Africa during the Trans-Atlantic slave
trade were Sugar, glass and slaves.
II. Matching Item
Instruction: match the African countries under column B with their corresponding
earliest movements against colonialists under column A.

A B
_____ 1 Kimbanguism movement A South Africa
_____ 2 Kitawala Movement B East Congo
_____ 3 Nigro mission Movement C Ethiopia
_____ 4 Watch Tower Movement D Nayasalanda
_____ 5 Ethiopianism Movement E Belgian Congo
_____ 6 Bataka Association F Uganda
_____ 7 Kikuyu Association G Lower Congo
H Kenya

158
 III. Multiple choice Item
Instruction: Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
___________ 1. The foundations of the following countries were direct results of the
abolition of slavery and slave trade.
a. Angola & Nigeria c. Slave coast & Gold Coast
b. Sierra Leon & Liberia d. Congo & Benin
___________2. French dominated
a. Kenya & Mozambique c. Morocco & Madagascar
b. Tanganika & Togo d. Somalia & Libya
__________3. The first president of Ghana was
a. Nnamd Azikwe c. Jomo Kenyata
b. Kwame Nkrumah d. Ahmad Ben Bella
__________4. What countries in Africa did most slaves come from?
a. West Africa c. South Africa
b. East Africa d. North Africa
___________5. Which European state was slave trader?
a. German c. Russia
b. Dutch d. Italy
IV. Fill in the blank spaces
Instruction: Provide the word or expression that completes the statement correctly.
1. The Gold coast achieved independence and adopting the new
name__________.
2. The OAU was formed in ____________________.
3. ______________urged a strong Union similar to that of the United States
in the first Congress of Independent African States.
4. ___________summit drew the roadmap for implementation of the African
Union.
V. Short Answer
Instruction: Read the following question carefully then give short answer that
relates to the questions.
1. What are the economic impacts of slave trade in Africa?
2. What factors contributed to African independence?

159
Check List

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can
perform.

Check List

I can

1 Show readiness to fight against slavery and

slave trade;
2 Develop strong sense of anti-colonialism
3 Show respect for the independence, integration,
and interaction of African peoples

160
 Unit Modern History of
6 Ethiopia

Learning Outcomes
Outcomes: At the end of this unit, learners will able to:
• Explain the concept of climate change;
• Evaluate the causes and effects of climate change on peoples‟ life and
physical environment;
• Appreciate the indigenous knowledge that local communities use to
protect the environment;
• Analyze water scarcity problems and water resource related conflicts;
Elaborate the cause and effects of forest degradation.
• Value the work of those who provide care and support to people who
participate in environmental protection / green legacy.

Main Contents
6.1 Formation of modern empire state
6.2 Long distance trade and medium of exchange
6.3 Ethiopia and the outside world
6.4 The Unity of Ethiopians in defense of their sovereignty and territorial
integrity (the Ottoman Turks, the Egyptian expansion, the Mahdists, the
Battle of Adwa, the fascist Italian aggression, the Somalia invasions)
 Unit summary
 Review questions

161
6.1. Formation of Modern Empire State

Competency: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Summarize the process of the modern Ethiopian state formation

There are words that you should try to learn for this lesson
Top five words
 Equilibrium  Demoralized  Proximity
 Withdraw  Submission
 More key terms
 Vassal  Campaign  Depletion  Triumphantly
 Victory  Prolonged  Candidate  Incorporate

The reign of Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868)

Why did Ethiopia disintegrate into many parts during the Era of Princes?
Emperor Tewodros did not want to see the existence of strong vassals under him
with the title of king of Ethiopia. In order to realize his vision of Unified Ethiopia
under one king he defeated one major regional leader after another. On 27 Nov.
1852, he defeated Dajjach Goshu Zewude, the lord of Gojjam, at the Battle of
Guramba. On 12 April 1853, four of Ras Ali’s and Dajjach Webe of Semen’s high
ranking vassals were also crushed at the battle of Gorgora Bichen.Ras Ali II was
defeated at the Battle of Ayshal on 29 June 1853.

162
This victory of Kassa over Ras Ali II symbolized the end of the era of princes.
Only Webe remained to be removed from the way to the imperial throne. On 8 Feb
1855, Kassa defeated Ras Wube at the Battle of Darasge, and immediately at
Darasge Mariam church by Abuna Salama, Kassa was crowned as Emperior
Tewodros II.
Tewodros did not see his victories as the fulfillment of his objective. Soon after, he
turned his attention southward to
Wollo and Shawa. The capture of
Maqdalla on 12 September 1855
ended his Wallo campaign for the
time being and alsothe Shawan
forces were defeated at the Battle
of Barakat in Nov 1855. In other
areas of the empire, for example, in
Gojjam and Semen, rebellion was
already boiling. Figure 1 Emperor Tewodros II
Tewodros did not completely
destroy all the local dynasties. He appointed Dajjach Kassa Subagadisin Tegre,
Dajjach Liban Amade and Amade Aliin Wallo, Hayla-Mikael Sahla-Sellassiein
Shawa. However, Tewodros was not successful to bring unified Ethiopia because
the rebellions covered almost every part of his kingdom. Among these in Gojjam,
Tadla Gwalu; in Walqayt, Tesso Gobeze ; in Lasta, Wag Shum Gobeze; in Shawa,
Sayfu Sahla-Sellasie; in Wallo, Dajjach Liban Amade and Amade Bashir.

After the death of Emperor Tewodros, Wag Shum Gobeze who had himself
crowned Emperior Takla-Giyorgis got the submission of Ras Adal Tassama of

163
Gojjam. With Menilek he agreed the Bashilo River to be the boundary between
their territories.

However, like Menilek, Kassa Mercha refused to submit to his claim to the throne.
Finally at the Battle of Assam, near Adwa on 11 July 1871 Kassa was victorious
over Tekla-Giyorgis. Six months later, on 21 January 1872, Kassa ascended to the
throne, with the name of Yohannes IV and ruled Ethiopia from 1872 to 1889.

The reign of Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

What were the methods of Emperor Yohannes to reunify Ethiopia?

Yohannes was ready to tolerate the existence of strong regional governors with a
high degree of autonomy when they recognized his superiority. During this period
Menilek and Adal Tessema had priority in
his administrative policy.

After his return to shawa from Maqdala

that Menilek began to challenge Emperor
Yohannes by crossing the natural
boundary between Shawa and Wallo and
established his base at Warra Illu. But in
the early 1870s, Yohannes was too busy
with the Egyptians in the north to give any
meaningful help to his candidate Amade
Liban. So, in the late 1970’s Menilek Figure 2 Emperor Yoannes IV
was able to get the upper hand over his rival by capturing Maqdala and
imprisoning Abba Wataw and appointing Muhammad Ali as governor of Wallo.

164
In 1975 & 1976 Yohannes defeated the Egyptians at the battles of Gundat and
Gura respectively.As a result Yohannes got the time to deal with the problem of
Menilek once and for all. By the beginning of 1878, Yohannes entered deep inside
Menilek’s province. However, after some initial clashes Menilek was advised to
submit.

After Menilek submission,they met at Leche in the northern Shawa and made
agreement on 20 March 1878. In this agreement Menilek accepted the over
lordship of Yohannes, agreed to pay annual tribute to the emperor and to provide
supplies for the imperial army when it passed through Shawa, renounce the title of
king of kings but he was allowed to maintain the title of king. As a result the
frustration of his northward expansion opened his eyes to the south.

After the submission of Adal, Yohannes began to support him as a counterweight

to Menilek. It wasan attempt to discourage Menilek’s expansion of the southwest,
he gave his permission to Adal’s expansion south of the Abbay River.On the other
hand, Adal showed his loyalty to the emperor by suppressing rebellions in
Bagemder and Semen in 1875-1876, while Yohannes was engaged with the
Egyptians. This relationship between the two reached its highest point in 1881,
when Adal was made King Takla-Haymanot and governor of Gojjam and Kaffa.

The objective of this appointment was to deprive Menilek from the resourceful
region of the southwest. This policy of equilibrium was upset one year later when
Menilek defeated Takla-Haimanot at the Battle of Embobo on 6 June 1882 in the
present day north eastern Wallaga. This victory meant mastery of the southwest for
Menilek.

165
The reign of Emperor Menilek II (1889-1913)

Which states submitted to Emperor Menilek peacefully in the process of

reunification? Which states were resist?

Emperor Menilek used two methods in order to unite the territories of Ethiopia.
These were peaceful submission and armed resistance.

The first campaigns to incorporate the Gurage and the Oromo areas conducted in
the years 1875-1876. The Gurage people reacted to this attempt in two ways:
peaceful submission and armed resistance. The northern Gurage or the Kestane
decided to choose peaceful submission
because of their geographical proximity,
their religious affinity and fear of the threat
of the Oromo.

The western Gurage forces were defeated

only after some fierce fighting. They were
led by Hasan Enjamo of Qabena. He was a
serious challenge to Menilek reunification.
However, when Ras Gobena, Menilek’s
general, took the field the resistance was
broken and the movement brought to an
endin 1888. Figure 3 Emperor Menilek II

The Gibe Oromo previously the areas were occupied by King Takla Haimanot of
Gojjam because Emperor Yohannes recognized Takla Haymanot’s King of Gojjam
and Kafa in 1881. However after the advent of Menilek’s general, Ras Gobena
Dache, the Oromo states began to loosen their ties with Gojjam. After the Battle of
Embabo, between 1882 to 1886 Menilek able to get the peaceful submission of
166
Kumsa Moreda of Leqa Naqamite, Joti Tullu of Leqa Qellam, Abba Jifar II of
Jimma,the rulers of the surrounding Gibe river and the chiefs of Illuababora

Arsi, from 1882-1886Menilek faced the strongest resistance from the people of
Arsi by using spears and arrows against firearms. Menilek personally participated
in many of the battles. Finally, Arsi forces were defeated at the battle of Azule in
September 1886.

Harar, came under the control of the Egyptians in 1875. But after withdrawal of
Egyptians the emirate was returned to Harar, Emir Abdulahi. This Egyptian
evacuation provided Menilek to control it before the European colonizer walked
into the area. In April 1886 the initial campaign which was led by Menilek General
Dajjach Walda Gabriel failed because many troops were deserted. Finally, Harar
resistance was broken at the battle of Chalanqo on 6 January 1887.

Interruption of Reunification; the state formation process was interrupted for

about seven years after the incorporation of Harar because of imperial succession
and Great Famine (1888-1892).

Walayta, Emperor Menilek personally led the campaign. He was accompanied by

the following important personalities: Ras Mikael of Wallo, Fitawurari Gabayyahu,
Liqa Makwas Abata Bwayalaw, Dajjach Balcha, Ras Walda Giyorgis, and Abba
Jifar II of Jimma. Attacked by such a large army in different directions, the
struggle of Walayta collapsed in 1894. The refusal of Kawa Tona to surrender
made the cost in human lives & material very much higher. The campaign was
concluded after Tona was wounded and captured.

Kaffa, it was the area where Menilek faced a similar resistance. The year 1897
brought the strongest test to its ability to defend itself from Menilek. A joint
operation was organized to be led by such strong personalities: Ras Walda
167
Giyorgis, Dajjach Tasamma of Illuababora, Dajjach Dames of Wallaga and Abba
Jufar II of Jimma

Tato Gaki Sherocho, king of Kaffa, made mass mobilization against the invading
force difficult. But finally Walda-Giyorgis’s army entered the capital city of the
kingdom, Andaracha, victoriously. But the king of Kaffa was able to avoid capture
for about nine months but he was captured and brought to Addis Ababa as a
prisoner. Ras Walda-Giyorgis became the governor of Kaffa.

Belashangul, in 1897, Ras Makonnen was accompanied by Dajjach Jote Tullu and
Dajjach Kumsa Morada and reunified the sheikhdoms of Belashangul
(Benishangul), Aqoldi (Asossa) and Khomosha. But they were resisted by Abd al-
Rahman Khojale of Bella Shangul and Muhammad Wad Mahmud of Khomosha
but Sheikh Khojale al-Hasan of Assosa made secret links with Ras Mekonnen to
submit. Finally at the Battle of Fadogno, in 1897, Abd al Rahman was defeated and
forced to flee and also Muhammad Wad Muhmud of Khomosha was defeated by
Sheikh Khojale. Dajjach Dames of Walaga followed him as far as the Sudan
border. After a period of imprisonment in Addis Ababa restored to their regions,
Abdal Rahman Khojale and Muhammad Wad-Mahmud with the titles of
dajjazmach and fitawrari respectively; Khojale al-Hasan with the traditional title of
sheikh, administered their own respective areas. Finally, by 1900 Ethiopia ended
the formation of Modern Empire State

168
Activity 6.1
A. Question based on facts
Answer the following questions in full detail.

 After the death of Emperor Tewodros II who became king of

Ethiopia?
 What were the agreement between Emperor Yohannes & Menilek?
 Why the northern Gurage submitted peacefully to Menilek?
 What were the similarities in the views of Tewodros, Yohannes
Menilek in the modern state formation processes?

Things to do:

Draw the map of Ethiopia and locate the following places on your blank
map.

Leqa Naqamite Arsi Harar Showa

Leqa Qellam Jimma Walayta Gojjam
Wallo Belashangul Kaffa Bagameder

169
6.2. Long Distance Trade and Medium Of Exchange

Competency: after studying this lesson, learners will be

able to
 Locate the route of the long distance trade;

These are words that you should try to learn for this lesson

Top six words

 Adjacent  Custom  Issuance

 Passenger  Minted  Trade

More key terms

 Civet Musk  Goods  Medium

Long distance trade

Why the long distance trade of 19th century changed its direction from north to
south and eastward?

Next to land the long distance trade had been the most important sources of income
for Ethiopian economy. As a result the rulers gave great attention to control of
trade routes and sources of trade items.

In the late 19th and early 20th century the direction of long distance trade was
changed from the northern to the south and eastward. The reasons were:

 Shawan victory over Gojjam at the Battle of Embabo which led political
centrality of Shawa,
170
  the decline of Gondar and Matamma as a result of the Ethio-Mahdist
hostilities
 the foundation and growth of Addis Ababa as the political center of the
empire
 the opening of the Dijibouti-Addis Ababa railway and the establishment of
Gambella as a major outlet of Ethiopian’s next to Djibouti.
 the decline of the importance of the ports of Massawa and Assab because of
the Italo-Ethiopian conflict of the 1890s and the elimination of the Marab
Melash (Eriterea)

The route of the long distance trade

Draw the route of long distance trade of Ethiopia?

The penetration of the adjacent colonial powers to Ethiopian economy was one of
the features of Ethiopian long distance trade. Thus, the British tried to attract
Ethiopian long distance trade through a number of channels.

 From South-western to Sudan via Gambella, an inland port in south-western

Ethiopia.
 From Southern Ethiopia to their colonies of British East Africa, and
 From Harar region to British Somaliland.

Change of trade items

What were the principal export and import items?

Commodities such as ivory and civet musk, which had dominated the trade in the
early 19th century were progressively declined its importance. Coffee became the
principal export item and cotton sheeting known as abujedie became importing
item, much valued for clothing as well as for making tents.

171
Traders, the traders who controlled Ethiopia’s long distance trade were mostly
emigrants were Indian, Greeks, Armenians, Jewish, Benin, and Syrian. The role of
national traders was limited to internal and local trade.
The birth of new towns, the completion of the railway gave the centrality of
Addis Ababa and birth of the new towns: Dire Dawa, Nazareth (Adama) and Mojo.
It became the chief medium for Ethiopia long distance trade. The railway was the
main means of transport for both goods and passengers to and from Ethiopia.
Medium of exchange: The establishing of bank played great role in the minting of
coins and the issuance of notes for using as a medium of exchange in the Ethiopian
long distance trade. The first bank of Ethiopia was known as the Bank of Abyssinia
opened in March 1905 and starting with a capital of $100,000.

Activity 6.2
A. Questions based on facts
1. Answer the following questions
 Which major outlet was served next to Djibouti?
 Which countries immigrants controlled Ethiopia’s long distance trade?
 Which towns were established after completions of the railway?
2. Things to do:
 Draw the map of Ethiopia and indicate the following places then show the
20th century long distance trade route.
 Shawa  Gambella  Massawa  Addis Ababa
 Gojjam  Djibouti  Asab  Dassie
 Matamma  Gondar  Harrar  Dangela

172
6.3 Ethiopia and the outside world

Competency: after studying this lesson, you will be able to

 Describe the relationship between Ethiopia and the outside world

These are the words that you should try to learn for this lesson

Top Five Words

 Abrogate  Foundry  Mask

 Council  Missionary 

More key words

 Propagation  Delegate  Legation

 Controversial  Legation  Deploy

During the reign of Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868)

Why Emperor Tewodros tried to establish relation with British?

Among the European countries Emperor Tewodrose tried to establish friendly

relations with Britain. Because Tewodros was interested to see arms produced in
his own country. He established an arms foundry at Gafat, near his capital Dabra
Tabor. The background to this plan was laid when Samuel Gobat, the Anglican
Bishop of Jerusalem, made an offer to send him European missionary craftsmen.

173
The missionaries initially refused to take up the task. The Emperor’s constant
pushing and arrest they were able to produce a small mortar and some bullets
including the cannon called Sebastopol.

Gradually, Tewodros sought British assistance to get large number of skilled

manpower to manufacture arms and to teach those skills to Ethiopians. However
British government was not interested. Latter he imprisoned those European. As a
result, British government decided to send an expeditionary force in August 1867.

Figure 4 Tewodros at Meqedella

The expedition was led by Sir Robert Napier, the commander of 32,000 strong and
well prepared forces. The cooperation of Kassa Mercha of the ruler of Tegre who
he provided the British with everything they needed: guides, food, transport
animals etc. they able to reach Tewodros’s camp at Maqdala.
The battle fought was on 10 April 1868, which was Good Friday, at Aroge, a small
plain half way between Maqdala and Bashilo. Tewodros’s ill-equipped army was
not a match for the well-disciplined and militarily superior army of the British.

174
Therefore, on Saturday & Sunday he attempted to negotiate with the British to
solve the problem peacefully but the response of Napier was quite unacceptable
and demanded his submission to the Queen of England. On Monday, a day after
the release of all the European prisoners Tewodros committed suicide; thus
denying the British the satisfaction of capturing him alive and setting himself as a
symbol of the independence of the Ethiopian.

During the reign of Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

Why Kirkham addressed Yohannes’s letters to European countries?
After two weeks of Egyptian invasion in 1975 Yohannes started the most extensive
diplomatic action by chosen J.C Kirkham as his special envoy. Kirkham addressed
the letter to Queen Victoria, the president of France, and the Emperors of Austria,
Germany, and Russia. In the letters, Yohannes accused Ismail and expressed his
hope that they would assist him in recovering lands lost.
However, generally speaking, Kirkham’s diplomatic mission was a failure.
Because Russians showed no concern; the Germans believed that any interference
in the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia might damage their considerable
commercial interests in Egypt, the French government responded by simply
sending a friendly letter which had not touched the issue; and the British wrote a
letter to Yohannes saying that they had received assurances from Cairo that Egypt
had no intention of invading Ethiopia territory. The responses of the European
countries were unacceptable to Yohannes.

During the reign of Emperor Menilek II (1889-1913)

Why Italy signed different treaties with Ethiopia?

Contact between the Italians and Menilek dates back to 1876 when an Italian
geographical mission led by Morquis Orazio Antinori arrived at Let Marafya, near

175
Ankober. Scientific exploration was a mask for their mission but its real purpose
was gathering information for the Italian government to expand from their base at
Asab. Gradually Italy signed three treaties with Ethiopia.

The first treaty was signed between the Italian representative Count Pietro
Antonelli and Emperor Menilekon 21 May 1883. The agreements were: Consular
exchange, free movement of people, free trade & free propagation of religion.

The second treaty came in October 1887 signed after the Italian defeat at Dogali
and among preparations for revenge. As a result Italy was achieving the neutrality
of Menilek in their affairs with Yohannes. As a reward for his neutrality, Menilek
was promised 5,000 modern rifles. However, Menilek promised not to use the
rifles against the Italians and Italy not to annex any Ethiopian territory.

The third treaty was the treaty of Wuchale which was signed on May 2, 1889 by
Emperior Menilek and Count Pietro Antonolli on September 29, 1889. The most
controversial agreements was Article XVII because the treaty was written and
signed in both the Amharic and Italian languages. Less than two weeks the Italian
government cleared its claim to the other European governments. As a result
twelve European governments and the USA accepted Italian protectorate over
Ethiopia. But the only country which openly protested was Russia.

In December, Menilek was advised by Alfred Ilg to inform the European

governments about the issue. Finally, both of them went to war. At the battle of
Adwa Italy was defeated and signed the treaty of Addis Ababa.

After the victory of Adwa external powers recognized Ethiopia’s independence. As

a result, in 1897, the Italians, French and British successively established their
legations in Addis Ababa. In 1903, an American commercial mission also heralded
a period of association with Ethiopia.
176
During the reign of Emperor Lej Iyyasu (1913-1916)

What was the main purpose of Lej Iyyasu to make relation with Europeans?

At the beginning of his reign Lej Iyyasu began to give material and moral support
to Sayyid Muhammad Abdille Hasan, the Somali patriotic leader who had been
challenging British and Italian colonial rule. This was more threateningly the
surrounding colonial powers, particularly the British, France and the Italians. On
the other hand Lej Iyyasu made relation with German and Turkey. Both of them
tried to recruit Lej Iyyasu to agitate colonial subjects to uprising against their
masters Britain, France and Italy. This action of Lej Iyyasu alarmed the Britain,
France & Italy. This relation became one of the factor for his failure.

During the reign of Empress Zewditu (1916-1930)

Why Italy support Ethiopia’s entry to the League of Nations?

In 1920’s Ras Tefere Mekonnen sent young Ethiopians abroad for education. The
destination of most of these students was France and Egypt. Those Ethiopians who
engaged in different positions after liberation belonged to this category. A smaller
number found their way to Britain and the United States with one or two going to
Switzerland. All in all, a total of some 200 Ethiopians reportedly studied abroad,
though government or private means before 1935.

Since the early 1920’s, Italy presented herself as friend of Ethiopia, especially in
the diplomatic sphere Italy supported Ethiopia’s entry to the League of Nations and
the warm welcome extended to Ras Teferi during his visit to Rome, in 1924. The
signing of the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1928 that best represents the
highest point of the policy of reconciliation. It was carefully handled by the Italian
legation in Addis Ababa.

177
During the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930-1974)

What was the prime motive of USA to make relation with Ethiopia?

The diplomatic relation between Ethiopia and USA was initiated in 1903, with the
arrival of the Skinner Mission to the court of Emperor Menilek II and the
conclusion of a treaty of Friendship and Commerce. The pre-occupation period
(1903-1935) witnessed strong commercial links; it was a diplomatic presence
towards the end of 1920s. Another important aspect of this period was the
employment of three American advisors by Emperor Haile Sellassie: E.A. Colson
(finance), Ernest work (education) and John Spencer (foreign and legal affairs).

The cause of the relation was the dissatisfaction of Emperor Haile Sellassie by the
strong control of Britain. As a result, he sought American assistance to consolidate
his power after restoration. In 1943 the then vice Minister of Finance Yilma Deresa
visited USA. This represented the first official contact between U.S. and Ethiopia.
Military, financial and legal experts’ assistances were top priorities of the
Ethiopian delegates. The US government reopened its legation in Addis Ababa in
1943.

During the relation with Ethiopia USA Aid to Ethiopia wereMilitary Building,
establishment of Air Lines, rehabilitation of the damaged roads, repairing
telegraphic services and educational improvement.

Finally, the Ethio-US relation began to decline in the early 1970’s because of new
political developments in Ethiopia and a shift of US interest.

During the reign of Derg (1974-1991)

Why Ethiopia did established friendly relation with the Soviet Union?

178
Ethiopia established friendly relations with the Soviet Union following a 1974
uprising. In spite of the implementation of a series of radical socio-economic
reforms, Moscow was fast to embrace the new regime. During this time Mengistu
regime was in desperate by internal and external enemies. Most opposition groups
began to wage urban guerrilla campaigns to demoralize and discredit the Derg, and
Somalia regular troops tried to separate Ogaden from Ethiopia.
During the war between Ethiopia and Somalia Russia gave military equipment to
Ethiopia. Over the next several months, Soviet, Cuba and Yemen military
personnel arrived in the country and were deployed to the Ogaden front. As had the
regime of Haile Selassie, the Derg gave its international image and territorial
integrity the highest priority in its foreign policy.
However, Ethiopia could not escape the global impact and Mikhail Gorbachev’s,
the Soviet leader, reforms. Finally, The Soviet leader refused to give military and
economic support to Ethiopia. By late 1990, the Soviet-Ethiopian alliance had
ended.
Activity

A. Question based on facts

1. Answer the following Questions:
 Who advised Emperor Menilek to write letters to European governments
after Wuchale treaty?
 Which Wuchale Article became the immediate cause of the battle of
Adwa?
 What was the cause of Emperor Haile Selassie to make relation with
USA?
 Why Russia and Cuba helped Ethiopia during Somalia aggression?

179
 6.4. The Unity of Ethiopians in Defense of their Sovereignty and Territorial
Integrity

Competency: after studying this lesson, learners will be able to:

 Value the sacrifices made by Ethiopians to protect the

sovereignty of their country.

These are the words you should try to learn for this lesson
Top Five words
 Rebellion  Negotiate  Sultanate
 Aftermath  Victory
More key terms
 Ratification  Revenge  Proposal
 Rumors  Pretext  Mobilization

The Ottoman Turks፡

Why did Portugal & Turk occupy Massawa and the coastal areas of Red Sea?
The early relation between Ethiopia and Ottoman Turkish was in 16 th century when
Portuguese occupied Massawa and made relation with Christian highland
kingdom. During this time the Ottomans replied by occupying Suakin and Zeila
and establishing friendly relations with the Muslims low land sultanate.
In the civil war between the Christian highland kingdom and the Muslim low land
sultanate both helped their ally for their own interests. In 1557 the Ethiopian

180
territories including the Red Sea and the port of Massawa became under the control
of Ottoman Turks.
In the campaign of 1579, Sarsa Dingil crushed the rebellion of Bahr Negash
Yeshaq who made relation with Turkish but he did not remove them from
Massawa and the surrounding coastal regions, the Red Sea coastal areas remained
under Turkish control and import and export trade activities via Massawa was
almost halted.
The Egyptian expansion
Why did Egypt invade Ethiopia?
After the rise of Muhammad Ali, Egyptian tried to invade Ethiopia in the western
frontiers. But in different times Dejazmach Wube of Semen and Dejazmach Maru
of Quara defeated and chased them. In 1837 Dejazmach Kinfu of Quara defeated
them at a place called Wad Kaltabu inside Sudanese territory. The rebel Kassa Hilu
fought against them but he was defeated at the battle of Debarqi in 1848.

From 1869-1876, the Egyptians had long been interested in establishing control
over Ethiopia. The causes were Khedive Ismail ambitious plan of empire building,
to control all the head waters of the Nile and to get resources to recover
government financial collapse.

Egyptian preparations for the attack were under way between July and September
1875 in three directions.

From Massawa in the north Arendrup, a Danish colonel, was instructed to occupy
Hamasen and tried to cross the Marab River.
From Tajura in the east, led by Warner Munzinger. But all of them were killed by
Afar people including Munzinger on 14 November.

181
From Zeila in the south, led by Muhammad Ra’uf pasha to occupy an important
trade center, Harar. As a result Ra’uf pasha left Zeila and occupied Harar on 11
October 1875.
When the news about the occupation of Bogos reached him, Yohannes
immediately returned to Adwa and sent his army along the borders then he
returned to diplomacy by wrote Letter to Ismail and European governments but
both of them were fruitless.

The Battles of Gundat

What were the fundamental and immediate causes of the wars?

National feeling of Emperor Yohannes to restore the losses territories of Ethiopia
and access to the sea, the duties on Ethiopian imports and exports had been raised
and all imports of arms and ammunition had been prevented, Refuse of Egyptian to
solve the problem peacefully and Yohannes’s losing of hope in the peaceful option
were the fundamental causes of the wars.

Colonel Arendrup, commanding an army of 2,500 crossing the Marab River and
reached at Gundat on 6 November 1875 this was the immediate cause of the war.
In the early morning of 16 November, Ethiopians launched a surprise attack on the
Egyptian advance. In this fierce fighting which took place in less than an hour the
two commanders together with their 800 men were defeated at the battle of
Gundat.

The Battle of Gura

What were the consequences of the battle of Gura?

After Gundat Khedive Ismail organized 15,000 strong and well equipped with the
latest weapons and military tactics army which was led by Muhammad Ratif

182
Pasha, with the American General Loring as second in command. On the other side
Ismail planned to create internal dissatisfaction against Yohannes by wrote a letter
to Menilek but Menilek chose to ignore the letter.

By mid Feburary 1876, Yohanne’s army crossed the Mereb River and fought the
battle from 7 & 9 March 1876 at Gura. The result was another major victory for the
Ethiopians and a terrified setback for Egyptian expansionism.

The consequences were large number of Ethiopians were killed but no prisoners, a
similar amount of Egyptians were killed and a large number were taken prisoners,
the Ethiopians were able to capture all the cannons and thousands of rifles,
hastened Ismail’s downfall, and brought successive occupation of the country by
Britain, enhanced Yohannes’s prestige as defender of faith and country.

In the aftermath of the Battles of Gundat and Gura, the Egyptians were still in
control of considerable territories in Ethiopian’s northern province of the Marab
Melash. So there was no peace and no war for about eight years.

The Hewett (Adwa) Peace Treaty

Why Emperor Yohannes signed the Hewett treaty?

The Hewett or Adwa peace Treaty, named respectively after the British negotiator
Rear Admiral Sir William Hewett or place where the treaty was signed on 3 June
1884.

The two developments were the causes of the agreement. The first development
was the rise of the Mahdist Movement in the Sudan which was partly religious and
partly nationalist was started in 1881. They liberated the northern and central parts
of the country and effectively encircled the Egyptian garrisons in the east and the

183
second development was the occupation of Egypt by British in 1882. After this
British wanted to evacuate Egyptian troops from Sudan to Massawa via Ethiopia.

The treaty contains the following articles such as

 Free transit through Massawa, to and from Ethiopia

 Bogos shall be restored to Ethiopia
 Yohannes facilitate the withdrawal of the troops to Masswa.

Aftermath of the Treaty

What was the outcome of the Hewett treaty?

Yohannes faithfully fulfilled his obligations in facilitating the withdrawal of

Egyptian troops at the cost of many Ethiopian lives, but the Egyptians did not want
to give up Kasala, they did not evacuate and hand over Karan as they agreed, not
allow free transit of goods to and from Ethiopia via Massawa. Finally, Britain
helped Italy to control Massawa. As a result, Yohannes exchanged one weak
enemy (Egypt) for two strong ones the Italy and Mahdist Sudan.

Italian Aggression

Why Italy tried to invade Ethiopia?

Italy became a unified state in 1871. This Italian interest in the region was
supported by Britain who wanted to use it as guard of its interests against its
strongest rivals in the region, France.

In 1869, Italy acquired the port of Assab. The evacuation of Egyptian had also
secured Zeila and Berbera for the British and Tajura for the French. Later they
renamed the British and the French Somaliland respectively. On 5 February 1885,

184
Italy formally landed at Massawa. Then the Italians from Massawa were to make
an attempt to occupy the whole Ethiopia.

In late 1886, the Italians had already pushed further inland and occupy Saati, and
Wia. Soon Ras Alula, the governor of the Marab Melash, sent an ultimatum to the
Italians to evacuate from Wia and Zula.

When Italy refused on 25 January 1887, he attacked the Italian positions at Saati.
He was resisted but suffering considerable losses. The following day, at Dogali,
between Saati and Massawa, Alula’s force destroyed the Italians.

The Battle of Dogali created anger in Rome. Thus preparations for revenge were
started. About 20 million lire was allotted for the defense of occupied areas,
additional 5,000 troops were sent to strengthen the existing force, construction and
rehabilitation of roads and bridges was worked for future military action and
motivate Menilek to rebel against Yohannes IV.

In March 1888 when the Italians had reoccupied Saati Yohannes decided to solve
the issue by force and he descended to Saati. But they refused to come out from
their fortified positions. He forced to withdraw his troops from Saati without
achieving anything because he faced a number of problems such asShortage of
supplies, the arrival of news of the Mahdist sacking of Gondar, andrumors that
Menilek and Negus Takla-Haymanot were conspiring against him.

Mahdist Sudan Agression

Why Mahdists tried to invade Ethiopia?

Cause: Yohannes’s confrontation with the Mahdists was the result of his faithful
implementation of the Hewett Treaty. The Ethio-Mahdist confrontation was
conducted at different times.

185
The battle of Kufit: The Ethiopian forces led by Ras Alula and the Mahdist army
commanded by Uthman Diqna met at a place called Kufit, on 23 September 1885.
The battle ended with the victory of the Ethiopian forces. At the Battle about 3,000
Mahdists lost their lives while the Ethiopians lost lives about half that number.

The Battle Gute Dili: in the direction of present –day Wallaga region the Mahdists
had stayed since the withdrawal of the Egyptian from the region. They were able to
make annual tax from the sheikhdoms of Asossa, Bela Shangul and Khomosha.
Even as far as the Najjo area. However, they were defeated by Menilek’s general
Ras Gobena Dache at the Battle Gute Dili on 14 October 1888.

The battle of Sar Wuha: Mahdist forces occupied Matamma following the
Egyptian evacuation. Yohannes given the responsibility of protecting this part of
the country to King Takla Haymanot of Gojjam. In January 1887, The Mahdist, led
by Abu Anja, reacted by defeating Takla Haymanot’s troops at Sar Wuha in
Dembya. This was followed by their sacking of the historic city of Gondar.

The battle of Mattama: when Yohannes hearing the devastation of Gondar he had
instructed Menilek to arrive the area. But Menilek arrived after the Mahdist
disaster because Menilek and Takla Haimanot were agreed to work together
against him. The emperor was disappointing by this. He devastated Gojjam soon
after his return from Saati. But he was not tried to destroy Shawa because
Yohannes knew that the Italians were arming Menilek and pushing him to attack.
FightingMenilek would mean weakening and exposing Ethiopia for two external
enemies on the borders. So, he decided to attack, the less complicated of all,
Mahdists. Then after, he wanted to turn to the problem of Menilek and the Italians
after defeating them. But he could not have the chance to comeback from that front
because he was killed at the Battle of Matamma on 9, March 1889.

186
The Battle of Adwa

What was the immediate cause of the battle of Adwa?

The immediate cause of the war was article XVII of the treaty of Wuchale which
was signed on May 2, 1889 by Emperior Menilek and the Italian representative
Count Pietro Antonolli and ratified by King Umberto I on September 29, 1889.
Grazmach Yosef was Menilek’s secretary and translator at Wuchale.

The Treaty of Wuchale was written and singed in both in Amharic and Italian
languages. A literal translation of the Italian version of Article XVII reads “His
Majesty the king of kings of Ethiopia consents to avail himself of the Government
of His Majesty the king of Italy for all negotiations of affairs which he might have
with other powers or governments.” The Amharic version says: “የ ኢትዮጵያ
ን ጉ ሠ ነ ገ ሥት ከ ኤሮፓ ነ ገ ሥታት ለ ሚፈል ጉ ት ጉ ዳ ይ ሁሉ በ ኢጣሊያ መን ግሥት
አ ጋ ዥነ ት መላ ላ ክ ይቻላ ቸዋል ”.
Italian Action, Less than two weeks after its ratification of the treaty, the Italian
governments clear its claim to the other European governments. As a result twelve
European governments and the USA accepted Italian protectorate over Ethiopia.
But the only country which openly protested was Russia.
On 24 August 1890 Emperor Menilek wrote a letter to Italy demanding that the
error be corrected. But King Umberto disregarded. In December, Menilek was
advised by Alfred Ilg to inform the European governments about the issue. But
European governments ignored. In February 1891 Menilek dispatched another
letter to Umberto in which Article XVII null and void and that he would not accept
any obligation whatsoever which limited his independence.

187
The Road to Adwa

Who led the Ethiopian forces at the battle of Adwa?

By the end of 1895, diplomatic did not bring the desired results for both Menilek
and the Italians. Only the military option remained. The Italians took that option in
October by crossing the Marab River and occupying Addigrat. In the following
weeks, Menilek mobilized his troops and accompanied by his wife Empress Taytu,
marched north to meet them. His army was remarkable not only for its size but also
as a powerful demonstration of national unity. During this time all region in
Ethiopia sent their troops.

The Ethiopian troops were commanded by Ras Makonnen Walda Mikael, Ras
Mangasha Yohannes and Negus Takla Haimanot and all of them were commanded
by Emperior Menilek. Facing them were Italian columns led by Generals Vittorio
Dabormida, Giuseppe Arimondi and Matteo Alebertone and all of them were
commanded by General Oreste Baratieri. By mid-day of 1 March, at the Battle of
Adwa Italians were defeated and for the time being Italian colonial ambition was
dead. Independent Ethiopia survived.
The Causes of Italian Defeat
What were the causes for Italian defeat?
The causes of their defeat were faulty information, a faulty map reading and also
underestimation of the Ethiopian forces. More than anybody else, the impact of
Adwa was very much felt by the participants of the war. In Italy the defeat gave a
moral boost to the anti-colonialist elements in the country. Shouts of “Viva
Menilek!” were heard in the streets of Rome and in other major Italian cities.
Nearly 100,000 people signed a petition calling for Italy’s total withdrawal from
Africa.

188
  The Prime Minister, Francisco Crispi was forced to abdicate.
 General Baratieri was brought to court for his poor command.
 The treaty of Addis Ababa was signed on 26 October 1896. The main
provisions of this Treaty were
 The abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale
 Italian recognition of the absolute independence of Ethiopia
 The repatriation of the Italian prisoners and
 The Italian colony of Eritrea was left future negotiation.

The Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-1936

Why were the fundamental and immediate causes of the second Italian invasion?

The coming of Benito Mussolini who was dictator ruler of Italy who want to
revenge the humiliating defeat at Adwa and Economic benefit which means the
need of raw materials, market and settlement areas for their citizens were the
fundamental causes of the war.

A pretext took place on 5 December 1934. On that day Ethiopian and Italian troops
clashed at Wal Wal, in Ogaden because of Italian army infiltration in to the area.
As a result the Italians demanded Ethiopia’s official apology and pay
compensation. Ethiopia tried to solve the dispute peaceful arbitration and appealed
to the League of Nations.

Courses of the war

The Northern Front

Who were the leaders of Ethiopian forces in the northern front?

On October 3, 1935 Italian colonial army commanded by Emilio De Bono crossed
the Mereb River. On October 5 he stormed Adigrat. On the next day, Adwa was
189
bombarded in an act of revenge. On November 8, the strategic town of Meqalle
was occupied. In spite of this, Mussolini was dissatisfied with De Bono’s slow
advance. Thus on November 12, Mussolini replaced him by Marshal Pietro
Badoglio.

Ethiopian Counter Offensive in the North

Who were the leaders of Ethiopian patriots in the north?

Figure 5 Ethiopian Patriots

The Ethiopian counter offensive staged along three fronts. Ras Mulugeta Yigezu,
the Eastern most columns. Ras Seyum Mengesha and Ras Kassa Haylu, the center.
Ras Emeru Haile Sellassie, the western side.

The First battle of Temben: The Italian won at a considerable human and
material cost. After cracking down the Ethiopian counter offensive and feeding on

190
its outcome Badoglio turned his face to the Eastern column commanded by Ras
Mulugeta.

The Battle of Amba Aradom: The Temben confrontation, led to the Battle of
Amba Aradom where Mulugeta’s forces were crushed by heavy artillery and air
bombardment. Ras Mulugeta, lost his life in the course of a confused retreat. After
this Badoglio decided to clear up the central forces of Ras Kassa, who arrived late.

The Second Battle of Tembien: the Ethiopian army trapped by the two branches
of the Italian army. As a result the central column collapsed. Its leaders nearly
escaped the encircling plans of the Italian army.

The battle of Shire: it was the western column that launched the counter
offensive. In fact the forces of Ras Imru was able to score a great victory over an
army of colonial soldiers (askaries) commanded by Major Luigi Crinti on
December 15, 1935 at Endabaguna.

The Battle of Maichew: the confrontation at Maichew took place on March 31,
1936. It was a symbolic because Emperor Haile Selassie personally participated
and he saw horrors mainly due to more use of mustard gas. The Imperial body
guard and the survivors of the armies of Ras Kassa and Seyum meet the fascist at
Maichew, but the Ethiopian were Smashed and retreated to Lake Ashenge in haste.
The Italian air craft’s chased, hunted and massacred the retreating army of
Ethiopia. Finally On May 5th, 1936, the armies of Fascist Italy, led by Marshal
Pietro Badoglio marched into Addis Ababa and occupied the city.

The South and South Eastern Front

Who were the leaders of Ethiopian forces in the south and south eastern front?
Considerable fighting also took place to the south and south-east of the country.
The fascists were commanded by Rodolfo Graziani, who had earlier served in
191
Italian North Africa, where he had earned the nickname, ‘Hyena of Libya’. He was
opposed in the south by two of the Emperor’s sons-in-law, Ras Dasta Damtaw and
Dejazmach Bayana Mared, and in the southeast by the governor of Harar,
Dajazmach Nasibu Za-Amanuel.
Some of the severest fighting was played at Qorahe, a strategic Ethiopian post in
southern Ogaden. One of the most heroic acts on the Ethiopian side was played by
Grazmach Afawarq Walda Samayat but after Afawarq’s death, Qorahe soon fell,
on 7 November. Italian forces then proceeded to capture Negelli, and later several
posts in Ogaden. However Graziani failed to reach Harar until Badoglio’s capture
of Addis Ababa.

Factors for Ethiopian Defeat: However, the counter offensive was from the very
beginning ineffective because lack of coordination and communication, rivalry
among the leaders, Italian heavy artillery and air bombardment, Italian well
entrenched fortification, the Italians technical superiority were the factors for
Ethiopian defeat.
The Geneva Conference
What was the decision of the League of Nations for the Emperor appeal?
After the battle of Maichew the Emperor returned to Addis Ababa on 30, April
1936 and left the city on 2 May. He was accompanied by his family and several of
his closest associates. On 30 June 1936 he made his way to Geneva to address the
League of Nations. In his speech, he outlined in considerable detail the crimes
committed by the invaders against his people and asked the delegates the forceful
question, “What answer am I to take back to my people?” His quiet dignity made a
deep impact on international opinion. The League’s answer was, however, to vote,
on 4 July for the ending of sanctions.

192
 Figure 6 Ethiopian Female Patriots

Consequences
What were the consequences of Ethiopian defeat by Fascist Italy?
Political, Benito Mussolini declared that “Ethiopia is the colony of Italian”, the
King of Italy proclaimed him Vittorio Emmanuelle, king of Italy and Emperor of
Ethiopia, Mussolini appointed Badoglio as the Vice-Roy (Vice-re) of “Africa
Orientale Italiana” or Italian East Africa, combine Ethiopia with the Italian
colonies of Somaliland and Eritrea, the title of king of kings of Ethiopia was
replaced by Caesar of Ethiopia and The Italian flag was raised over the palace of
Menilek,
The Patriotic Resistance (1936-1941)
First Phase (Summer 1936)
Who were the prominent leaders of Ethiopian patriots in first phase of struggle?
Ras Emeru Haile Sellassie, he was appointed as acting head of the Provisional
Government of Ethiopia at Gore and also he was leader of the Black Lion, which
led by Lieutenant Colonels Belay Haileab, Kifle Nesibu and Ketemma Beshah
before Ras Imeru returned from Shire Front. But after months of difficult stay in
south western Ethiopia, Ras Imiru’s troops were defeated and forced to surrender
near the Gojeb River.

193
Ras Desta Damtew, he was one of the leader in the southern front but he was
defeated at the battle of Dolo Odo and Genale Dorya. After months, Ras Desta was
caught at Gogeti- a village.In Gurage- in Feb. 1937 he was executed at Butajira.

Figure 7 the death of Ras Deseta Damtew

Dejjazmach Gebre Mariam Gari, he led his force on the south direction.
The Abortive Attack on Addis Ababa
Which direction patriots used to liberate Addis Ababa?
North: led by sons of Ras Kassa, Abera and Asfa-Wossen, became famous for
taking part in the abortive attack on Addis Ababa from the north of Addis Ababa.
They were defeated and retreated to Selale. Finally they were persuaded by Ras
Hailu Tekle Haymanot, the leading fascist collaborator, who promised them they
were not be killed, to surrender to the fascists. Finally, after surrender the two
brothers were killed.
South: led by Dejjazmach Balcha Safo, an old hero of Adwa from the south; but
he was killed while fighting the fascists in the southern part of Addis Ababa. At the
place he was killed, a memorial hospital constructed.

194
Northwest: led by Ras Abebe Aragay
East: led by Dejjazmach Fiqre-Mariyam Yinadu
Abuna Petros, an outspoken anti-fascist patriot, was a moving spirit behind the
plan. But he was caught and publicly executed.
It was unsuccessful because the attack was poorly planned and lacked
coordination.

The Second Phase (February 1937)

Why Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgdom attempted to kill Marshal Graziani?
Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgdom: attempted to kill Marshal Graziani, the
Viceroy, on 19 February 1937 when a public gathering called at the Genete Le’ul
palace (present day Addis Ababa University) to celebrate the birthday of an Italian
prince, they threw a bomb at Marshal Graziani and other colonial officials. The
explosion wounded Graziani and killed some Italian officials. Then, it followed the
wholesale killing in and around Addis Ababa continued for three days. About
30,000 peoples and 499 monks at Debra Libanos monastery were massacred.
The Graziani Massacre resulted in the outbreak of a country-wide anti-fascist
patriotic resistance of the second phase. The prominent leaders of patriots were Ras
Ababa Aregay, Bekele Woya, Gersu Duki, Abuna Petros,Belay Zeleke, Jagama
Kelo, Amoraw Wubneh and Takele W/Hawariat. Zerai Deres and Abdissa Aga,
They attacked by ambushing enemy convoys, cutting communication lines, looting
properties of collaborators.
Women patriot such as Shewarged Gedle(internal patriot) and others played a great
role.

195
 Figure 8 Patriot Shewareged Gedele

The War of Liberation

Why British wanted to help Ethiopia in the liberation struggle against Fascist
Italy?
The cause of British support against Italy in Ethiopia was the Italy’s entry into the
WWII on the side of Hitler became a serious danger to British interests in East
Africa. The three direction of the liberation mission were
The northern Front: it was led by General William Platt. He defeated the Italians
in Eritrea especially at the decisive Battle of Keren,
The Western Front: led by Colonel Dan Sanford and Major Orde Charles
Wingate led the Gideon Force accompanied the Emperor and triumphantly entered
Addis Ababa. This was on May 5, 1941 the day currently observed as victory Day
throughout Ethiopia every year.
Southern Front from Kenya: led by General Cunningham. This British led force
entered Addis Ababa on April 6, 1941 a month before the emperor’s entry.

Somalia Aggression

What were the basic and immediate causes of Somalia Aggression?

196
Fundamental Cause: the first cause was Somalia extreme nationalist leader’s
ambition to build greater Somalia and adopted a flag with a five-pointed star
symbolizing the five territories which Greater Somalia wanted to possess. These
are Italian Somaliland, British Somaliland, French Somaliland, the Ogaden and the
Northern Frontier District (N.F.D) in Kenya. The second was the Rejection of all
treaties by Somalia; it rejected treaties signed before Somalia emerged as an
independent state.

Immediate cause: the election of Siyad Barre and his effort to control the Ogaden
as far as Derie Dawa.

Courses: the Somali leaders began a series of clashes along the 1600 km Ethio-
Somali border as early as 1964. The purpose were to internationalized the
boundary issue, gain sympathy for the cause of Greater Somalia and re-direct the
inter-clan conflicts towards the issue of national unity. But the conflict was ended
when Somalia and Ethiopia issued a declaration in Khartoum. After this Somalia
leaders appealed to UN Security Council, OAU and Muslim Arab Forum but got
nothing. Finally, the coming of Siyad Barre through coup d’état aggravated the
situation.

The most devastating aspect of struggle between the two countries was the 1977
War. By taking advantage of the weakened Ethiopian state, Siaad Barre attempt to
take Ogaden from Ethiopia forcibly, the Siaad Barre army seized the Ogaden
region. A war was to reclaim the Ogaden for Somalia. Russia, which was the Cold
War ally of Barre, opposed his action and provided assistance to Ethiopia. In the
subsequent war, Ethiopian forces by the support of Russia and Cuba reversed the
invasion, and the Somalia army unable to win and suffered a huge defeat at the
battle of Kara Mara.

197
Consequences, Somalia was defeated, huge number of human life and materials
were destroyed, the plan of greater Somalia was terminated.

Activity
A. Questions based on facts
1. Answer the following questions:
 Who protected Ethiopia from Egyptian invasion in the second quarter
of 19th century?
 Who led Egyptian invader forces from Massawa? Tajura? Zeila?
 What were the provisions of Addis Ababa treaty?
 Why Russia and Cuba helped Ethiopia during Somalia aggression?

2. Things to do
 . Locate the places below on the map of Ethiopia.
 Massawa  Kufit  Assab  Adwa
 Gundat  Sar Wuha  Mattama  Wal Wal
 Gura saati  Guti Dili  Wia  Ogaden
Why is patriotism important today? What are the top best qualities of a patriot?
(Discuss with your classmate.)

198
 Summary

 During the era of the princes, Ethiopia was disintegrated in to many regions. As
a result of this Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV, Menilek II
attempted to reunify Ethiopia by defeating different regional lords.
 In early 20th century the direction of long distance trade was changed from the
northern to the south and eastward. The route was from south western to Sudan
via Gambella, from Southern Ethiopia to Kenya and British Somaliland and
from Harar to British Somali Land.
 Among the European countries, Emperor Tewodros II tried to establish friendly
relation with British. Emperor Yohannes IV as result of his diplomatic relation
dispatched letters to British, France, Austria, Germany and Russia after Egyptian
invasion. Emperor Menilek II had diplomatic relation with Italy, French, British
and America. Lej Eyasu made relation with Somalia patriotic leader, Germany
and Turkey. During the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I the diplomatic relation
between Ethiopia and USA was restarted in 1943. Russia had diplomatic relation
with Ethiopia during the reign of Derg.
 The Egyptian had long been interested in establishing control over Ethiopia
from 1869 to 1876. During this time the forces of Khedive Ismail were defeated
at the battles of Gundat & Gura. Another enemy of Ethiopia was Italy. It was
defeated at the battle of Saati, Wia, Dogali and Adwa. Mahdist Sudan was
defeated at the battle of Kufit, Gute Dili and Mattama. After her defeat at the
battle of Adwa Italy tried to invade Ethiopia and stayed for about five years.
However, 1941 by the help of British, Italy was chased from Ethiopia. In the
second half of 20th century Somalia invaded Ethiopia but her forces were
crushed.

199
 Glossary

Aftermath: the consequences or Mobilization: the action of a country

after-effects of a significant or its government preparing and
unpleasant event. organizing troops for active service.

Campaign: a series of military Negotiate: a strategic discussion that

operations intended to achieve a resolves an issue in a way that both
particular objective, confined to a parties find acceptable.
particular area, or involving a
Pretext: a reason given in
specified type of fighting
justification of a course of action that
Prolonged: continuing for a long time is not the real reason.
or longer than usual; lengthy
Propagation: the action of widely
Candidate: a person who applies for spreading and promoting an idea,
a job or is nominated for election. theory, etc

Council: an advisory, deliberative, or Ratification: the action of signing or

administrative body of people giving formal consent to a treaty,
formally constituted and meeting contract, or agreement, making it
regularly. officially valid.

Delegate: a person sent or authorized Submission: the action of accepting

to represent others, in particular an or yielding to a superior force or to
elected representative sent to a the will or authority of another
conference person.

Depletion: reduction in the number or Revenge: the action of hurting or

quantity of something. harming someone in return for an
injury or wrong suffered at their
Proximity: nearness in space, time, or
hands
relationship.
Triumphantly in a way that shows
Foundry: a workshop or factory for
great happiness or joy at a victory or
casting metal.
achievement
Legation: a diplomatic mission in a
foreign country headed by a minister.

200
Unit 6: Review Questions

I. True or False Item

Instruction: write True if the statement is correct or write False if it is wrong.
____1. Kawo Tona was the last king of Kaffa who surrendered to Menilek’s
rule in 1897.
____2. The final battle between Italy and Ethiopia took place at Adwa.
____3. In the process of Southward expansion Emperor Menilek met a stiff
resistance from Kaffa.
____4. The objective of the Italian Geographical society mission was to sell
arms to Menilek.
____5. Ethiopia was admitted into the League of Nations in 1923.
II. Matching Item

Instruction: match the names of Ethiopian war leaders who defeated foreign
enemies under column B with the battle places under column A.

A B
1. The Battle of Wada Kaltabu A. Ras Gobena
2. The Battle of Adwa B. Ras Alula
3. The Battle of Dogali C. Colonel Mengestu
4. The Battle of Gura & Gundat D. Emperor Menilek
5. The Battle of Karama E. Dejach Kenfu
6. The Battle of Guti dili F. Emperor Yohannes

201
III. Multiple choice Items

____1. The Emir who defeated at the battle of Chelenqo was

a. Emir Abdulahi c. Emir Ali Dawud

b. Emir Nur d. Emir Mahfuz
____2. The bloody battle that was fought between Mahdist Sudan & and King
Tekle Haimanot was the battle of
a. Azule c. Kufit
b. Embobo d. Sar Wuha

____3. What was the major cause of the Ethio-Somalia war of 1977-1978?

a. Somalia territorial ambition

b. The growth of Islamic Fundamentalism in Somalia
c. The fake alliance between Ethiopia & Russia
d. Encouragement of Somalia by USA

____4. The most basic cause of Fascist aggression against Ethiopia was

a. The Wal Wal incident c. Revenge for Adwa

b. Advise of Britain d. The ambition of Italian Soldiers

____5. The treaty that was signed between Menilek II and Antonelli of Italy in
October 1883 was the

a. Hewett Treaty c. Treaty of Friendship and Commerce

b. Treaty of Wuchale d. Convention of Neutrality
IV. Fill in the blank Spaces
Instruction: Provide the word or expression that completes the statement
correctly.

202
 1. The overall Italian army commander at the battle of Adwa was
_________.
2. Ethiopia was admitted in to the League of Nations in ____________.
3. After the occupation Addis Ababa by Italy, the resistance effort moved it
base of operation to______________.
4. ___________ & _____________attempted to kill Marshal Graziani on 19
Feb 1937.
5. The immediate cause of Fascist aggression was ___________________.

V. Short Answers

Instruction: Read the following questions carefully then give short answer that
relates to the questions.

1. Why Emperor Haile Selassie went to Europe when the Italian aggression
going on?
2. Which countries helped Ethiopia in their war against Somalia?
3. Why did Egypt, Italy and Sudan try to invade Ethiopia?

203
Check List

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can
perform.

I can

1 Summarize the process of the modern Ethiopian state

formation
2 Locate the route of the long distance trade;
3 Describe the relationship between Ethiopia and the
outside world;
4 Value the sacrifices made by Ethiopians to protect the
sovereignty of their country

204
UNIT
CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL ISSUES
7

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit learners will be able to:

 Evaluate the implications of climate change on peoples‟ life and

physical environment;
 Produce reports on locally available indigenous knowledge helping
to protect the environment;
 Value the work of those who provide care and support to people
who participate in environmental protection / green legacy.

Unit Organization

7.1. Climate Change

7.1.1 The idea of Climate change

7.1.2 Causes and effects of climate change

7.1.3 The development of climate actions

7.1.4 Case studies on issues in their locality

7.1.5 Air pollution

7.1.6 Water shortage /Scarcity

7.1.7. Deforestation

205
7.1 Climate Change

Competency: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Evaluate the causes and implications of climate change on

human life.
These are the words that you should try learn for this lesson

Top 10 Key Terms

 Climate  Global warming

 Climate change  Greenhouse effect
 Hydrological cycle  Oceans
 Desertification  Weather
 Drought  Urbanization
More Key Terms
 Acid rain
 Famine  Nuclear war

Startup Questions

 Define climate
 What is climate change?
 What are the causes of climate change?
Climate is the average weather conditions that persist over multiple decades or
longer. While the weather can change in minutes or hours, identifying a change
in climate has required observations over a time period of decades to centuries
or longer.

7.1.1 The idea of Climate change

Climate change refers to the long-term changes in global temperatures and other
characteristics of the atmosphere. Global temperature is warming, weather
patterns are changing, polar ice is melting, and sea level is rising. Climate has

206
changed throughout Earth's long history, but this time it's different. Climate
change is a particular apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and
attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide
produced by the use of fossil fuels. It encompasses both increases and decreases
in temperature as well as shifts in precipitation, changing risks of certain types
of severe weather events, and changes to other features of the climate system

Causes and Effects of Climate Change

Startup questions
In group, try to give possible answers to the following questions. Answering
this question will help you understand the causes and effects of climate change.

1. Why does the world climate change constantly?

2. What are the main causes of climate changes? Here you may take the
example of your own home area (Addis Ababa)
3. Do you see some evidences for climate change in your locality? List
some harmful effects of climate change on physical and human
environments.
4. Think of the climate of Addis Ababa and compare it with the climate of
its surrounding rural area like Entoto, Yerer, Wechecha etc. Do you
notice changes in climate? Why is there such a climate change between
urban and rural area?

7.1.2 Causes of Climate Change

Climate is dynamic. Some changes in climate are minor and unnoticed others
such as, droughts or storms affect the lives of millions of people in many ways.
Therefore, the effect of such climatic changes is easily observed. Generally,

207
there are different factors responsible for climate changes. They include both
human and natural factors. These factors are discussed as follow: -

A. Urbanization: - Cities are warmer and more polluted than the countryside.
For example, in rural area, a large part of the incoming solar energy
evaporates water from vegetation and soil. Whereas, in cities, much of the
sun’s heat is absorbed by building asphalted roads.
B. Global warming: - Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth's
temperature generally due to the greenhouse effect caused by increased
levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. Global warming is one
of the factors that cause climate change. Human activities, primarily fossil
fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere trap heat
energy from the sun. This process is called
Major Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect
 Fossil fuels and deforestation
is a natural process that warms the Earth's
 Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs):
refrigerants, aerosols, foams, surface The Earth is similar to a greenhouse.
 Pro-pellants, and solvents
The Earth’s atmosphere acts like the glass in
 Methane, CH4:animal waste,
biomass burning, fossil fuels, a greenhouse. The major greenhouse gases
landfills, livestock, rice
paddies, sewage, and are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
wetlands
 Nitrous Oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous
N2O:biomass burning,
deforestation, burning of oxide. Of these, water vapor and carbon
fossil fuels, and microbial
activity on fertilizers in the soil dioxide for most of the absorption of heat
 Water vapor, H2O: that occurs in the atmosphere.
evaporation, plant respiration
C. Nuclear war: a nuclear war would rise an
enormous of thick smoke from massive fires

208
 that would burn for days, even weeks following an attack. The smoke would move
higher into the atmosphere and increase earth’s temperature.
D. Ozone Layer Depletion

In your previous grade you have seen ozone layer depletion as a factor of global
warming. In this lesson you will see ozone layer depletion as human-made causes
of climate change.

The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere. It is a layer of gas which absorbs much of
the sun’s ultraviolent radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth. Scientists have
found that gases called CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) destroy ozone gas. They are used in
refrigerators and aviation. Holes have been discovered in the ozone layer above the
Arctic circle and Antarctica. Had it not been for ozone layer, our planet would have been
without life.

E. Acid rain: coal and oil release a mixture of gases as they burn. These gases combined
with water vapor, sunlight and oxygen to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which fall
back to earth as acid rain. This rain can kill plants and fish, leach nutrients from the soil,
damage buildings reduce agricultural and forest productivity.

Natural factors responsible for climate change

 What are the naturally induced factors responsible for global climate change?

There are a number of factors that are responsible for climate change. A few of these
factors are mentioned below: -

A. Oceans: - The oceans play a major role in the formation of world climate system.
They are huge storehouse for carbon dioxide. The oceans also store heat energy.
Because of this, the oceans can determine the global pattern and speed of climate
change.

209
 B. Clouds: - Clouds also reflect incoming sunlight and absorb infrared radiation from
the earth. Because of this clouds have both cooling and warming effects on the
earth’s climate.

Effects of Climate Change on human life and the physical environment

Human health has always been influenced by climate and weather. Changes in climate
and climate variability affect the environment that provides us with clean air, food, water,
shelter, and security.

Climate change threatens human health and well-being in numerous ways. The health
effects of these disruptions include increased respiratory and cardiovascular disease,
injuries and premature deaths related to extreme weather events, changes in the
prevalence and geographical distribution of food- and water-borne illnesses and other
infectious diseases, and threats to mental health.

210
 Figure 14 :- The impact of climate change on human health

Climate affects every aspect of life forms, such as plants, animals and humans. All living
things could survive best under favorable climatic conditions. Any unfavorable change in
climates may result in destruction of species. The following are some of the effects of
climate change: -

A. Desertification: Desertification refers to the persistent degradation of dry land

ecosystems by climatic variations and human activities.
B. Droughts, famines and starvations: result in extensive damage to plants, crops and
animals as well as the death of millions of people.
C. A rise in the sea-level: as alpine glaciers begin to recede, polar ice melts. And the
oceans expand as they slowly warm. Rising ocean levels might have a damaging
influence on coastal marine life. In addition, coastal ground water supplies might
become contaminated with salt water.

211
 D. Loss of biodiversity: extinction and extermination of plants and animals of the
world.
E. Hydrological cycle: the ‘normal’ process of hydrological cycle would be
disrupted by global warming.

Activity 7.1.2

A. Define the following terms

1. Climate change 2. Global warming 3. Drought 4. Greenhouse effect

5. Urbanization 6. Desertification

B. Answer the following Questions

 Why urbanization is a factor for climate change?
 List the different causes of climate change.
Things to do

• Take a taxi or bus to Mt. Entoto and think of the climate (air, land etc.) and compare
it with Addis Ababa city climate; describe causes of climate change in Addis Ababa
and report to the class.

7.1.3The Development of climate Action

Competency: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Discuss the role of climate actions in confronting the climate change

problems.

212
These are the words that you should try learn for this lesson

Key Terms
 Adaptation measure  Green economy

 Climate action  Mitigation measure

Startup Question

Can you suggest some possible ways to mitigate climate change?

Climate action means stepped-up efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-induced impacts, including:
climate-related hazards. Global climate change is a growing threat to human well-being
in developing and industrialized nations alike. It is largely caused by the combustion of
fossil fuels and by deforestation. Significant harm from climate change is already
occurring, and further damages are a certainty. The challenge now is to keep climate
change from becoming a catastrophe.

Mitigation measures to prevent climate change

The following adaptation measures are helpful actions to reduce the harm from climate
change.

1. Implementing carbon capture and storage from fossil-fueled power plants, which
reduce impacts on climate while making available concentrated CO2
2. Utilizing the most advanced building designs, which can provide emissions-free
space conditioning (cooling and heating) in ways that greatly reduce energy and
water demands
3. Replacing traditional uses of biomass fuels for cooking and heating with modern
energy supplies that can improve the health of women and children otherwise
exposed to high indoor air pollution from traditional uses of biomass.

213
4. Improve efficiency in the transportation sector through measures such as vehicle
efficiency standards.
5. Expand the use of bio-fuels, especially in the transportation sector with careful
attention to environmental impacts.
6. Promote reforestation, afforestation, and improved land-use practices in ways that
enhance overall productivity and delivery of ecological services while
simultaneously storing more carbon and reducing emissions of smoke and soot.
7. Modernize cities and plan land-use and transportation systems, including greater
use of public transit. This helps to reduce energy use and Green House Gases
intensity and increase the quality of life.

Review Activity 7.1.4

Questions based on facts

A. Define the following terms

1. Climate action
2. Green economy
3. Bio-fuels
B. Answer the following question
1. List some climate actions which help to confront climate change.

214
 7.1.4

Case Study

The basis of Ethiopia’s mitigation policy is Climate-Resilience Green Economy (CRGE)

strategy which aims to keep greenhouse gas emissions low and build climate resilience,
while achieving middle-income status by 2025. The strategy is based on four pillars:
7.1.4
reducing agricultural emissions, protecting and expanding forests, expanding renewable
electricity generation, and adopting energy efficient technologies in transport, industry
and the built environment.

The Ethiopian government plans to increase fuel efficiency standards and promote the
uptake of hybrid and electric vehicles; construct a renewable energy powered electric
rail network; improve public transportation in the capital, Addis Ababa; and increase the
use of biofuels.
Source: Ethiopia Climate Resilient Green Economy National Adaptation Plan, August 2020
Activity 7.1.4

A. Give short answer for the following questions

1. Explain the aim of Climate Resilience Green Economy.
2. List the four pillars of Climate Resilience Green Economy.

7.1.5 Air Pollution

Competency: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the effects of air pollution

These are the words that you should try learn for this lesson
Top Key Words
 Air pollution  pollutant
 Carbon dioxide  pollution
Startup Question

Define pollution.

215
 Pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life and other
animals, living conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets.

Pollution can be natural or manmade. The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. Table 2 summarizes some of major pollutants
and their possible effects.

Pollutant Source Possible effects

Pesticides Use in agriculture and landscaping Nerve damage, birth defects,
cancer
Lead Lead paint and gasoline brain damage and learning
problems
Particulate matter Vehicle exhaust, burning Respiratory damage
waste, fires (asthma, bronchitis, cancer)
antobaccosmoke
Coal dust Coal mining Black lung disease

Bacteria in food Poor sanitation and poor food Gastro intestinal infections
handling

Air Pollution: -is defined as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration
which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients find their way in
the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas
Sources of Air Pollution
Fossil fuels, industries, agricultural activities, wars, natural causes and emissions from
vehicles are various sources of air pollution. Some sources of air pollution are discussed
below: -
1. Burning Fossil Fuels: - Burning of wood, charcoal and other fossil fuels causes air
pollution by the release of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon Sulphur dioxide etc.

216
2. Emissions from Automobiles: - Vehicles are mainly responsible for more than 80%
of total air pollution. The major pollutants released from automobiles, locomotives,
aircraft etc., include CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide.
3. Industrial emissions: - Paper and pulp factories, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants,
and steel industries, thermal power plants are the main sources of air pollution. They
add various harmful gases like CO, SO3, NO, Hydrocarbons etc., to the atmosphere.
Textile factories release cotton dust into the air.
4. Agricultural Activities: -Spraying of insecticides and weedicides also cause air
pollution. These, when inhaled create severe problems to both animals and man.
5. Wars: -Various forms of explosives used in war pollute the air by releasing poisonous
gases. This greatly disturbs the ecology of the area. Nuclear explosions pollute air by
radioactive rays. The effects of nuclear explosions on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are well-
known examples.
6. Natural Causes: -Gas emissions from active volcanoes, marsh gas, spores of fungi and
pollens are the natural causes of air pollution

Review Activity 7.1.5

A. Define the following terms

1. Air pollution

2. Carbon dioxide

B. Answer the following question

1. Describe pollutants in general and air pollutants in particular.

217
7.1.6 Water Shortage/ Scarcity
Competency: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 List problems related to water shortage and scarcity

These are words/phrases that you should try to learn in this lesson

Top Key Terms

 Water scarcity  Water conservation

Startup Questions

 Discuss about water scarcity.

 What are the problems related to water shortage and scarcity?

What is water scarcity?

Water shortage/ scarcity is a lack of sufficient water, or not having access to safe water
supplies. Water scarcity is caused by natural and human activities. Water is unequally
distributed over time and space. Much of it is wasted, polluted and unsustainably
managed. Water shortages have a great impact on human health, socio-economic
development, and the environment.

Water shortages have a direct impact on crops and livestock, which can lead to food
shortages and eventually starvation. It also generates sanitation problems by forcing
people to drink unsafe water. Lack of water cause other diseases such as trachoma (an
eye infection that can cause blindness), plague and typhus

In addition, Water scarcity has different negative impacts on rivers, lakes, and other
freshwater resources. It harms the environment in several ways including increased
salinity, nutrient pollution, and the loss of floodplains and wetlands.

218
 WhatYouCan Do Water Conservation at Home: is the practice of
using water efficiently to reduce unnecessary water
•Take shorter showers, and
avoid taking baths unless usage. Although households use much less water
you keep the water level
low. than agriculture or industry, a few changes to
•Install a low-flow shower residential water use will make a significant
head in your shower.
contribution to water conservation. People can
•Do not let the water run while
you are brushing your teeth. conserve water by changing a few everyday habits
and by using only the water that they need.

Review Activity 7.1.6

Questions based on facts

Define the following terms

A. Water scarcity B. Water conservation

Answer the following questions

1. List and describe problems related to water shortage
2. Explain the different methods of conserving water at home
for the prevention of water scarcity
Things to do
 Interview 5 households in your locality about the cause of
household water consumption problem and report your findings
to the class members.

7.1.7 Deforestation
Competencies: At the end of this lesson you will be able to:

 Explain the effects of deforestation;

219
  Value individuals and communities’ commitment to protect the
environment.
These are words/phrases that you should try to learn in this lesson

Top Key Terms

 Deforestation  Soil erosion
 Desertification  Urbanization

Startup Questions

 Define Deforestation in your own words

 Explain the effects of deforestation
 Describe the commitment of individuals/communities to protect the environment

Deforestation: refers to the decrease in forest areas. Forest areas are cleared for having
additional agricultural croplands, urbanization, or mining activities such as agricultural
croplands, urbanization, or mining activities. The causes and effects of deforestation is
briefly discussed below.

A. Causes of Deforestation
1. Expansion of Agricultural activities: -The main reasons why have to do with the
large areas require both to raise livestock and to grow food crops.

2. Constructions of infrastructures: - The construction of modern urban infrastructures

has also been driving forces that accelerate deforestation.

3. Rapid Urbanization: - The population shift that is leading people to move from rural
areas to urban areas is also contributing to deforestation.

B. Effects of deforestation
The followings are some of the effects of deforestation

220
 1. Loss of Habitat: One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of
deforestation is the loss of animal and plant species due to their loss of habitat. The
trees of the rainforest that provide shelter for some species also provide the canopy
that regulates the temperature. Deforestation results in a more drastic temperature
variation from day to night, much like a desert, which could prove fatal for many
inhabitants.
2. Increased Greenhouse Gases: -lack of trees also allows a greater amount of
greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere.
3. Depletion of Water in the atmosphere: - The trees also help control the level of
water in the atmosphere by helping to regulate the water cycle. In deforested areas,
there is less water in the air to be returned to the soil. This then causes dryer soil
and the inability to grow crops.
4. Erosion and Flooding: - Trees help the land to retain water and topsoil, which
provides the rich nutrients to sustain additional forest life. Without forests, the soil
erodes and washes away, causing farmers to move on and perpetuate the cycle. The
barren land which is left behind in the wake of these unsustainable agricultural
practices is then more susceptible to flooding, specifically in coastal regions.

To alleviate this problem individuals and communities have to be willing to sacrifice

personal enjoyment, reducing waste of resources, using environmentally friendly new
products and supporting government's adaptation strategies

Review Activity 7.1.7

A. Define the following terms

1. Deforestation
2. Desertification
B. Give short answer
1. List some of the causes and effects of deforestation.
221
 Summary

 Climate is the average weather conditions that persist over multiple decades or
longer.
 Climate change encompasses both increases and decreases in temperature as well
as shifts in precipitation, changing risks of certain types of severe weather events,
and changes to other features of the climate system
 The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons,
methane, and nitrous oxide.
 The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere. It is a layer of gas which absorbs
much of the sun’s ultraviolent radiation, preventing it from reaching the earth
 Air Pollution is the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which
are harmful to man and his environment.
 Fossil fuels, industries, agricultural activities, wars, natural causes and emissions
from vehicles are sources of air pollution.
 Air pollutants may be solid or liquid particles
 Water scarcity generates sanitation problems.
 Deforestation refers to the decrease in forest areas is greatly accelerated by human
activities.

222
 Glossary

Aerosols: are chemicals released in the Deforestation: refers to the decrease in

air in vapor form. forest areas

Air Pollution: the presence of materials Desertification: is a layer of gas which

in the air in such concentration which are absorbs much of the sun’s ultraviolent
harmful to man and his environment. radiation, preventing it from reaching the
earth
Climate: is the average weather
conditions that persist over multiple Water scarcity: is a lack of sufficient
decades or longer water, or not having access to safe water
supplies.
Climate change: is change of weather
and climatic patterns

223
Unit 7 Review Questions

I. True /False Item

Instruction: Write True if the statement is correct or False if it is incorrect for the
following statements on the space provided.

------1. Climate change does not affect human life.

-------2. Carbon dioxide, water vapor and methane are greenhouse gases.

------3. Aerosol can deplete the ozone layer.

------4. Deforestation can cause soil erosion and flooding.

------5. Waste water treatment has no role for water conservation.

II. Matching Item

III. Match the correct items in Column” B” with their explanations in “A”

A B
___1. Effect of deforestation A. Damages the air, water or soil
___2. Chlorofluorocarbon B. Removal of trees
___3.Afforestation C. Generates sanitation problem
___4.Water Scarcity D. Greenhouse gas
___5.Pollution E. Planting new trees in new area

224
II. Multiple Choice Item
Instruction: Choose the correct answer and write the letter of your choice on the
space provided.
___1. Which of the following is true about proper solid waste disposal management?
A. Recycling used materials C. Reducing carbon emission
B. Buying fuel efficient car D. Over grazing
___2. Which of the following is the effect of global warming?
A. melting ice C. change in weather pattern
B. rising sea-levels D. all are possible answers
___3 .Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
A. once used as energy source C. deplete the ozone layer
B. once used as pesticides D. contribute to fertility of soil
___4. Desertification is mainly caused by
A. ozone layer depletion C. greenhouse effect
B. deforestation D. global warming
___5.Which of the following is a natural factor responsible for climate change?
A. Oceans C. nuclear war
B. Burning of fossil fuel D. ozone layer depletion
IV. Fill in the blank Item
Fill the blank spaces with suitable words
1. _____________is the average weather conditions that persist over multiple
decades or longer.
2. The ozone layer protects us from______________________
V. Give short Answer
1. Describe the causes and effect of climate change.
2. Explain the effects and of water scarcity.

225
Checklist

Put a tick ( ) mark in each of the boxes for activities you can perform
I Can
1. Evaluate the implications of climate change on peoples’ life
and the physical environment
2 Produce report on locally available indigenous knowledge
help to protect the environment
3 Value the work of the who provide care and support to
people who participate in environmental protection

226