V – V Connections or Open Delta

It is employed —
a) When three phase is comparatively small, so that the installation does not
warrant Δ – Δ bank.
b) When one of the transformers in Δ – Δ bank fails.
c) When it is anticipated that the future load will increase to warrant the closing of
the open delta at some later time.

 If one of the transformers of the Δ – Δ bank is removed and the three phase
source is connected to the primaries, three equal three phase voltage will be
measure and the secondary at no load.
Open Delta — method of transforming three-phase power using two transformers.
Total Load carried by V-V transformers — not two-thirds of the capacity of Δ–Δ
bank, but 57.7% of it.
 When an open delta bank of two transformers delivers three-phase load whose
power factor is cos Ø, one of the units will operate at a power factor of cos (30-Ø)
while the power factor of the other unit will be (cos+Ø).
 When load pf is unity, individual pf will be equal, but 0.866.
 When load pf is 0.866, one transformer will operate at unity while the other is
0.5.
 When load pf is 0.5, one transformer will operate at 0 pf and deliver no load,
while the other one will operate at 0.866 pf and will handle the entire load
power.

Formula:
Power Delivered by T1 :
P1 = kVAt cos (30-Ø)
Power Delivered by T2 :
P2 = kVAt cos (30+Ø)
kVA load in each transformer:
kVAt = (0.577)(3 phase balanced load)
Ø = pf angle of the load.
Three-Phase Scott Tee or T-T Connections
It is used to transform power factor
a) Three-phase to three-phase
b) Three-phase to two-phase or vice verse

Three-Phase Scott Tee or T-T Connections — uses two transformers, the main transformers
whose primary and secondary windings are with the center 50% taps and teaser transformers
whose windings are provided with 86.6% taps.
V-V Connection Example:
T-T Connection Example:
Surge Arrester
Slide 1: What is a surge arrester

A surge arrester, also known as a surge protector or lightning arrester, is a device

designed to protect electrical and electronic equipment from transient voltage surges.
These surges, commonly caused by lightning strikes, power grid switching, or other
electrical disturbances, can potentially damage or degrade sensitive equipment. The
primary function of a surge arrester is to provide a low-impedance path to ground for
excess voltage, diverting it away from the connected equipment.

Slide 2: FAQs
1). What is a surge in electrical?
A surge in the electrical system is a short, quick rise within voltage that can cause an
increase in electrical current.
2). What is the difference between lightning arresters and surge arresters?
Surge arrester protects the electrical equipment from electrical surges whereas the
lightning arrester performs similar to surge arrester from the outer side of the
conductor
3). What are surge arresters made of?
Made with zinc oxide or silicon carbide
4). Where do you place a surge arrester?
This is placed in the electrical system near the electric meter.
5). Can a power surge damage your cell phone?
Yes, the surge which is induced has the capability to increase the voltage. So they can
harm connected devices

Slide 3: Characteristics of a Surge Arrester

Resealing Voltage:
The resealing voltage is a crucial electrical characteristic of surge arresters. It
represents the voltage across the arrester at which the follow current is definitively
interrupted after sparkover. Sparkover occurs when the surge voltage exceeds the
arrester's sparkover voltage, causing it to conduct and divert the surge. The resealing
voltage ensures that after the surge event, the arrester returns to its high-impedance
state, ready to respond to subsequent surges. It is a key parameter for the reliable
operation and continuous protection of the arrester.

Slide 4: Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage:

The maximum continuous operating voltage is the highest power-frequency voltage
(typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz) that the surge arrester can withstand permanently without
breaking down. This characteristic ensures that the surge arrester remains effective
and does not fail under normal operating conditions. It is a critical parameter in
determining the suitability of the surge arrester for a specific application, considering
the nominal voltage of the power system it is protecting.

Slide 5: Rated Short-Circuit Current:

The rated short-circuit current is the maximum current that the surge arrester can
safely conduct during a short-circuit event. Short circuits can generate high currents,
and surge arresters must be able to handle these currents without damage. The rated
short-circuit current is a key parameter for ensuring the surge arrester's robustness and
reliability under extreme conditions.

Slide 6: Nominal Discharge Current:

The nominal discharge current is a predetermined current level at which the surge
arrester begins to conduct and divert the surge. Commonly expressed in kiloamperes
(kA), typical values for nominal discharge current include 5 kA, 10 kA, and 20 kA.
This parameter reflects the arrester's ability to effectively respond to and handle
surges of varying magnitudes. Selecting an appropriate nominal discharge current is
essential for aligning the surge arrester with the expected surge levels in a specific
application.

Slide 7: Working Principle of Surge Arresters

Nonlinear Resistance: Surge arresters contain nonlinear resistance elements, often
made of metal oxide varistors (MOV). In normal operating conditions, these resistors
have high impedance, allowing normal voltage to pass through.

Slide 8: Detection of Voltage Surge: When there is a sudden increase in voltage,

such as during a lightning strike or a power surge, the nonlinear resistance in the surge
arrester responds by reducing its impedance. This allows the surge arrester to conduct,
diverting excess voltage away from the protected equipment.
Slide 9: Diversion of Surges to Ground: The surge arrester is connected between the
line to be protected and the ground. When the surge voltage exceeds a certain
threshold, the surge arrester effectively "shorts" the excess voltage to ground. This
prevents the voltage from reaching and damaging connected devices.

Slide 10: Absorption of Energy: As the surge is diverted, the surge arrester absorbs
and dissipates the energy associated with the transient voltage. This helps in limiting
the voltage that reaches downstream equipment.

Slide 11: Resetting Mechanism: After the surge event, surge arresters typically have
a resetting mechanism that brings the device back to its high-impedance state. This
ensures the surge arrester is ready for the next transient event.

Slide 12: How to Install: Generally, the installation of surge arresters can be done
close to an electric meter to defend the electrical system used in a residence or
building from the power surge effects which are occurring from the outside.
It protects other electrical devices that are connected to the power source, however,
they cannot provide whole protection from surges that occurs from defective wiring
otherwise the overall working of electrical appliances used in homes or in offices.

Slide 13: Applications of Surge Arrester:

Power Distribution Systems:
Protecting transformers, switchgear, and other critical components in power
distribution networks.
Safeguarding against lightning-induced and switching surges to ensure uninterrupted
power supply.

Slide 14: Electronic Equipment Protection:

Shielding residential and commercial electronic devices (computers, TVs, audio
equipment) from voltage spikes.
Preventing damage to sensitive equipment due to power grid fluctuations and
lightning strikes.

Slide 15: Telecommunication Networks:

Ensuring the integrity of communication infrastructure by protecting equipment in
data centers and communication hubs.
Guarding against voltage transients that can disrupt telecom services and damage
network components.

Slide 16: Industrial Applications:

Protecting control systems, PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), and other
industrial electronics from surges.
Enhancing the reliability of manufacturing processes by minimizing downtime caused
by electrical disturbances.

Slide 17: Renewable Energy Systems:

Safeguarding solar inverters and wind turbine electronics from voltage fluctuations
and lightning-induced surges.
Ensuring the reliability of renewable energy generation systems.

Group 1: Various Type of Transformers and their Applications

Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers: A Narrative Report
Step-Up Transformer
As the name states that, the secondary voltage is stepped up with a ratio compared to the
primary voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the number of windings in the secondary
than the primary windings as shown in the figure. In a power plant, a step-up transformer is used
as a connecting transformer of the generator to the grid.
A step-up transformer is a type of transformer that converts the low voltage (LV) and
high current from the primary side of the transformer to the high voltage (HV) and low current
value on the secondary side of the transformer.

Step-Down Transformer
It used to step down the voltage level from lower to higher level at the secondary side as
shown below so that it is called a step-down transformer. The winding turns more on the primary
side than the secondary side.
In distribution networks, the step-down transformer is commonly used to convert the high
grid voltage to low voltage that can be used for home appliances.
Iron Core Type and Shell Type Transformer
Core Type Transformer
 A core type transformer is the one in which the primary and secondary windings encircle
the core of the transformer.
 So, in this type of transformer, the windings are surrounding the core. That is why, they
are called as core type transformer. The part where the winding is done is also known
as the limb. Both the windings are mounted on separate limbs of the core. As you can see,
there is only single flux path in the circuit.

Shell Type Transformer

 A shell type transformer is the one in which the core of the transformer encircles the
windings.
 In this type of transformer, the core is surrounding the primary and secondary windings.
That is why, they are called as shell type transformer. Both the windings are wound on
a central limb of the core. As you can see, there is two flux paths in the circuit. The
 central limb carries the whole magnetic flux; and the other two side limbs carry half of
the flux.

Single Phase and Three Phase Transformer

What is a Single-Phase Transformer?
A type of transformer which consists of only one pair of the transformer coils or
windings, i.e., one primary winding and one secondary winding, and is used for transforming the
single-phase alternating voltage to the desired value, is known as single-phase transformer.
What is a Three-Phase Transformer?
A transformer which consists of three-pairs of transformer windings placed in a three-
section iron core, where each section contains a pair of a primary winding and a secondary
winding, and is used to step-up or step-down the three-phase alternating voltage is known as
a three-phase transformer.
Winding Configuration
For Single Phase: There is only one primary and one secondary winding, thus no specific
winding configuration exist in case of a single-phase transformer.
For Three Phase: Based on the connection of three primary windings and three secondary
windings, the following winding configurations are defined for the three-phase transformers.
Star-Star (Y-Y) Connection
Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) Connection
Star-Delta (Y-Δ) Connection
Delta-Star (Δ-Y) Connection
Applications
For single-phase:
Single-phase transformers are used for small loads such as to supply single-domestic loads like
pumps and lightings, etc., used in various electronic devices like in TVs, mobile chargers, etc. for
voltage regulation, in home inverters for stepping up voltage, etc.
For three-phase:
Three-phase transformers are used for supplying high power single-phase as well as three-phase
loads as induction motors, etc. Also used in power systems for power transmission and
distribution.

Two Winding Transformer and Autotransformer

Two Winding Transformer

The transformers based on windings like two winding transformer includes two separate
windings for every phase such as the primary & secondary. Here, the primary winding can be
supplied through the input of AC whereas the secondary can be connected through the load.
These two windings are isolated electrically but coupled magnetically.

The induced EMF within the secondary winding is because of the varying magnetic flux that can
be caused by the changing current within the primary winding, which is also called as mutual
induction. So, the o/p voltage is simply because of the induction. This voltage mainly depends on
the windings ratio and it can raise or lessen the input voltage.
Autotransformer

In principal and in general construction, the AUTOTRANSFORMER does not differ from
the conventional two winding transformer but it does differ in it the way in which the primary
and secondary are interconnected

In conventional transformer the primary and secondary windings are completely insulated from
each other but magnetically linked by a common core. In an autotransformer the two windings,
primary and secondary are both electrically and magnetically interconnected in fact a part of
the single continuous windings is common both primary and secondary

Instrument Transformer
Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of electrical quantities
i.e. voltage, current, power, energy, power factor, frequency. Instrument transformers are also
used with protective relays for protection of power system.

Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step down the AC System voltage and
current. The voltage and current level of power system is very high. It is very difficult and costly
to design the measuring instruments for measurement of such high level voltage and current.
Generally measuring instruments are designed for 5 A and 110 V.

Types of Current Transformer

 Current Transformer

The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed

to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the current
being measured in its primary. Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much
lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current
flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a
basic current transformer is slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer.

 Voltage Transformer
Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a parallel-
connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present a negligible load to
the supply being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable
accurate secondary connected metering.

Difference between Current Transformer and Voltage Transformer

 Current Transformer Voltage Transformer

Air
Core

Transformer
Air core transformers are transformers that have air in their core, unlike other
transformers that have some or the other sort of metal around which wires are wound. These are
primary transformers that are used in various types of electronic radio and communication
devices. The best usage is in small electronic applications like radio transmission. Air-core
transformers are designed to transfer radio-frequency currents, the currents used for radio
transmission.
How do Air Core Transformers work?
The basic functioning and working of an air core transformer is based on the induction
between two magnetically linked coils or windings – the primary and the secondary. The coils
are generally constructed from insulated copper wire, which are wound on a non-magnetizing
surface like a cardboard or plastic tube, because air core transformers do not contain any
magnetic cores.
This is why unlike other transformers that create flux by utilizing their cores, air core
transformers create flux using their windings and the air passing through them. Such mechanism
results in zero dissipation of signal quality, zero distortion, and zero noise during operation. As a
result, there is also no loss in terms of hysteresis and eddy currents.
Types of Air Core Transformers
Cylindrical air core transformers – These are transformers having insulated copper wires
wound on a cylindrical hollow non-metallic structure, with the primary copper coils being tapped
at certain places, and the secondary winding being wound across the taps.
Toroidal air core transformers – These are transformers having insulated copper wires wound
around a non-metallic ring-shaped structure, with each coil winding utilized separately. This
ensures minimal effect of stray couplings, and a benefit for applications consisting of high
frequencies.
Advantages of Air Core Transformer
 No signal quality dissipation
 No distortion
 Noise free operation
 No losses of hysteresis and eddy currents
 Light in weight due to the absence of a core
Disadvantages of Air Core Transformer
Low efficiency: Air core transformers have lower efficiency compared to magnetic core
transformers, as more of the magnetic field generated by the primary coil is lost to the
surroundings. This is because air has a lower permeability than most magnetic core materials,
and so less of the magnetic field is contained within the coils.
Limited power handling: Air core transformers are limited in the amount of power they can
handle. This is because air has a low dielectric strength, which means that it cannot withstand
high voltages. As a result, air core transformers are typically used for low-power applications.
Poor coupling: Air core transformers have poor coupling between the primary and secondary
coils. This is because there is no magnetic core to concentrate the magnetic field and improve the
coupling. As a result, air core transformers have lower voltage and power transfer capabilities
compared to other types of transformers.
Large size and weight: Air core transformers are typically larger and heavier than other types of
transformers with similar power ratings. This is because air has a low magnetic permeability, so
more turns of wire are required to achieve the same level of magnetic coupling. This results in
larger and heavier coils, which can be inconvenient in some applications.
Power Transformer
 Power transformers are electrical instruments used in transmitting electrical power from
one circuit to another without changing the frequency.
 They are used in transmitting electrical power between generators and distribution
primary circuits.
 Since they have no rotating or moving parts, these instruments are considered static
devices. These instruments work based on an alternating current (AC) electrical
system.
 A power transformer is a mere classification of transformers with a voltage range
varying between 33 kV-400 kV and a rating above 200 MVA.
 The voltage ratings of power transformers available in the market include 400 kV, 200
kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, and 33 kV. The other types of transformers include distribution (230
V-11kV) and instrument transformers.

Why are used?

 To reduce power loss in transmission lines.
By using a step-up transformer at the generating station, the voltage level can be
increased, and the current can be reduced, which reduces the line losses and
improves the power factor. Similarly, at the receiving end, a step-down transformer can
be used to lower the voltage level to a suitable value for distribution and consumption.
  To provide galvanic isolation between circuits.
Power transformers can provide electrical isolation between two or more circuits that
have different potentials or frequencies. This can prevent short circuits, ground
faults, interference, and damage to sensitive equipment.

 To match the load impedance with the source impedance.

Power transformers can adjust the voltage and current levels of a circuit to match the
load impedance with the source impedance. This can improve the power transfer and
efficiency of the circuit.

 To provide multiple voltage levels for different applications.

Power transformers can provide different voltage levels for various purposes, such as
lighting, heating, cooling, communication, etc

Applications
 Power generation - used to step up the voltage of the electricity generated by power
plants before it is sent to the grid. This reduces the current and the line losses during
transmission.
 Power transmission - used to step up or step down the voltage at different points of the
transmission network for efficient power delivery. They also provide galvanic isolation
and impedance matching between different circuits.

 Power distribution - used to step down the voltage for distribution to various consumers.
They also provide multiple voltage levels for different applications.

 Lighting - used to provide low voltage and high currents for lighting systems.

 Audio systems - used to isolate and amplify audio signals in speakers, amplifiers,
microphones, etc.

 Electronic equipment - used to provide low voltage and regulated power supply for
electronic devices.

Distribution Transformer
A distribution transformer or service transformer is a transformer that provides the final
voltage transformation in the electric power distribution system, stepping down the voltage used
in the distribution lines to the level used by the customer.
Applications:
 Distribution transformers are normally located at a service drop, where wires run from a
utility pole or underground power lines to a customer's premises. They are often used for
 the power supply of facilities outside settlements, such as isolated houses, farmyards or
pumping stations at voltages below 30 kV.
 Another application is the power supply of the overhead wire of railways electrified with
AC. In this case single phase distribution transformers are used.
 Distribution transformers are also found in the power collection networks of wind farms,
where they step up power from each wind turbine to connect to a substation that may be
several miles (kilometres) distant.

Distribution transformers are classified into different categories based on factors such as:
1. Mounting Location
 Pole-mounted
 Pad-mounted
2. Types of Insulation
 Liquid-immersed
 Dry-type
3. Number of Phases
 Single-phase
 Three-phase
4. Voltage Class
Distribution transformers are used where lower voltages are needed. Distribution
transformers’ ratings range from 11kV, 6.6kV, 3.3kV, 440v, and 230 volts.

Oil Cooled and Dry Type Transformer

Oil-cooled transformers use mineral oil to keep the transformer cool. The oil absorbs
the heat generated by the transformer and then transfers it to radiators, which are attached to the
tank of the transformer. The radiators help to dissipate the heat into the air.
There are two main types of oil-cooled transformers:
 ONAN (Oil Natural Air Natural) transformer - uses natural convection to cool the oil.
This means that the oil circulates around the transformer and the radiators without the
help of fans
 ONAF (Oil Natural Air Forced) transformer - uses mineral oil to keep the transformer
cool. The oil absorbs the heat generated by the transformer and then transfers it to
radiators, which are attached to the tank of the transformer. The radiators help to dissipate
the heat into the air.
Applications of Oil Cooled Transformer
  Power stations and Substations
 Solar and Wind Power Plants
 Automobile equipment
 Metal processing equipment
 Power Generation and Transmission: Oil-cooled transformers play a crucial role in
power generation and transmission systems. They are used to step up or step-down
voltages to match the requirements of different power generation and transmission
equipment.

Pros and Cons of Oil Cooled Transformer

PROS CONS
 Efficient Cooling  Disposal Costs (maintenance)
 High Dielectric Strength  Environmental Concerns

Dry-type transformer is a transformer that uses air or an inert gas as a cooling medium instead
of liquid oil. This makes them less flammable and environmentally friendly than oil-cooled
transformers. Dry-type transformers are also typically smaller and lighter than oil-cooled
transformers, making them easier to install and transport.
Types of Dry Type Transformer
 Ventilated transformer – has fans that help to circulate air around the windings. This
makes them more effective at dissipating heat than non-ventilated transformers.
 Non-ventilated transformer – cooled by natural convection. This means that they do not
have any fans or other cooling devices.
 Cast-resin transformer – has windings that are encapsulated in a cast-resin material.
This makes them more resistant to moisture, contamination, and fire.
Applications of Dry Type Transformer
 Chemical, Oil and, Gas Industry
 Environmental Sensitive Areas
 Indoor and Underground Substations
 Residential applications: Dry-type transformers are becoming increasingly popular for
residential applications because they are safe and environmentally friendly. They are used
to power homes and appliances, as well as to provide backup power in case of an outage.
Pros and Cons of Dry Type Transformer
PROS CONS
 Efficient Cooling  Disposal Costs (maintenance)
 High Dielectric Strength  Environmental Concerns

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