Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

CHAPTER 12. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

NOTES

Biotechnology has many applications such as biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically

modified crops, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
Biotechnology has 3 critical research areas:
a. Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organism usually a microbe or enzyme.
b. Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
c. Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.

APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

3 options for increasing food production:

a. Agro-chemical based agriculture: It uses fertilizers & pesticides. Expensive. Causes environmental
pollution.
b. Organic agriculture: Expensive.
c. Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture: It uses genetically modified crops. Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMO) are the plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes are altered by manipulation.
Advantages of genetic modification in plants:
➢ It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat etc.).
➢ Pest-resistant crops reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
➢ It reduces post-harvest losses.
➢ It increases efficiency of mineral usage by plants (it prevents early exhaustion of soil fertility).
➢ It enhances nutritional value of food. E.g. Golden rice (Vitamin A enriched rice).
➢ To create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources (starches, fuels, pharmaceuticals etc.) to
industries.
Pest Resistant Plants
• They act as bio-pesticide.
• It reduces the need for insecticides.
• E.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soyabean etc.

A. Bt Cotton:
➢ Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins that kill insects like coleopterans (beetles), lepidopterans
(tobacco budworm, armyworm) & dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).
➢ B. thuringiensis forms an insecticidal protein (Bt toxin) crystal during a phase of their growth. It does not
kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive protoxins.
➢ When an insect ingests the toxin, it becomes active due to alkaline pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
Toxin binds to surface of mid-gut epithelial cells creating pores. It causes cell swelling and lysis and death
of the insect.
➢ Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis and incorporated into crop plants such as cotton.
➢ Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. They are coded by cry genes. E.g. proteins encoded
by cryIAc & cryIIAb genes control cotton bollworms. Protein of cryIAb gene controls corn borer.

B. Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:

➢ A nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects the roots of tobacco plants causing a reduction in yield.
➢ It can be prevented by RNA interference (RNAi) strategy.
➢ RNAi is a method of cellular defense in all eukaryotic organisms. It prevents translation of a specific mRNA
(silencing) due to a complementary dsRNA molecule.
➢ The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection by RNA viruses or mobile genetic elements
(transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
➢ Isolate Nematode-specific genes (DNA). It is introduced into host plant using Agrobacterium vectors. It
produces both sense & anti-sense RNA in host cells. These RNAs are complementary. So they form double
stranded (ds) RNA. It initiates RNAi and silences the specific mRNA of nematode. Thus the parasite cannot
survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

➢ Recombinant DNA technology helps for mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
➢ Products from non-human sources cause unwanted immunological responses. But recombinant therapeutics
does not have such problems.
➢ At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved. Of these, 12 are being marketed in India.
A. Genetically Engineered Insulin
➢ Insulin is used to manage adult-onset diabetes.
➢ Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle & pigs) causes allergy or other types of reactions to the foreign
protein.
➢ Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using bacteria.
➢ Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chain A & chain B) that are linked by disulphide bridges.
➢ In mammals, insulin is synthesized as a pro-hormone (pro-insulin). It is processed to become mature and
functional hormone.

➢ The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called C peptide. This is removed during maturation into insulin.
➢ In 1983, Eli Lilly (an American company) prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A & B chains of
human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains A & B were
combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin (Humulin).
2. Gene Therapy
➢ It is a method to correct a gene defect in a child/embryo.
➢ Here, genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a hereditary disease. It compensates for the
non-functional gene.
➢ First clinical gene therapy (1990) was given to a 4-year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
➢ This is caused due to the deletion of a gene of adenosine deaminase (an enzyme for the functioning of
immune system). It can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or by enzyme replacement
therapy (injection of ADA). But these are not completely curative.
➢ Gene therapy for ADA deficiency: Collect lymphocytes from the patient’s blood and grow in a culture →
Introduce a functional ADA cDNA into lymphocytes (using a retroviral vector) → They are returned to the
patient.
➢ This should be periodically repeated as lymphocytes are not immortal.
➢ If the ADA gene from marrow cells is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be a permanent
cure.
3. Molecular Diagnosis
➢ Conventional methods (serum & urine analysis) are not suitable for early diagnosis of diseases.
➢ It is possible by techniques such as Recombinant DNA technology, PCR & ELISA.
(i) PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):
➢ Presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only based on symptoms. By this time, the concentration of
pathogen is already very high in the body.
➢ However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of their nucleic acid
by PCR.
Uses of PCR:
• To detect HIV in suspected patients.
• To detect gene mutations in suspected cancer patients.
• To identify many other genetic disorders.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

RDT + PCR + Autoradiography- A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe)
is hybridized to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells. It is detected by autoradiography. The clone
having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film, because the probe will not have complementarity
with mutated gene.
(ii) ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay):
➢ It is based on antigen-antibody interaction.
➢ Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by
detecting the antibodies synthesized against the pathogen.
Stem Cells Technology
Introduction
Stem Cells are undifferentiated cells which are able to grow in any type of tissue with specialized function.
Stem cells are involved in development, growth and repair in multicellular organisms. Stem cells are used to
treat many diseases such as type-I diabetes, heart diseases, cancer, Spinal injuries, arthritis, muscular dystrophy,
Alzheimer. It can also be used to make new organs like heart, liver, kidneys, skin, even to produce transgenic
animals.
Sources of Stem Cells
Stem cells can be obtained from inner cell mass of embryos, from bone marrow, umbilical cord and amniotic
fluid.

Categories of stem cells

1. Embryonic stem cells: They easy embryo cells are removed and cultured in laboratory.
2. Tissue stem cells: Bone marrow stem cells can be used to produce bone or cardiac muscle cells.
3. Reprogrammed stem cells: Adult special cells are reprogrammed to act as embryonic cells with the help
of genetic engineering. Organs for transplantation are developed by this technique.
➢ Embryonic stem cells have the ability to differentiate into any at the three germ layers-ectoderm, mesoderm
or endoderm.
➢ These cells are isolated from inner cells mass of the blastocyst, 4 to 5 days after invitro fertilisation of an
egg.
➢ The Cells are cultured and allow to grow into cells lines.
➢ The transgenic animals can be produced by stem cell technology the stem cells are isolated from the embryo
of selected animal and the desired gene is inserted into these cells. Then, these cells are incorporated in the
embryo of host. The embryo is now implanted into the uterus of host animal it to grow normally.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
➢ These are the animals whose genome has been altered by introduction of a foreign gene by manipulation.
➢ E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
➢ Over 95% of the transgenic animals are mice.
Benefits of transgenic animals:
• To study regulation of genes and their action on normal physiology & development: E.g. Study
of insulin-like growth factor. Genes (from other species) that alter formation of this factor are
introduced and the biological effects are studied. This gives information about biological role of the
factor.
• To study the contribution of genes in the development of a disease and thereby new
treatments: E.g. transgenic models for human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid
arthritis & Alzheimer’s.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

• Biological products: Some medicines contain expensive biological products. Transgenic animals can
be used to produce biological products by introducing genes which codes for a particular product.
• They are used to treat diseases such as emphysema, phenylketonuria (PKU), cystic fibrosis etc.
E.g. human protein ( -1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
• In 1997, Rosie (first transgenic cow) produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per litre). It
contains human -lactalbumin. It is nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than natural
cow-milk.
• Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are used to test the safety of the polio vaccine. If it is reliable,
they can replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of vaccines.
• Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing): Some transgenic animals carry genes which make them
more sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They are exposed to the toxic substances
and the effects studied. It gives immediate results.
ETHICAL ISSUES
➢ Problem of unpredictable results: Genetic modification may cause unpredictable results.
Indian Government has set up organizations like GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) to
make decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety of GM-organisms for public services.
➢ Bio-piracy: It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organizations without
proper authorization from the countries and people concerned. Certain companies have got patents for
products and technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants etc. that have been identified,
developed and used by farmers and indigenous people of a country. E.g. Basmati rice, herbal medicines
(turmeric, neem etc.).
Patent
Patent is a set of exclusive right granted by a state (National government) to an inventor or their assignee for
a limited period of time to prevent others from commercial use of his invention. Biopatents are granted for
biological entities and for products derived from them.
Criteria of patents
➢ Novelty: It implies that the innovation must be new.
➢ Non-obviousness: It implies that it may not be documented but is otherwise well-known.
➢ Utility: The discovered fact or product should be of a particular use for humans.
Controversies in India regarding patent and biopiracy
Turmeric: In 1995, the US patent office granted a patent to the University of Mississippi medical centre for
‘Use of Turmeric in wound healing’. Dr. R.A. Mashelkar, an Indian scientist challenged the patent. It was
established that the use of turmeric as healing agent was well-known in India for centuries and the patent
was revoked.
Neem: The European Patent office, Munich granted a patent to the firm of W.R. grace & Co. for ‘Fungicidal
uses of neem oil’. The patent had been granted on an extraction of oil technique but not on the neem tree
itself. In 1996, Vandana Shiva and Ajay Phadke who had rereared neem in India, challenged the patent. Legal
action was followed by India Government. Finally, the patent was revoked in 2005.
Basmati Rice: Basmati Rice is a variety of rice which is distinct for its unique aroma and flavour. In India,
27 varieties of basmati are grown. In September 1997, a Texas company patented Basmati rice lines and grains
through the US patent and trademark office. This allowed the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati.
This was actually derived from Indian farmer’s varieties. Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf
varieties and claimed as a novelty. Other people selling Basmati rice could be restricted by patent. This act
caused diplomatic crisis between India and US. Later due to revised decision by the United State patent office,
the Texas company lost most of the claims of the patent. This was a case of biopiracy.
Generally, industrialized nations are poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge. The developing and
underdeveloped world have rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to bio-resources.
It has to develop laws to prevent unauthorized exploitation of bio-resources and traditional knowledge.
Indian Parliament has cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill that has considered patent
terms emergency provisions and research and development initiative.
NCERT SOLUTIONS
1. Crystals of Bt toxin produced by some bacteria do not kill the bacteria themselves because –
(a)bacteria are resistant to the toxin
(b)toxin is immature;
(c)toxin is inactive;

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

(d)bacteria encloses toxin in a special sac.

Ans. (c) Toxin is inactive.

2. What are transgenic bacteria? Illustrate using any one example.

Ans. Bacteria carrying foreign gene are called transgenic bacteria. For example, two DNA sequences (A and B
chains of human insulin) were introduced into the plasmid of bacteria E.coli. The transgenic bacteria start
producing insulin chains.

3. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of production of genetically modified crops.
Ans.

4.What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produce it. How has man exploited this protein to his
benefit?
Ans. Cry proteins are protein responsible for killing lepidopteran insect and their larvae (also called Bt toxin).
It is secreted by Bacillus thuringienesis. Man exploited gene encoding this toxin, by transferring it into cotton
genome with the help of Agrobacterium TDN A as vector.

5.What is gene therapy? Illustrate using the example of adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency.
Ans. Gene therapy is correction of malfunctioning / gene by repairing or adding correct copy. ADA (adenosine
deaminase deficiency) is a very rare genetic disorder due to deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase. The
enzyme is crucial for the immune system to functions. It can be treated by gene therapy. This gene is transfected
into early embryonic cells of bone marrow for permanent use.

6. Diagrammatically represent the experimental steps in cloning and expressing an human gene (say the
gene for growth hormone) into a bacterium like E. coli ?
Ans.

Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone

Class XII Subject: Biology Chapter 12: Biotechnology and Its Applications

7. Can you suggest a method to remove oil (hydrocarbon) from seeds based on your understanding of
rDNA technology and chemistry of oil?
Ans. The genes for the formation of oil in the seed should be identified. The appropriate genes should be
removed with the help of restriction endonucleases. Such DNA should then be treated with DNA ligases to
make seal DNA at the broken ends. These cells when grown aseptically on nutrient medium will differentiate
into a new plant whose seeds will not have oil in them.

8. Find out from internet what is golden rice.

Ans. Golden rice is transgenic rice having gene coding
for vitamin A synthesis enzyme. Golden rice was developed by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, rich in
vitamin A (beta carotene). The rice grains are golden yellow in colour due to colour it gets from the beta
carotene.

9. Does our blood have proteases and nucleases?

Ans. No, blood does not have protease and nuclease. If it would have been there blood and cell would have
been digested, some protease do exist in inactive form.

10. Consult internet and find out how to make orally active & protein pharmaceutical. What is the major
problem to be encountered?
Ans. Orally active protein product that is successfully manufactured is vaccines for preventions of infectious
diseases such as hepatitis B, herpes, influenza, etc. Gene for antigen are isolated from bacteria and grown along
with cut leaf portions of potato plant in antibiotic medium – followed by callus formation and
recombinant/transgenic potato are obtained which contain those vaccines.
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Shayar Singh, PGT – Biology. Kendriya Vidyalaya, Khargone