IGCSE

BIOLOGY 0610

REVISION CAPSULE
 Content overview

1 Characteristics and classification of living organisms 1

2 Organisation of the organism 2
3 Movement into and out of cells 3
4 Biological molecules 4
5 Enzymes 4
6 Plant nutrition 4
7 Human nutrition 5
8 Transport in plants 6
9 Transport in animals 7
10 Diseases and immunity 9
11 Gas exchange in humans 9
12 Respiration 10
13 Excretion in humans 10
14 Coordination and response 10
15 Drugs 12
16 Reproduction 12
17 Inheritance 15
18 Variation and selection 16
19 Organisms and their environment 17
20 Human influences on ecosystems 17
21 Biotechnology and genetic modification 19
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Unit. 1, Characteristics and classification of living organisms

➢ Movement - Action by an organism causing a change of position

➢ Respiration - Chemical reactions that break down nutrient to release energy
➢ Sensitivity - Ability to sense stimuli and to make responses
➢ Growth - Permanent increase in size and mass
➢ Reproduction - Make more of the same kind of organism
➢ Excretion - Removal of toxic materials of metabolism
➢ Nutrition - Taking in of materials for energy, growth and development
➢ Species - Group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile offspring
➢ Binomial system - Starting with the genus (capital letter) and species (lower-case letter)
typed in italics. E.g. Homo sapiens
➢ Traditional biological classification systems based on - Physical features of species (such
as colour, shape, size)
➢ Organisms were classified - Using morphology and anatomy
➢ DNA sequencing – The sequence of bases in DNA of two species are used, base
sequences DNA genes that are more similar mean that organisms are more closely
related

Unit.2, Organisation of the organism

➢ Features of plants - Multicellular, contain a nucleus, chloroplasts and cellulose cell walls
➢ Vertebrates – Have back bone
➢ Mammals – Fur or hair, placenta, mammary gland, external ear (pinna)
➢ Birds – Feathers, hard shell egg
➢ Reptiles – Dry, scaly skin, rubbery shell egg
➢ Amphibians – Moist skin, live in land and water, cold blooded
➢ Fish – Scaly skin, gills
➢ Invertebrates - Arthropods - jointed legs
➢ Myriapods – Many segments, each have 1 pair of jointed legs, eg. Centipede, millipede
➢ Insects – 3 body parts, 3 pairs of jointed legs, 2 pairs of wings, eg. Butterfly
➢ Arachinds – 2 body parts, 4 pairs of jointed legs, eg. Spider
➢ Crustaceans – More than 4 pairs of jointed legs, exoskeleton, eg. crab
➢ Fungus – Unicellular, cell wall (chitin instead of cellulose), cell membrane, mitochondria,
ribosome, nucleus
➢ Prokaryotes (bacteria) - Unicellular, cell wall, cell membrane (not made of cellulose),
cytoplasm, ribosome, no nucleus or mitochondria, plasmid (extra cellular DNA),
flagellum (movement)
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➢ Ferns - Leaves called fronds, do not produce flowers, reproduce by spores

➢ Flowering plants- Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds, divided into two
➢ Monocotyledons - Parallel leaf veins, petals in multiples of 3, fibrous root, one cotyledon
➢ Dicotyledons - Web-like veins, petals in multiples of 4 or 5, tap root, two cotyledons
➢ Virus - Genetic material (RNA or DNA), protein coat
➢ Plants – Multicellular, nucleus with a distinct membrane, cell wall (cellulose), cell
membrane, chloroplasts, ribosome, mitochondria
➢ Animals – Multicellular, nucleus, no cell walls or chloroplasts, ribosome, mitochondria,
➢ Nucleus – Contain genetic materials, controlling center of the cell, storage of DNA
➢ Cytoplasm – Gel like, support internal cell structure, site of chemical reactions
➢ Cell membrane – Hold the cell, controls the substance in and out of the cell
➢ Cell wall – supports the cell, resists turgor pressure, prevents bursting, protect plant cell
➢ Chloroplasts (contains chlorophyll) – absorb light, photosynthesis in plant
➢ Ribosomes – Protein synthesis
➢ Mitochondria – Aerobic respiration, release energy (power house of the cell)
➢ Vacuole (contains cell saps) – Stores water, support and shape of the cell
➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum and Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum, transport materials
➢ Specialised Cells - Ciliated cell – Found in trachea and bronchi, movement of mucus
➢ Nerve cell – Conduction of impulses
➢ Sperm cells – Head contain haploid nucleus (contains single set of chromosomes),
acrosome (contain enzymes digests jelly coat of egg), mid piece contain mitochondria
(releases energy), flagellum (swimming)
➢ Egg cell – More cytoplasm (nutrients), haploid nucleus (genetic materials), jelly coat
➢ Red blood cell – Biconcave disc shape (increase surface area for carry oxygen), no
nucleus (increase space for carry oxygen)
➢ Root hair cell – Thin, increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals, no
chloroplast
➢ Xylem cell – Conduct water and minerals
➢ Xylem vessels adaptations – Thick cell wall (withstanding hydrostatic pressure, support),
walls are impermeable (waterproofing), wide (transport large volumes of water)
➢ Phloem cell – Translocate sucrose and amino acids
➢ Palisade mesophyll – Column shaped cell, more chloroplast (maximum absorption of
sunlight)
Image size
➢ Magnification =
Actual size
Image size
➢ Actual size =
Magnification
Magnification
➢ Image size =
Actual size
➢ mm to µm = x1000
➢ µm to mm = ÷1000
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Total
➢ Calculate the average (mean) =
Number of terms
Obtained value
➢ Calculate the percentage = x 100
Total value
Final value − Initial
➢ Calculate the percentage difference (increase or decrease) = x 100
Initial value

Unit.3, Movement into and out of cells

➢ Diffusion - Movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration,

move down a concentration gradient, random movement
➢ Examples of Diffusion – Absorption of glucose, amino acid in small intestine, oxygen and
carbon dioxide exchange in mesophyll cell in leaf, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
in alveoli of lungs
➢ Factors that Influence Diffusion - Surface area, Distance, Temperature, Concentration
Gradient
➢ Osmosis – Movement of water molecules from high water potential to low water
potential across a partially permeable membrane
➢ Osmosis process - Water entering the cell by osmosis makes the cell rigid and firm,
to provide support and strength for the plant, cell wall prevents the cell from bursting, If
plants do not receive enough water the plant wilts
➢ When plant cells in dilute solution - Water molecules will move in to the plant cells by
osmosis, the turgor pressure in the cells which makes them turgid
➢ When plant cells in a concentrated solution - Water molecules will move out of the plant
cells by osmosis, making them flaccid, plasmolysed (cell membrane has pulled away
from the cell wall)
➢ If an animal cell in a strong sugar solution - It will lose water by osmosis and
become shrink
➢ If an animal cell in distilled water - It will gain water by osmosis and it bursts (no cell wall
to create turgor pressure)
➢ Active transport - Movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from respiration
Eg. uptake of glucose by villi of the small intestine, by kidney tubules in the nephron,
uptake of ions from soil water by root hair cells in plants
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Unit.4, Biological molecules

➢ Carbohydrates (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) - Glucose (monosaccharide), maltose,
lactose (disaccharide), starch, glycogen or cellulose (polysaccharide), provide energy
➢ Fats (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) (lipids) - Fatty acid and glycerol, provide energy
➢ Proteins (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) - Amino acids, for growth, making
new cells, replacement of tissues
➢ DNA functions - Store of genetic information, transfer of information to daughter cells
➢ Test for reducing sugar - Benedict's solution + food sample + Heat → blue to orange or
brick red
➢ Test for starch - Iodine solution + food sample → brown to blue-black
➢ Test for protein - Biuret solution + food sample → blue to violet or purple
➢ Test for lipids - Ethanol + Food sample+ water → cloudy emulsion
➢ Test for vitamin C - DCPIP solution + food sample → blue colour of the dye disappearing
➢ DNA bases - Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T), Cytosine always pairs with
Guanine (C-G)

Unit.5, Enzymes

➢ Enzymes – Biological catalysts that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction, all enzymes
are proteins, enzymes are specific to one particular substrate, as the active site of the
enzyme, enzymes work fastest at optimum temperature (37⁰C), heating to high
temperatures enzyme denature, optimum pH for enzymes is 7 but pepsin (pH2)

Unit.6, Plant nutrition

➢ Photosynthesis - 6CO2+ 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
➢ Use of Carbohydrates – Starch (energy store), cellulose (build cell walls), glucose
(respiration to provide energy), sucrose (transport in the phloem), nectar (attract insects
for pollination)
➢ Nitrate – for making amino acids (protein), magnesium – for making chlorophyll
➢ Nitrate deficiency – stunted growth, magnesium deficiency – yellowing of leaves
➢ Pathway of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to chloroplasts by diffusion:
Atmosphere → air spaces around spongy mesophyll tissue → leaf mesophyll cells →
chloroplast
➢ Chloroplasts – Absorb sun light, Cuticle – protection, prevent transpiration
➢ Guard cells – Open and close stomata, Stomata – carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange,
➢ Upper epidermis – Thin, transparent, allow more light to mesophyll layers
➢ lower epidermis – Contain guard cell, stomata
➢ Palisade mesophyll – More chloroplast, maximum photosynthesis
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➢ Spongy mesophyll – More air space, allow diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen
➢ Vascular bundles - Xylem and phloem

Unit.7, Human nutrition

➢ Carbohydrates – Rice, bread – provide energy

➢ Proteins – Meat, fish - growth, repair
➢ Lipids – Oils, butter - energy, insulation
➢ Vitamins – Fruits, vegetables - prevent diseases
➢ Minerals - Fruits, vegetables - maintain health
➢ Fibre – Whole grains, vegetables - bowl movements
➢ Water – Chemical reactions
➢ Vitamin C – For skin, gum – deficiency causes scurvy
➢ Vitamin D – For bones and teeth - deficiency causes rickets
➢ Calcium - Strengthening bones and teeth, needed for vitamin D function, blood clotting,
for muscle contraction, for nerve impulse conduction, deficiency causes osteoporosis
➢ Iron – For making haemoglobin - deficiency causes anemia
➢ Symptoms of marasmus - Protein deficiency disease, lack of growth, weight loss,
diarrhoea, vomiting, fatigue, muscle wasting, prone to disease
➢ Symptoms of kwashiorkor - Protein deficiency disease, swelling of body parts, weight
loss, diarrhoea, muscle wasting
➢ Ingestion - Taking of substances,
➢ Mechanical digestion - Breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical
reactions, help to increase the surface area of food
➢ Eg. chewing by teeth, churning action of the stomach and the emulsification of
fats by bile in the duodenum
➢ Chemical digestion - Breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble
molecules by enzymes,
➢ Absorption - Movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood,
➢ Assimilation - Digested food molecules into the cells for energy and becoming part of
the cells,
➢ Egestion - Passing out of undigested food
➢ Mouth – Mechanical digestion by teeth, chemical digestion by amylase enzyme
➢ Stomach - Mechanical digestion by churning, chemical digestion by pepsin enzyme
➢ HCL in stomach – Kill bacteria in food, give acidic medium for protease enzyme
➢ Small intestine – Duodenum - complete digestion, Ileum – absorption of digested food
by villi, most absorption of water (around 80%) happens in the small intestine
➢ Large intestine – Water absorption, store undigested food
➢ Pancreas – Produce protease (trypsin), lipase and amylase
➢ Liver – Produce bile ( to emulsify fats), deamination, production of urea
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➢ Gall bladder – Store bile

➢ Types of teeth - Incisors - chisel-shaped for cutting,
➢ Canines - Pointed for tearing,
➢ Premolars and molars - Larger, flat surfaces for chewing and grinding up food
➢ Structure of tooth – Enamel, dentine, pulp
➢ Tooth decay - Food remains on teeth, bacteria breakdown sugars (respiration), acid is
produced, acid dissolves enamel and dentine, decay reaches nerve endings leading to
pain
➢ Amylases - Produced by mouth, pancreas, digest starch into maltose
➢ Pepsin (Proteases) – Produced by stomach, break down proteins into amino acids
➢ Trypsin (Proteases) – Produced by pancreas, break down proteins into amino acids
➢ Lipase - Produced by pancreas, digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
➢ Maltase - Produced by pancreas, digest maltose into glucose
➢ Lactase - Produced by pancreas, digest lactose into glucose
➢ Role of bile in the digestion of fats – Emulsification, increased surface area of fats for
lipase, provide suitable pH for lipase, speeds up digestion of fats
➢ Villi - Increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing absorption to take place faster and
more efficiently.
➢ Lacteal – Found in the centre of the villus (small intestine), fat absorption and transport
into lymphatic vessels

Unit.8, Transport in plants

➢ Xylem vessels – Transport water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves
➢ Phloem vessels – Transport food materials (mainly sucrose and amino acids)
➢ Source - Food where it’s made, sink - food where it’s stored or used
➢ Source – Sucrose, amino acids are produced and taken from storage in plants (a region
of production), leaves act as a source
➢ Sink – Region of respiration, storage and growth in plants (a region of utilisation) roots
which act as a sink
➢ Adaptations of Xylem Vessels - Cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a long
continuous tube, cells are dead, without cell contents, to allow free passage of water,
outer walls are thickened helps support the plant
➢ Root hair - Increases the surface area of the cells, increases the rate of the absorption of
water by osmosis and mineral ions by active transport
➢ Pathway of water into and across a root - Root hair cell → root cortex cells → xylem →
leaf mesophyll cells
➢ Transpiration - loss of water from plant
➢ Movement in xylem - Only takes place in one direction - from roots to leaves (unlike
phloem where movement takes place in different directions
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➢ Transpiration functions - Transporting mineral ions, providing water to keep cells turgid,
providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis, Keeping the leaves cool
➢ As temperature increases - Rate of transpiration also increases
➢ As wind speed increases - Rate of transpiration also increases
➢ As humidity increases - Rate of transpiration decreases
➢ Potometer - Used to investigate the rate of transpiration

Unit.9, Transport in animals

➢ Single circulation - Blood passes through the heart once in a circuit, Eg. Fish
➢ Double circulation – Blood passes through the heart twice per circuit, Eg. Mammals
➢ The right side of the heart - Receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it
to the lungs (the pulmonary circulation)
➢ The left side of the heart - Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to
the body (the systemic circulation)
➢ Advantages of Double Circulation – Higher blood pressure, prevent mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, faster delivery of oxygen, maintain blood pressure
➢ Pulmonary arteries - Transport deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to
the lungs for oxygenation
➢ Pulmonary veins - Blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from lungs to heart
➢ Renal arteries - Carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the kidneys, contain highest
concentration of urea
➢ Renal vein - Carries the deoxygenated blood from the kidney to the inferior vena cava,
contain lowest concentration of glucose
➢ Coronary arteries – Blood vessels supply oxygenated blood to heart
➢ Left ventricle - Thicker muscle wall (pump blood at high pressure around the body)
➢ Septum - Separates the two sides of the heart, prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
➢ Valves functions - Prevent the backward flow of blood
➢ Tricuspid valve - Located between the right atrium and right ventricle
➢ Bicuspid valve - Located between the left atrium and the left ventricle
➢ Semilunar valves – Located aorta leaves the left ventricle and pulmonary artery leaves
the right ventricle
➢ ECG - Measuring pulse rate
➢ Coronary Heart Disease - Narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries
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➢ Reducing the risks of developing coronary heart disease - Quit smoking, diet (reduce
animal fats), exercise regularly
➢ Treatment of coronary heart disease – Stent (small mesh tube inserted in artery),
angioplasty (catheter with balloon inserted into artery to inflate balloon to widen
artery), by-pass surgery (replace artery), open heart surgery, heart transplants
➢ Arteries - Carry oxygenated blood at high pressure away from the heart,
➢ Adaptations of arteries - Thick muscular walls (withstand the high blood pressure),
narrow lumen (maintains high blood pressure), speed of flow is fast
➢ Veins - Carry deoxygenated blood at low pressure towards the heart,
➢ Adaptations of veins - Thin walls (carry blood at low pressure), large lumen (at low
pressure, carry larger volume of blood) contain valves (prevent backflow of blood),
speed of flow is slow
➢ Capillaries - Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood at low pressure within
tissues, one cell thick walls, ‘leaky’ walls, speed of flow is slow
➢ Hepatic artery - Brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the liver
➢ Hepatic vein - Brings deoxygenated blood from the liver back to the heart
➢ Hepatic portal vein - Transports deoxygenated blood from the gut to the liver
➢ Blood components - Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
➢ Plasma - Transport of carbon dioxide, digested food (nutrients), urea, mineral ions,
hormones and heat energy
➢ Proteins found in the blood - Plasma proteins, haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies,
fibrinogen
➢ Red blood cells – Biconcave, disc shape, no nucleus, transports oxygen, contains
haemoglobin
➢ White blood cells – Defending, phagocytosis and antibody production
➢ Platelets - blood clotting
➢ Phagocytes – Irregular shaped nucleus, phagocytosis, engulf pathogens and digesting
pathogens
➢ Lymphocytes - little cytoplasm, large nucleus, produce antibodies to destroy pathogens
➢ Blood clotting - Platelets release enzymes, prothrombin into thrombin, soluble
fibrinogen to convert into insoluble fibrin, forms a mesh at the break in the blood vessel,
trapping red blood cells and forming a clot
➢ Role of blood clotting - Prevent blood loss, prevent entry of pathogens, wound
healing, tissue repair
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Unit.10, Diseases and immunity

➢ Pathogens – Disease causing organism, Eg. Bacteria, fungi, virus
➢ Mechanical barriers – Skin, Hairs in the nose,
➢ Chemical barriers – Mucus, Stomach acid
➢ Cells – Phagocytes (phagocytosis), Lymphocytes (antibodies)
➢ Controlling the Spread of Disease - Stop pathogens from spreading, good hygiene,
effective sanitation and waste disposal
➢ Active Immunity - Making antibodies and developing memory cells, slow acting and
long-lasting immunity. Eg. infected with a pathogen, Vaccination
➢ Vaccination - Protection against specific diseases and boost the body’s defence against
infection
➢ Vaccination process - Introduces harmless form of pathogen, it stimulates an immune
response (active immunity), lymphocytes produce antibodies, create memory cells and
remain in the blood, quickly respond to the antigen if it is encountered again in an
infection, long-lasting immunity
➢ Passive immunity – Fast acting, short term defence, antibodies acquired from another
individual, memory cells are not produced. Eg. mother to infant via breast milk
➢ Functions of lymph nodes in the lymphatic system - Contains lymphocytes, filters the
lymph, destruction of pathogens
➢ Cholera - Causes diarrhoea, dehydration, loss of ions, increase blood concentration, loss
of watery faeces.
➢ How cholera leads to diarrhoea – Bacteria attach small intestine, bacteria release a
toxin, causing chloride ion secretion into small intestine, reducing water potential in the
gut, water moves into intestine (by osmosis)
➢ Treatment for cholera – Oral rehydration therapy, drink mixture of sugar and salt,
replace lost water, taking antibiotics
Unit.11, Gas exchange in humans
➢ Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces - Large surface area, thin walls, good ventilation with
air, good blood supply
➢ Inspired air - Oxygen (21%), Carbon dioxide (0.04%), water vapour (lower)
➢ Expired Air – Oxygen (16%), Carbon dioxide (4%), water vapour (higher)
➢ Alveoli - Gas exchange surface in the lungs
➢ External intercostal muscles - Intercostal muscles is found on the outside of the ribcage
➢ Internal intercostal muscles - Intercostal muscles is found on the inside of the rib cage
➢ Cartilage function - Support the airways and keep them open during breathing
➢ Inhalation - External intercostal muscles contract, ribs move up and out, diaphragm
contract, volume of the chest cavity increase, decreasing air pressure, drawing air in.
➢ Exhalation - Intercostal muscles relax, ribs moves down and in, volume of the chest
cavity decrease, increasing air pressure, forcing air out
➢ Muscles respire anaerobically – Produce lactic acid
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➢ Ciliated epithelial cells – Found in lungs lining, push mucus up the passages towards the
nose and throat
➢ Goblet cells – Mucus producing cells, mucus traps particles, pathogens like bacteria or
viruses, and dust

Unit.12, Respiration
➢ Aerobic respiration - Take place in the mitochondria
➢ Uses of Energy – Muscle contraction, proteins synthesis, cell division, growth, active
transport, nerve impulse conduction, maintain body temperature
➢ Aerobic Respiration - C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2+ 6H2O
➢ Anaerobic Respiration in muscle cell – Glucose → Lactic acid
➢ Yeast – Used in bread making, carbon dioxide produced causes dough to rise
➢ Anaerobic respiration in yeast - C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Unit.13, Excretion in humans

➢ Excretory organs - lungs (Carbon dioxide), kidneys (Urea, excess water and salts)
➢ Structure of human excretory system – Kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra
➢ Structure of human kidney – Outer cortex, inner medulla
➢ Role of the kidney in excretion – Filters blood, reabsorption of useful substances
(glucose, amino acid), removes nitrogenous waste (urea), removes excess, salts and
water
➢ Nephron function – Ultrafiltration, Selective Reabsorption
➢ Loop of Henle and collecting duct – Reabsorb water
➢ Loop of Henle – Reabsorb salts
➢ Proximal convoluted tubules – Reabsorb glucose
➢ Role of the Liver in Excretion – Urea biosynthesis by Deamination process

Unit.14, Coordination and response

➢ Sense organ - Groups of receptor cells, responding to specific stimuli
➢ Human nervous system - Central nervous system (CNS) - the brain and the spinal cord,
peripheral nervous system (PNS) - all of the nerves in the body, Coordinate and regulate
body functions
➢ Nerve - A bundle of neurones
➢ Sensory neurones - Carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
➢ Relay neurones - Found in CNS and connect sensory and motor neurones
➢ Motor neurones - Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
➢ Reflex actions - Involuntary response, does not involve the brain, automatic and rapid
response by spinal cord, helps to minimise the damage to the body
➢ Reflex path way – Stimulus → receptors → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor
neurone → effector → response
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➢ Synapse – Junction between two neurones

➢ Neurotransmitters - Chemical messengers in vesicles of neurones
➢ Impulses pass from one neurone to another neurone across a synapse -
Neurotransmitter released from vesicles into synapse or synaptic gap, movement of
neurotransmitter by diffusion, neurotransmitter binds with receptor molecules on
neurone on the other side of synapse, causing impulse to continue
➢ Sense organs - Contain groups of receptors that respond to specific stimuli
➢ Rod cells - Light receptors, sensitive to light of low intensity, used for night vision,
provide black and white vision
➢ Cone cells - Light receptors, sensitive to light of high intensity, provide colour vision
➢ Cornea – Refracts light
➢ Iris – Control the light to pupil
➢ Lens – Focus light to the retina
➢ Retina – Contain rod cells (light vision), cone cells (colour vision)
➢ Optic nerve – Sensory neurone from eye to brain
➢ Pupil – Allow light to eye
➢ Fovea - Area on the retina (contains more cone cells)
➢ Blind Spot - Point where the optic nerve joins the retina (no rod and cone cells)
➢ Pupil Reflex - Reflex action, protect the retina
➢ Pupil reflex in bright light – Radial muscles relaxes, circular muscles contract, pupil
constrict, less light enters the eye
➢ Pupil reflex in dim light – Radial muscles contract, circular muscles relax, pupil dilate,
more light enters the eye
➢ Accommodation - Eye in focusing on near and distant objects
➢ Suspensory ligament – Controls the shape of lens
➢ Focusing on near objects - Ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligaments relax, lens
becomes fatter, light is refracted more
➢ Focusing on distant objects - Ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligaments contract, lens
becomes thinner, light is refracted less
➢ Hormone - Chemical substance produced by endocrine gland and carried by the blood
➢ Endocrine glands – Pituitary gland (FSH, LH), pancreas (insulin, glucagon), adrenal gland
(adrenalin), testes (testosterone), ovaries (Oestrogen, progesterone)
➢ Insulin – Convert glucose to glycogen, controls blood glucose concentration, increased
uptake of glucose, homeostasis
➢ Glucagon - Convert glycogen to glucose
➢ Adrenalin – Fight or flight hormone, increase heart beats, breathing rate, dilate pupils,
Increasing blood glucose concentration
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➢ Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels - Insulin (when blood glucose
rises), convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored, Glucagon (when blood glucose
falls), convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood
➢ Homeostasis - Maintenance of a constant internal environment by negative feedback,
controlled by the brain
➢ functions of arterioles in the skin - Supplies, oxygenated blood from arteries to
capillaries, controls blood flow through capillaries, vasoconstriction, vasodilation,
maintenance of body temperature
➢ Type 1 Diabetes - Insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to produce insulin
➢ Symptoms of diabetes - Extreme thirst, frequent urination, weakness or tiredness,
blurred vision, weight loss, loss of consciousness
➢ Treatment of diabetes - Injecting insulin, control by diet, exercising
➢ Responses in the skin when hot – Hairs lie flat, sweating, vasodilation (widening of blood
vessels)
➢ Responses in the skin when cold – Hairs erect, shivering, vasoconstriction (narrowing of
blood vessels)
➢ Geotropism – Growth towards gravity (roots), phototropism - growth towards light
(shoots)
➢ Auxin – Plant growth hormone

Unit.15, Drugs
➢ Drug - Substance taken into the body that modifies chemical reactions in the body
➢ Liver - Primary site for drug metabolism
➢ Antibiotics - Made by fungi effective against bacteria (damage bacterial cell wall) but not
against viruses.
➢ Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics - Mutation of bacteria, variation in ability of
bacteria to survive antibiotic treatment, bacteria with no resistance die, bacteria with
resistance survive and breed, passing on resistant allele to next generations
➢ MRSA – Superbugs (antibiotic resistance bacteria)

Unit.16, Reproduction
➢ Asexual reproduction - Does not involve sex cells or fertilization, only one parent is
required, produce genetically identical offspring. Eg. Bacteria (binary fission), plants
(bulbs and tubers)
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➢ Advantages of Asexual Reproduction – Genetically identical, quick, no pollinators

required, no harmful variation, can reproduce even if variety is sterile
➢ Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction – Limited genetic variation, disease spread
easily, no new adaptive features, higher risk of extinction, no evolution, competition for
resources as all individuals are close together, increased risk of inheriting harmful trait,
all individuals are susceptible to the same diseases
➢ Sexual reproduction - Fusion of the nuclei of two gametes to form a zygote (fertilised
egg cell)
➢ Fertilisation - Fusion of male and female gamete nuclei
➢ Haploid cell - Contain half the number of chromosomes in nucleus (n). Eg. Gametes
(sperm, ovum, pollen)
➢ Diploid cell - Contains the full set of chromosomes in nucleus (2n). Eg. Body cells, zygote
➢ Advantages of Sexual Reproduction – increase genetic variation, adapt to new
environment, disease less likely to affect
➢ Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction – two parents required, variation in offspring,
need more time and energy, difficult to get another parent
➢ Flowers - Reproductive organ of the plant
➢ Pollen - Male gamete of the plant
➢ Pollination - Transfer pollen from the anther to the stigma
➢ Sepal – Protect the unopened flower
➢ Petals – Attract insects
➢ Anther – Produce pollen grains
➢ Stigma – Collect pollen grains
➢ Ovary – Produce ovum
➢ Ovule – Contain female sex cell
➢ Pollen tube - Delivers male nuclei to the site of fertilisation
➢ Features of an insect pollinated flower – Large and brightly coloured petals, produce
scent and nectar, sticky pollen grains, sticky stigma
➢ Features of a wind-pollinated flower – Small and dull petals, absent of scent and nectar,
large amount of pollen grains, smooth and light pollen, anther on outside the flower,
feathery stigma and hang outside
➢ Germination - Start of growth in the seed
➢ Conditions required for germination of Seeds - Water, Oxygen, Warmth
➢ Self pollination - Pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of same plant of the
same species
➢ Advantages of self pollination – Prevents extinction, more chances of fertilisation, more
chances of pollination, no need for pollinators, less wastage of pollen, only one plant
needed
➢ Disadvantages of self pollination – Reduced genetic variation, increase chance of genetic
disease, risk of extinction, all plants more susceptible to the same disease
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➢ Cross pollination - Pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant of
the same species
➢ Advantages of cross pollination - Improves genetic variation, produce more seeds, seeds
more viable, seeds germinate properly
➢ Disadvantages of cross pollination – Need pollinators, reliant on (named) pollinators,
reliant on wind, wastage of pollen, more energy required to produce more pollen, more
than one plant required, less fertilisation
➢ Hormones - Chemical substance produced by endocrine gland, carried in the blood,
controls activity of target organs
➢ Testes – Produce sperm, testosterone
➢ Sperm duct – Collect sperm from testes
➢ Prostate gland – Produce fluid called semen
➢ Ovary – Produce ovum, oestrogen and progesterone
➢ Oviduct – Collect ovum from ovary, fertilisation occurs here
➢ Uterus – Development of fetus occurs here
➢ Cervix – Ring of muscles at the lower end of the uterus
➢ Events occur in the menstrual cycle - Follicle is fully developed, lining of the uterus gets
thicker, gamete is released into the oviduct, lining of the uterus reaches a maximum
thickness, lining of the uterus is removed from the body
➢ Events occur in pregnancy, growth and development of the fetus – Sperm deposited in
vagina, travel through cervix, egg and sperm travel to oviduct, enzymes from
acrosome (sperm) digest jelly coat (around egg), fertilisation or fusion of nuclei, of
sperm and egg, formation of diploid zygote, zygote develop (mitosis cell division) into
embryo, travels down from oviduct and travels to uterus, implants in uterus, formation
of placenta and umbilical cord (between mother, and fetus), diffusion of food and
waste via placenta and umbilical cord, grow and develop into fetus
➢ Amniotic sac - Fetus is surrounded by a sac, contains amniotic fluid (made from the
mother’s blood plasma)
➢ Amniotic sac and amniotic fluid functions – maintains temperature, mechanical
protection, provides support and sterile environment, prevents infections, allows
movement of the fetus, lubrication
➢ Umbilical cord - joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta, for exchange of nutrients
and removal of waste products
➢ Placenta adaptation - Large surface area, thin wall for efficient diffusion
➢ Placenta functions - Barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens, exchange of nutrients and
removal of waste products
➢ Ovulation - Release of an egg from ovary
➢ Menstruation - Breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus
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➢ Processes of labour and birth - Breaking of the amniotic sac, amniotic fluid is released,
contraction of uterus, dilation of the cervix, passage through the vagina, cutting the
umbilical cord, delivery of the afterbirth or placenta
➢ FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) – Stimulates or development of egg, secretion of
oestrogen (released by the pituitary gland)
➢ LH (luteinising hormone) – Stimulates ovulation, secretion of progesterone (released by
the pituitary gland)
➢ Oestrogen – Stimulates growth of the lining of the uterus
➢ Progesterone – Maintain pregnancy, maintains the lining of the uterus
➢ Number of chromosomes present in a human gamete (sperm, egg) - 23
➢ Number of chromosomes present in a human zygote - 46
➢ Methods of transmission of HIV – Contaminated blood transfusion, sexual fluids, breast
feeding, blood to blood contact
➢ Effects of HIV infection - Reduced active immune response, reduced production of
antibodies, opportunistic diseases (TB), AIDS, weight loss, reduce life span
➢ Controlling the Spread of STIs - Not having unprotected sex, Raising awareness
by education programmes

Unit.17, Inheritance

➢ Inheritance - Transmission of genetic information from generation to generation

➢ Chromosomes – Thread like structures of DNA, carrying genetic information
➢ Gene - Short length of DNA, codes for a specific protein
➢ Alleles are different versions of a particular gene. Eg. ABO gene for blood group type has
three alleles, IA, IB and IO
➢ XX - Females sex chromosomes
➢ XY - Males sex chromosomes, Y chromosome responsible for determining the sex of the
child
➢ Protein Synthesis - Proteins are made by ribosomes, messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of
the DNA, mRNA move from nucleus to ribosome, ribosome assembles amino acids into
protein
➢ Mitosis - Nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
➢ Role of mitosis - Growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of cells and asexual
reproduction
➢ Stem cells - Unspecialised cells, divide by mitosis, become specialised for specific
functions
➢ Meiosis – Reduction division, chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid,
resulting in genetically different gametes. Eg. production of gametes
➢ Genotype - Genetic make-up of an organism and in terms of the alleles present
➢ Phenotype - Observable features of an organism. Eg. eye colour
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➢ Homozygous - Having two identical alleles of a particular gene. Eg. TT

➢ heterozygous - Having two different alleles of a particular gene. Eg. Tt
➢ Pure-breeding - Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together. Eg. TT x TT
➢ Dominant allele - Allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype
➢ Recessive allele - Allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the
gene present in the genotype
➢ Monohybrid inheritance - Inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene
➢ Codominance - Situation in which both alleles in heterozygous organisms contribute to
the phenotype
➢ Sex linked characteristic - Feature in which the gene responsible is located on a sex
chromosome. Eg. red-green colour blindness
➢ Blood group A has the genotype - IAIA or IAIO
➢ Blood group B has the genotype - IBIB or IBIO
➢ Blood group AB has the genotype - IAIB
➢ Blood group O has the genotype - IOIO

Unit.18, Variation and selection

➢ Variation - Differences between individuals of the same species
➢ Continuous variation - Results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, caused
by both genes and the environment, Eg. body length and body mass
➢ Discontinuous variation - Results in a limited number of phenotypes with no
intermediates, caused by genes, Eg. ABO blood groups
➢ Mutations - Random genetic changes to the base sequence of DNA, lead to harmful
changes Eg. sickle cell anaemia in humans
➢ Sources of genetic variation in populations - Mutation, meiosis, random mating and
random fertilisation
➢ Adaptive features - Inherited l features of an organism, increase its fitness
➢ Adaptive features of hydrophytes (adapted to aquatic habitats) - Large air spaces in their
leaves (for buoyancy or floating), small roots, stomata found on the upper epidermis.
Eg. lotus
➢ Adaptive features of xerophytes (adapted to dry habitats) - Thick waxy cuticle (reduces
transpiration), sunken stomata (reduces transpiration), rolled leaf (reduces
transpiration), small leaves (needle-shaped), shallow roots (quick absorption of water),
thickened leaves or stems (store water). Eg. Cactus
➢ Natural Selection - In any environment, the individuals that have the best adaptive
features are the ones most likely to survive and reproduce
➢ Natural selection - Genetic variation within populations, production of many offspring,
struggle for survival, greater chance of reproduction, pass on their alleles to the next
generation
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➢ Selective breeding - Selection by humans of individuals with desirable features, crossing

these individuals to produce the next generation, selection of offspring showing the
desirable features
➢ Natural selection – Occurs naturally, better adapted to environment, take long time
➢ Natural selection – Occurs by human, better adapted to environment, takes less time

Unit.19, Organisms and their environment

➢ Principal source of energy – Sun
➢ Producer - Organism that makes its own organic nutrients
➢ Consumer - Organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms (primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers)
➢ Herbivore - Animal that gets its energy by eating plants
➢ Carnivore - Animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
➢ Decomposer - Organism that gets its energy from dead. Eg. Bacteria, fungi
➢ Food chain - Shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, starting with a
producer
➢ Food web - Network of interconnected food chains
➢ Pyramids of Number - Shows how many organisms we are talking about at each level of
a food chain, not always pyramid-shaped
➢ Pyramids of Biomass - Shows how much mass the creatures at each level, always
pyramid shaped
➢ Carbon cycle – Photosynthesis (Carbon dioxide taken form atmosphere), feeding,
respiration (returned to the atmosphere), decomposition (microorganisms), fossil fuels,
combustion (carbon dioxide released into atmosphere)
➢ Nitrogen Cycle - Decomposition of plant and animal protein to ammonium ions,
nitrification (convert the ammonium compounds to nitrites and then to nitrates),
nitrogen fixation by lightning and bacteria (take N2 gas and change it into nitrates in the
soil), absorption of nitrate ions by plants, production of amino acids and proteins,
feeding and digestion of proteins, deamination (animals sends nitrogen back into the
soil), denitrification (nitrates out of the soil and convert them back into N2 gas)

Unit.20, Human influences on ecosystems

➢ Population – A group of organisms of one species, living in the same area at the same
time
➢ Community - All of the populations of different species in an ecosystem
➢ Ecosystem - Unit containing the community of organisms and their environment,
interacting together
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➢ Factors affecting the rate of population growth - Food supply, competition, predation
and disease
➢ Population Growth Curve - Lag phase - Very few organisms, no reproduction
➢ Log phase (exponential phase) – More food, high birth rate, low death rate
➢ Stationary phase - Birth rate and death rate are equal
➢ Death phase - Population decreases (high death rate)
➢ Factors affecting population growth - Changing temperature or light, predators, disease,
immigration (individuals moving into the area), emigration (individuals moving out of
the area)
➢ Reasons for intensive food production - Agricultural machinery to use larger areas of
land and improve efficiency, chemical fertilisers to improve yields, insecticides to
improve quality and yield, herbicides to reduce competition with weeds, selective
breeding to improve production by crop plants and livestock
➢ Monocultures - agricultural land only one type of crop is grown
➢ Advantages monocultures – Higher yield, improves efficiency, easier to manage, higher
earnings, enable farmers to use machinery, easy planting and harvesting
➢ Disadvantages of monocultures – Spreading of diseases, extinction of species, loss of
habitats, soil erosion, pollution, deforestation
➢ Advantages of intensive livestock production – Increase yield, easy monitoring, less
expensive
➢ Disadvantages of intensive livestock production – Disease spreading to humans, loss of
biodiversity, release of greenhouse gases, deforestation, habitat loss
➢ Biodiversity - Number of different species that live in a particular area
➢ Reasons for Habitat Destruction - Increased area for housing, crop plant production and
livestock production, extraction of natural resources, freshwater and marine pollution
➢ Causes of famines (scarcity of food) – Drought, lack of rain, flooding, fire, tsunamis,
earthquakes, diseases, war, poverty, increase in population, soil erosion
➢ Deforestation - Clearing of trees
➢ Undesirable effects (consequences) of deforestation – Loss of habitat, loss of
biodiversity, extinction of species, loss of soil, flooding, increase of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
➢ Eutrophication – Fertiliser leached into rivers, algae growth, death of algae, increased
decomposition, increased respiration (aerobic), decomposers use up the oxygen in the
water, reduction in dissolved oxygen, death of organisms requiring dissolved oxygen in
water
➢ Effects of non-biodegradable plastics, in aquatic ecosystems - Animals eat plastic
(injuries and death), release toxins (affect marine organisms), very small particles
(enters food chain)
➢ Effects of non-biodegradable plastics, in terrestrial ecosystems – Visual pollution, blocks
digestive systems of animals, releases toxins, habitat destruction, prevents root growth
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➢ Negative effects of acid rain – River pH decreases, acidification, shells damaged, aquatic
plants die, disrupts food chains, loss of bio diversity, extinction of species
➢ Global warming – Higher level of methane and carbon dioxide, human activity (burning
fossil fuels), deforestation, methane is produced by farming and landfill, increasing
human population, enhanced greenhouse effect
➢ Sustainable resource - Produced as rapidly as it is removed from the environment so
that it does not run out (forests and fish stocks)
➢ Forest conservation – Education (aware of sustainable practices), protected areas (avoid
cutting young trees), replanting (new trees planted to replace)
➢ Fish Stocks conservation – Education (Educating fishermen as to local and international
laws), closed seasons, protected areas, controlled net types and mesh size, quotas and
monitoring
➢ Effects of soil erosion - Silting of rivers, landslides, increased risk of flooding, decreased
soil water, plants cannot grow well, loss of anchorage for plants, reduced soil fertility,
loss of habitat
➢ Importance of conserve ecosystems - Prevent extinction, maintain biodiversity, places
for breeding, provide habitats, maintenance of water cycle, provide resources
➢ Reason for endangered species (becoming extinct) – Hunting, climate change, pollution,
loss of habitat, diseases, introduction of non-native species
➢ Conservation of endangered species – Monitoring, habitat protection, prevention of
pollution, prevent hunting, create reserves, captive breeding programme, seed banks,
education, awareness
➢ Reasons for conservation programmes - Maintaining or increasing biodiversity, reducing
extinction, protecting vulnerable ecosystems, maintaining ecosystem functions (nutrient
cycling and resource provision, including food, drugs, fuel and genes)
➢ Conservation Techniques - Artificial Insemination (AI) in captive breeding programmes
(allows large numbers of offspring to be produced without the need for conventional
sexual intercourse between males and females), In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) in captive
breeding programmes (allows gametes with known alleles to be used in ensuring the
next generation remains biodiverse)

Unit.21, Biotechnology and genetic modification

➢ Use of Bacteria in biotechnology and genetic modification - Reproduce rapidly, no
ethical issues, ability to make complex molecules, presence of plasmids
➢ Biofuels - Yeast respires anaerobically and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide
➢ Advantages of Biofuels - Uses wastes from farming, reduces use of fossil fuels, less
pollution, sustainable resource, less air pollution, no acid rain
➢ Disadvantages of Biofuels – Variation in quality, not suitable for low temperature, more
expensive, food shortage, encourage monoculture, deforestation
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➢ Bread making - Yeast respires anaerobically and produce carbon dioxide (makes bread
dough rise)
➢ Fruit juice production - Pectinase breaking down pectin to produce a clearer juice
➢ Biological washing powders - Contain digestive enzymes
➢ Advantages biological washing powders - Quickly breaking down large insoluble
molecules fats and proteins, effective at lower temperatures, clean delicate fabrics
➢ lactase - Produce lactose-free milk for lactose intolerant people
➢ Symptoms of lactose intolerance - Nausea, flatulence and diarrhoea
➢ Penicillin - Antibiotic, inhibits bacterial growth, produce by fungus (using fermenter)
➢ Mycoprotein – Protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians, creating food from a fungus
(using fermenter)
➢ Production of Insulin - Gene for human insulin inserted into bacteria and
produce human insulin, collected and purified to treat people with diabetes
➢ Genetic modification - Changing the genetic material of an organism by removing,
changing or inserting individual genes from another organism
➢ Genetic modification examples - Insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce
human proteins, the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to
herbicides, the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to insect pests,
the insertion of genes into crop plants to improve nutritional qualities
➢ Restriction enzymes – Cut the DNA and plasmid into sticky ends
➢ DNA ligase – (insertion of a short length of DNA into a plasmid) join the DNA and
plasmid to form recombinant DNA or plasmid
➢ Process of using bacteria in genetic engineering to produce human proteins - Human
DNA codes for (human) protein isolated, DNA and plasmid cut using restriction enzymes
(forming sticky ends), join the DNA and plasmid to form recombinant DNA or plasmid
using ligase enzyme, inserted into bacteria, bacteria (with the plasmid) multiply,
purification of transformed bacteria
➢ Advantages genetically modifying crops – Disease resistance, larger yield, drought,
disease and pest resistant, vaccine production, growth modification, reduced use of
chemicals
➢ Disadvantages of genetically modifying crops – Increased cost of seeds, reduced
biodiversity and genetic diversity, risk of use with weeds, unknown health risks to
consumers