Module 4: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3.1 The Limit of a Function

The limit of a function is a fundamental concept that is significant in the study of calculus. As a matter of
fact, both the derivative and the definite integrals – two main tools in calculus - are defined using limits.

To understand the concept of a limit of a function, consider the function f defined as

𝑥 2 −9
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3 .
For all values other than x = 3, we can calculate f(x). Hence, when x = 3, f(3) is undefined. We’d like to answer
the question: What is the behavior of f(x) as x gets closer and closer to 3?

To get an idea of the behavior of f(x) near x = 3, we can use two sets of x-values – one set that approaches 3
from the left and the other set that approaches 3 from the right, as shown in the table.

x approaches 3 from the left x approaches 3 from the right

x 2 2.5 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 3.5 4

f(x) 5 5.5 5.9 5.99 5.999 ? 6.001 6.01 6.1 6.5 7

f(x) approaches 6 f(x) approaches 6

The table shows that as x gets closer and closer to 3, f(x) gets closer to 6.

This observation can be expressed in symbols as follows: as 𝑥 → 3, 𝑓(𝑥) → 6, or 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 6

𝑥→3

A Formal Definition of Limit

Let f be a function and a any number. Suppose f is defined on some open interval containing a except possibly at
a itself. Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f ( x) = L , if for any 𝜀 > 0, there exists a
x→a

  0 , such that whenever 0  x − a   then f ( x) − L   .

Example 1
Given the limit
𝑙𝑖𝑚(3𝑥 + 1) = 7
𝑥→2
Find 𝛿 such that |(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| < 0.003 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿.

Solution:
Since 𝜀 = 0.003, to find a suitable 𝛿, observe that
|(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| = |3𝑥 − 6| = 3|𝑥 − 2|
This suggests that the inequality |(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| < 0.003 is equivalent to 3|𝑥 − 2| < 0.003.
1
Hence, we can select 𝛿 = 3 (0.003) = 0.001. This selection works because
0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 0.001
implies that
|(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| = 3|𝑥 − 2| < 3(0.001) = 0.003

Example 2
Apply the formal definition of limit to prove that
𝑙𝑖𝑚(2𝑥 − 5) = 3
𝑥→4

Solution:
We need to show that for any 𝜀 > 0, there exists a   0 , such that whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 4| < 𝛿 then
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| < 𝜀. Since the choice of 𝛿 depends on 𝜀, it is proper to determine the connection between the
absolute values |(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| and |𝑥 − 4|.
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| = |2𝑥 − 8| = 2|𝑥 − 4|
1
Thus, for a given 𝜀 > 0, we can choose 𝛿 = 𝜀. This choice works because
2
1
0 < |𝑥 − 4| < 𝛿 = 2 𝜀
implies that
1
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| = 2|𝑥 − 4| < 2 ( 𝜀) = 𝜀
2

3.1.1 Evaluating Limits Analytically

In the previous section, we found out that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a does not depend on the value of f at
x = a. However, it might be true that the limit is precisely f(a). In that case, the limit can be evaluated by direct
substitution, meaning
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Such well-behaved function is continuous at x = a and we will discuss further this concept in the succeeding
section.

Limit Theorems
1. lim x = a
x→a

2. lim c = c if c is a constant
x→a

3. lim  f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x) +  + f n ( x) = lim f1 ( x) + lim f 2 ( x) +  + lim f n ( x) if the limits on the right exist.
x →a x→a x→a x→a

4. lim  f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)    f n ( x) = lim f1 ( x)  lim f 2 ( x)    lim f n ( x) if the limits on the right exist.

 
x→a x →a x →a x →a

5. lim  f ( x) = lim f ( x) for any positive integer n if lim f ( x ) exists.

n n
x→a x→a x→ a

 f ( x)  x →a lim f ( x)
6. lim  = if the limits on the right exist and lim g ( x)  0 .
x →a g ( x)  x→a
  lim
x →a
g ( x)
7. Suppose n is a positive integer and lim f ( x) = L . Then lim n f ( x) = n L provided that L  0 when n is
x→a x→a
even.
8. If f(x) is a polynomial then for any real number a , lim f ( x) = f (a ) .
x→a

g ( x) g (a)
9. If f ( x) = where g (x) and h(x) are polynomials, then lim f ( x) = if h(a)  0
h( x ) x → a h(a)
10. Functions that Agree at All but One Point
Let a be a real number and let f(x) = g(x) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 in an open interval containing a. If the limit of g(x) as
x approaches a exists, then the limit of f(x) also exists and
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
11. Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Let a be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
a) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝑎 b) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
c) lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = tan 𝑎 d) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = cot 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
e) lim 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = sec 𝑎 f) lim 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 = csc 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
12. The Squeeze Theorem
If 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly at a itself, and if
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exists and is equal to L. (This theorem has been used in proving the next theorem)
𝑥→𝑎
13. Special Trigonometric Limits
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
a) lim 𝑥 = 1 b) lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 1 Basic Limits

(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 = −2 (limit theorem 1) (b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 5 = 5 (limit theorem 2)
𝑥→−2 𝑥→0
(c) lim (2𝑥 + 3) = lim 2𝑥 + lim 3 = ( lim 2) ( lim 𝑥 2 ) + lim 3 = 2(−1)2 +3 = 5
2 2
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
(limit theorems 3, 4, 5, and 8)
3 3
(d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 3√𝑙𝑖𝑚(5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1) = √64 = 4 (limit theorems 1,2,3,4, and 7)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Example 2 Limits of Rational Functions

In each of the following, determine the limit if it exists.
2𝑥+7
(a) lim 𝑥 2−4
𝑥→1
Solution:
Since the denominator is not 0 when x = 1, then by limit theorem 9 we get
2𝑥+4 2(1)+7 9
lim 2 = lim 2 = = −3
𝑥→1 𝑥 −4 𝑥→1 1 −4 −3

𝑥 3 +1
(b) lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the fractional form 0/0 (this expression is called an indeterminate form
because from the form alone we cannot determine the limit)
𝑥 3 +1
However, let 𝑓(𝑥) = . By factoring and dividing out like factors, we can rewrite f as
𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4
(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
𝑓(𝑥) = = = 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑥 ≠ −1
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥−4
Thus, for all x-values other than x = -1, the values of f(x) and g(x) are equal, and the limit of g(x) as x
approaches -1 exists, then we can apply limit theorem 10. That is,
𝑥 3 +1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1 3 3
lim = lim = lim ( )= =−
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥→−1 𝑥−4 −5 5

16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1
(c) lim
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1

Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. Applying theorem 10, we have
16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1 (2𝑥−1)(8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1) 8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1
lim = lim = lim
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1 𝑥→1/2 (2𝑥−1)(2𝑥−1) 𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1
Again, we obtain still the indeterminate form 0/0 using direct substitution. Thus, re-applying theorem 10, we
have
8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1 (2𝑥−1)(4𝑥+1)
lim = lim = lim1(4𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1 𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1 𝑥→
2
16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1
Thus, lim =3
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1

Example 3 Evaluating limits by Applying Rationalizing Technique

In each of the following, determine the limit if it exists.
√3+𝑥−√3
(a) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we rewrite the fraction by
rationalizing the numerator [Recall: (√𝑎 + √𝑏)(√𝑎 − √𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏].
√3+𝑥−√3 √3+𝑥−√3 √3+𝑥+√3 (3+𝑥)−3 𝑥 1
=( )( ) = 𝑥(√3+𝑥+√3) = 𝑥(√3+𝑥+√3) = ;𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑥 √3+𝑥+√3 √3+𝑥+√3
Now, using limit theorem 10, we can evaluate the limit as shown.
√3+𝑥−√3 1 1 √3
lim = lim = =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 √3+𝑥+√3 2√3 6

𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8
(b) lim 3
𝑥→8 √𝑥−2

Solution:
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the
3 3 3 3 3
denominator, [Recall: ( √𝑎 + √𝑏)( √𝑎2 − √𝑎𝑏 + √𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎 − 𝑏]
3
𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8 𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8
3
√𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4
3 3
(𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8)( √𝑥2 +2 √𝑥+4) (𝑥−8)(𝑥+1)( √𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4)
3 =( 3 ) (3 )= =
√𝑥−2 √𝑥−2 √𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4 𝑥−8 𝑥−8
3 3
= (𝑥 + 1)( √𝑥 2 + 2 √𝑥 + 4)
Now, applying limit theorem 10, we have
𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8 3 3
lim 3 = lim (𝑥 + 1)( √𝑥 2 + 2 √𝑥 + 4) = 9(12) = 108
𝑥→8 √𝑥−2 𝑥→8
Example 4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Evaluate each limit, if it exists.
sin (𝑥⁄ )
2
(a) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑥→𝜋
Solution:
Since the denominator is not zero when 𝑥 = 𝜋, then by limit theorem 9 we have
sin (𝑥⁄ )
2 2 sin (𝜋⁄ ) 1
lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜋 = =1
𝑥→𝜋 1+0

1−cosθ
(b) lim
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we need to rewrite the fraction into an
equivalent fraction using trigonometric identities.
1−cosθ 1−cosθ 1−cosθ 1
2
= 2
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Now, applying limit theorem 10, we have
1−cosθ 1 1
lim 2
= lim =
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜃→0 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2

Example 5 Special Trigonometric Limits

Evaluate each limit, if it exists.
sin 6𝑥
(a) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we can rewrite the limit as
sin 6𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
sin 6𝑥 6lim 6lim 6(1)
𝑥 𝑥→0 6𝑥 𝜃→0 𝜃
lim = lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =2
𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑥→0 3lim 3lim 3(1)
𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝜃→0 𝜃

1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
(b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2

Solution:
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate form 0/0. We can rewrite the limit using identities and then
special trigonometric limit as
1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 −𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 tan𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 2
lim = lim = − lim ( ) = − (lim ) = − (lim . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 1
= − ((lim ) (lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)) = − ((1) (1)) = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

3.2 One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

If the values of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but greater than
a), then in limit notation,
lim f ( x) = L
x →a +
Similarly, if the values of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but
less than a), then in limit notation,

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎−

Example Evaluate each limit, if it exists.

x −5
(a) lim+ (3 − x ) = 3 (b) lim− x 4 − x 2 (c) lim + 6 − x − x 2 (d) lim− = −1
x→0 x →2 x →−3 x →5 x −5
The Relationship Between One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

The two-sided limit of a function f(x) exists at a if and only if both of the one-sided limit exist at a and have the
same value; that is,
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim- f ( x) = L = lim+ f ( x)
x →a x →a x →a
 𝑥 2 − 4 if 𝑥 < 3
Example Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = {5 + 𝑥 if 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
3𝑥 − 3 if 𝑥 > 4.
Evaluate (a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥); (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥); (c) lim 𝑓(𝑥); (d) lim− 𝑓(𝑥); (e) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥); and (f) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

Solution:
(a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 32 − 4 = 5 (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 3 = 8 (c) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
(d) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 4 = 9 (e) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(4) − 3 = 9 (f) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

3.3 Infinite Limits

If the values of f(x) increase indefinitely as x approaches a, then in symbol,

lim f ( x) = + .
x →a

Similarly, if the values of f(x) decrease indefinitely as x approaches a, then in symbol,

lim f ( x) = − .
x →a

Suppose f is a function defined on an open interval containing a, except possibly at a itself. Then we say that f(x)
increases without bound as x approaches a, and we write
lim f ( x) = +
x →a

if for every N> 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that f ( x)  N whenever 0  x − a   .

Similarly, we say that f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches a, and we write
lim f ( x) = −
x →a

if for every N < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that f ( x)  N whenever 0  x − a   .

Theorems
1. Let r be a positive integer. Then
1
a. lim+ r = +
x →0 x

1
b. lim− r = − if r is odd ; and
x →0 x

1
lim− r = + if r is even.
x →0 x

2. Suppose lim f ( x) = c  0 and lim g ( x) = 0. Then

x→a x→a

f ( x)
a. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 + then lim = +
x →a
g ( x)
f ( x)
b. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 − then lim = −
x →a g ( x)

f ( x)
c. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 + then lim = −
x →a g ( x)

f ( x)
d. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 − then lim = +
x →a g ( x)

Remark. The above theorems still hold if “ x → a ” is replaced by “ x → a + ” or “ x → a + ”.

Examples
− x +1
1. lim = −
x → 2 ( x − 2) 2

x −1
2. lim + 2 = +
x →−1 2 x + x − 1

3. lim−
x  − 1 = +
x →3 x−3
 1 1  x −1
4. lim  − 2  = lim 2 = −

x →0 x x  x → 0 x

3.4 Limits at Infinity

If the values of f(x) eventually get closer and closer to a number L as x increases without bond, then in
symbol,
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → +
x → +

Similarly, if the values of f(x) eventually get closer and closer to a number L as x decreases without bond,
then in symbol,
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → −
x →−

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 1 lim = lim     = lim  lim  lim = 0
 x x  x→ x x→ x x→ x
x → 3 x → x
x

x 2 10 x 25
( x + 5) 2
x + 10 x + 25
2 + 2 + 2
Example 2 lim = lim = lim x 2
x x =1
x → ( 2 x + 3) 2 x → 4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 x → 4 x 2
12 x 9 4
2
+ 2 + 2
x x x

3.5 CONTINUITY

A function f is said to be continuous at x=c provided the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f(c) is defined,
2. lim f ( x ) exists,
x→ c

3. lim f ( x ) = f (c ).
x →c

If any one of these conditions is not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at x=c.

Remarks:
1. Every polynomial function is continuous at each point of the real line.
2. Every rational function is continuous wherever it is defined - that is, wherever the denominator is nonzero.
p ( x)
3. The function f ( x) = is discontinuous at a point x = a where the denominator is zero, that is, q(a)= 0,
q ( x)
there are two possibilities:

a. if p(a)  0, then f has an infinite discontinuity at x= a.

b. otherwise, f may have a removable discontinuity at x= a.

Example:
Consider the function
x−2 x−2
f ( x) = =
x − 3x + 2 ( x − 1)( x − 2)
2

Observe that f is not defined at x =1 and x =2, thus the rational function is continuous except at these two
points. But f has a removable discontinuity at x =2. However, the discontinuity at x =1 is not removable.