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ACQUIRE Module 3 Limits and Continuity

The document discusses limits and continuity in calculus. It defines the limit of a function as the value a function approaches as the input gets closer to a specific value without reaching it. The limit is found by looking at the behavior of the function values as the input approaches the given value from both sides. Some key limit theorems are presented, including rules for sums, products, constants, polynomials, and trigonometric functions. Examples demonstrate evaluating basic limits analytically using the theorems as well as limits of rational functions that require factoring the expressions.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 views6 pages

ACQUIRE Module 3 Limits and Continuity

The document discusses limits and continuity in calculus. It defines the limit of a function as the value a function approaches as the input gets closer to a specific value without reaching it. The limit is found by looking at the behavior of the function values as the input approaches the given value from both sides. Some key limit theorems are presented, including rules for sums, products, constants, polynomials, and trigonometric functions. Examples demonstrate evaluating basic limits analytically using the theorems as well as limits of rational functions that require factoring the expressions.

Uploaded by

belle.tan1105
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module 4: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

3.1 The Limit of a Function


The limit of a function is a fundamental concept that is significant in the study of calculus. As a matter of
fact, both the derivative and the definite integrals – two main tools in calculus - are defined using limits.

To understand the concept of a limit of a function, consider the function f defined as


𝑥 2 −9
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3 .
For all values other than x = 3, we can calculate f(x). Hence, when x = 3, f(3) is undefined. We’d like to answer
the question: What is the behavior of f(x) as x gets closer and closer to 3?

To get an idea of the behavior of f(x) near x = 3, we can use two sets of x-values – one set that approaches 3
from the left and the other set that approaches 3 from the right, as shown in the table.

x approaches 3 from the left x approaches 3 from the right

x 2 2.5 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 3.5 4


f(x) 5 5.5 5.9 5.99 5.999 ? 6.001 6.01 6.1 6.5 7

f(x) approaches 6 f(x) approaches 6

The table shows that as x gets closer and closer to 3, f(x) gets closer to 6.

This observation can be expressed in symbols as follows: as 𝑥 → 3, 𝑓(𝑥) → 6, or 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 6


𝑥→3

A Formal Definition of Limit

Let f be a function and a any number. Suppose f is defined on some open interval containing a except possibly at
a itself. Then the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f ( x) = L , if for any 𝜀 > 0, there exists a
x→a

  0 , such that whenever 0  x − a   then f ( x) − L   .

Example 1
Given the limit
𝑙𝑖𝑚(3𝑥 + 1) = 7
𝑥→2
Find 𝛿 such that |(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| < 0.003 whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 𝛿.

Solution:
Since 𝜀 = 0.003, to find a suitable 𝛿, observe that
|(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| = |3𝑥 − 6| = 3|𝑥 − 2|
This suggests that the inequality |(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| < 0.003 is equivalent to 3|𝑥 − 2| < 0.003.
1
Hence, we can select 𝛿 = 3 (0.003) = 0.001. This selection works because
0 < |𝑥 − 2| < 0.001
implies that
|(3𝑥 + 1) − 7| = 3|𝑥 − 2| < 3(0.001) = 0.003

Example 2
Apply the formal definition of limit to prove that
𝑙𝑖𝑚(2𝑥 − 5) = 3
𝑥→4

Solution:
We need to show that for any 𝜀 > 0, there exists a   0 , such that whenever 0 < |𝑥 − 4| < 𝛿 then
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| < 𝜀. Since the choice of 𝛿 depends on 𝜀, it is proper to determine the connection between the
absolute values |(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| and |𝑥 − 4|.
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| = |2𝑥 − 8| = 2|𝑥 − 4|
1
Thus, for a given 𝜀 > 0, we can choose 𝛿 = 𝜀. This choice works because
2
1
0 < |𝑥 − 4| < 𝛿 = 2 𝜀
implies that
1
|(2𝑥 − 5) − 3| = 2|𝑥 − 4| < 2 ( 𝜀) = 𝜀
2

3.1.1 Evaluating Limits Analytically

In the previous section, we found out that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a does not depend on the value of f at
x = a. However, it might be true that the limit is precisely f(a). In that case, the limit can be evaluated by direct
substitution, meaning
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎
Such well-behaved function is continuous at x = a and we will discuss further this concept in the succeeding
section.

Limit Theorems
1. lim x = a
x→a

2. lim c = c if c is a constant
x→a

3. lim  f1 ( x) + f 2 ( x) +  + f n ( x) = lim f1 ( x) + lim f 2 ( x) +  + lim f n ( x) if the limits on the right exist.
x →a x→a x→a x→a

4. lim  f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)    f n ( x) = lim f1 ( x)  lim f 2 ( x)    lim f n ( x) if the limits on the right exist.

 
x→a x →a x →a x →a

5. lim  f ( x) = lim f ( x) for any positive integer n if lim f ( x ) exists.


n n
x→a x→a x→ a

 f ( x)  x →a lim f ( x)
6. lim  = if the limits on the right exist and lim g ( x)  0 .
x →a g ( x)  x→a
  lim
x →a
g ( x)
7. Suppose n is a positive integer and lim f ( x) = L . Then lim n f ( x) = n L provided that L  0 when n is
x→a x→a
even.
8. If f(x) is a polynomial then for any real number a , lim f ( x) = f (a ) .
x→a

g ( x) g (a)
9. If f ( x) = where g (x) and h(x) are polynomials, then lim f ( x) = if h(a)  0
h( x ) x → a h(a)
10. Functions that Agree at All but One Point
Let a be a real number and let f(x) = g(x) for all 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎 in an open interval containing a. If the limit of g(x) as
x approaches a exists, then the limit of f(x) also exists and
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
11. Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Let a be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
a) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝑎 b) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
c) lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = tan 𝑎 d) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = cot 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
e) lim 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = sec 𝑎 f) lim 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 = csc 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
12. The Squeeze Theorem
If 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all x in an open interval containing a, except possibly at a itself, and if
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ℎ(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) exists and is equal to L. (This theorem has been used in proving the next theorem)
𝑥→𝑎
13. Special Trigonometric Limits
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
a) lim 𝑥 = 1 b) lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

Example 1 Basic Limits


(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 = −2 (limit theorem 1) (b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 5 = 5 (limit theorem 2)
𝑥→−2 𝑥→0
(c) lim (2𝑥 + 3) = lim 2𝑥 + lim 3 = ( lim 2) ( lim 𝑥 2 ) + lim 3 = 2(−1)2 +3 = 5
2 2
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1
(limit theorems 3, 4, 5, and 8)
3 3
(d) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 √5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1 = 3√𝑙𝑖𝑚(5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 1) = √64 = 4 (limit theorems 1,2,3,4, and 7)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Example 2 Limits of Rational Functions


In each of the following, determine the limit if it exists.
2𝑥+7
(a) lim 𝑥 2−4
𝑥→1
Solution:
Since the denominator is not 0 when x = 1, then by limit theorem 9 we get
2𝑥+4 2(1)+7 9
lim 2 = lim 2 = = −3
𝑥→1 𝑥 −4 𝑥→1 1 −4 −3

𝑥 3 +1
(b) lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the fractional form 0/0 (this expression is called an indeterminate form
because from the form alone we cannot determine the limit)
𝑥 3 +1
However, let 𝑓(𝑥) = . By factoring and dividing out like factors, we can rewrite f as
𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4
(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1
𝑓(𝑥) = = = 𝑔(𝑥), 𝑥 ≠ −1
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥−4
Thus, for all x-values other than x = -1, the values of f(x) and g(x) are equal, and the limit of g(x) as x
approaches -1 exists, then we can apply limit theorem 10. That is,
𝑥 3 +1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 −𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 −𝑥+1 3 3
lim = lim = lim ( )= =−
𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −3𝑥−4 𝑥→−1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−4) 𝑥→−1 𝑥−4 −5 5

16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1
(c) lim
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1

Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. Applying theorem 10, we have
16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1 (2𝑥−1)(8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1) 8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1
lim = lim = lim
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1 𝑥→1/2 (2𝑥−1)(2𝑥−1) 𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1
Again, we obtain still the indeterminate form 0/0 using direct substitution. Thus, re-applying theorem 10, we
have
8𝑥 2 −2𝑥−1 (2𝑥−1)(4𝑥+1)
lim = lim = lim1(4𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1 𝑥→1/2 2𝑥−1 𝑥→
2
16𝑥 3 −12𝑥 2 +1
Thus, lim =3
𝑥→1/2 4𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1

Example 3 Evaluating limits by Applying Rationalizing Technique


In each of the following, determine the limit if it exists.
√3+𝑥−√3
(a) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we rewrite the fraction by
rationalizing the numerator [Recall: (√𝑎 + √𝑏)(√𝑎 − √𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏].
√3+𝑥−√3 √3+𝑥−√3 √3+𝑥+√3 (3+𝑥)−3 𝑥 1
=( )( ) = 𝑥(√3+𝑥+√3) = 𝑥(√3+𝑥+√3) = ;𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑥 √3+𝑥+√3 √3+𝑥+√3
Now, using limit theorem 10, we can evaluate the limit as shown.
√3+𝑥−√3 1 1 √3
lim = lim = =
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 √3+𝑥+√3 2√3 6

𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8
(b) lim 3
𝑥→8 √𝑥−2

Solution:
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the
3 3 3 3 3
denominator, [Recall: ( √𝑎 + √𝑏)( √𝑎2 − √𝑎𝑏 + √𝑏 2 ) = 𝑎 − 𝑏]
3
𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8 𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8
3
√𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4
3 3
(𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8)( √𝑥2 +2 √𝑥+4) (𝑥−8)(𝑥+1)( √𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4)
3 =( 3 ) (3 )= =
√𝑥−2 √𝑥−2 √𝑥 2 +2 3√𝑥+4 𝑥−8 𝑥−8
3 3
= (𝑥 + 1)( √𝑥 2 + 2 √𝑥 + 4)
Now, applying limit theorem 10, we have
𝑥 2 −7𝑥−8 3 3
lim 3 = lim (𝑥 + 1)( √𝑥 2 + 2 √𝑥 + 4) = 9(12) = 108
𝑥→8 √𝑥−2 𝑥→8
Example 4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions
Evaluate each limit, if it exists.
sin (𝑥⁄ )
2
(a) lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑥→𝜋
Solution:
Since the denominator is not zero when 𝑥 = 𝜋, then by limit theorem 9 we have
sin (𝑥⁄ )
2 2 sin (𝜋⁄ ) 1
lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜋 = =1
𝑥→𝜋 1+0

1−cosθ
(b) lim
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

Solution:
By direct substitution, we obtain the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we need to rewrite the fraction into an
equivalent fraction using trigonometric identities.
1−cosθ 1−cosθ 1−cosθ 1
2
= 2
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Now, applying limit theorem 10, we have
1−cosθ 1 1
lim 2
= lim =
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜃→0 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2

Example 5 Special Trigonometric Limits


Evaluate each limit, if it exists.
sin 6𝑥
(a) lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. In this case, we can rewrite the limit as
sin 6𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛6𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
sin 6𝑥 6lim 6lim 6(1)
𝑥 𝑥→0 6𝑥 𝜃→0 𝜃
lim = lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =2
𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 𝑥→0 3lim 3lim 3(1)
𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥 𝜃→0 𝜃

1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
(b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥2

Solution:
Direct substitution produces the indeterminate form 0/0. We can rewrite the limit using identities and then
special trigonometric limit as
1−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 −𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 tan𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 2
lim = lim = − lim ( ) = − (lim ) = − (lim . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1 1
= − ((lim ) (lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)) = − ((1) (1)) = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

3.2 One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

If the values of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but greater than
a), then in limit notation,
lim f ( x) = L
x →a +
Similarly, if the values of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but
less than a), then in limit notation,

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎−

Example Evaluate each limit, if it exists.


x −5
(a) lim+ (3 − x ) = 3 (b) lim− x 4 − x 2 (c) lim + 6 − x − x 2 (d) lim− = −1
x→0 x →2 x →−3 x →5 x −5
The Relationship Between One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

The two-sided limit of a function f(x) exists at a if and only if both of the one-sided limit exist at a and have the
same value; that is,
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim- f ( x) = L = lim+ f ( x)
x →a x →a x →a
𝑥 2 − 4 if 𝑥 < 3
Example Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) = {5 + 𝑥 if 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
3𝑥 − 3 if 𝑥 > 4.
Evaluate (a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥); (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥); (c) lim 𝑓(𝑥); (d) lim− 𝑓(𝑥); (e) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥); and (f) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

Solution:
(a) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 32 − 4 = 5 (b) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 3 = 8 (c) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3
(d) lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 + 4 = 9 (e) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(4) − 3 = 9 (f) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9
𝑥→4 𝑥→4 𝑥→4

3.3 Infinite Limits

If the values of f(x) increase indefinitely as x approaches a, then in symbol,


lim f ( x) = + .
x →a

Similarly, if the values of f(x) decrease indefinitely as x approaches a, then in symbol,


lim f ( x) = − .
x →a

Suppose f is a function defined on an open interval containing a, except possibly at a itself. Then we say that f(x)
increases without bound as x approaches a, and we write
lim f ( x) = +
x →a

if for every N> 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that f ( x)  N whenever 0  x − a   .

Similarly, we say that f(x) decreases without bound as x approaches a, and we write
lim f ( x) = −
x →a

if for every N < 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that f ( x)  N whenever 0  x − a   .

Theorems
1. Let r be a positive integer. Then
1
a. lim+ r = +
x →0 x

1
b. lim− r = − if r is odd ; and
x →0 x

1
lim− r = + if r is even.
x →0 x

2. Suppose lim f ( x) = c  0 and lim g ( x) = 0. Then


x→a x→a

f ( x)
a. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 + then lim = +
x →a
g ( x)
f ( x)
b. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 − then lim = −
x →a g ( x)

f ( x)
c. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 + then lim = −
x →a g ( x)

f ( x)
d. if c  0 and f (x) → 0 − then lim = +
x →a g ( x)

Remark. The above theorems still hold if “ x → a ” is replaced by “ x → a + ” or “ x → a + ”.

Examples
− x +1
1. lim = −
x → 2 ( x − 2) 2

x −1
2. lim + 2 = +
x →−1 2 x + x − 1

3. lim−
x  − 1 = +
x →3 x−3
1 1  x −1
4. lim  − 2  = lim 2 = −

x →0 x x  x → 0 x

3.4 Limits at Infinity


If the values of f(x) eventually get closer and closer to a number L as x increases without bond, then in
symbol,
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → +
x → +

Similarly, if the values of f(x) eventually get closer and closer to a number L as x decreases without bond,
then in symbol,
lim f ( x) = L or f ( x) → L as x → −
x →−

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 1 lim = lim     = lim  lim  lim = 0
 x x  x→ x x→ x x→ x
x → 3 x → x
x

x 2 10 x 25
( x + 5) 2
x + 10 x + 25
2 + 2 + 2
Example 2 lim = lim = lim x 2
x x =1
x → ( 2 x + 3) 2 x → 4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 x → 4 x 2
12 x 9 4
2
+ 2 + 2
x x x

3.5 CONTINUITY

A function f is said to be continuous at x=c provided the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f(c) is defined,
2. lim f ( x ) exists,
x→ c

3. lim f ( x ) = f (c ).
x →c

If any one of these conditions is not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at x=c.

Remarks:
1. Every polynomial function is continuous at each point of the real line.
2. Every rational function is continuous wherever it is defined - that is, wherever the denominator is nonzero.
p ( x)
3. The function f ( x) = is discontinuous at a point x = a where the denominator is zero, that is, q(a)= 0,
q ( x)
there are two possibilities:

a. if p(a)  0, then f has an infinite discontinuity at x= a.


b. otherwise, f may have a removable discontinuity at x= a.

Example:
Consider the function
x−2 x−2
f ( x) = =
x − 3x + 2 ( x − 1)( x − 2)
2

Observe that f is not defined at x =1 and x =2, thus the rational function is continuous except at these two
points. But f has a removable discontinuity at x =2. However, the discontinuity at x =1 is not removable.

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