DESIGN GUIDELINES

FOR
COMMUNITY BASED GRAVITY FLOW
RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES
VOLUME - II : DESIGN CRITERIA

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives 1
1.2 Design Strategies 1

2.0 TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

2.1 Gravity Scheme 3

2.1.1 Open System 3
2.1.2 Closed System 4
2.1.3 Continuous System 4
2.1.4 Intermittent Supply Condition 4

3.0 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

3.1 Intake 6
3.1.1 Spring Intake 6
3.1.1.1 Point Source Protection and Improvements 7
3.1.2 Stream Intake 7
3.1.3 Infiltration Gallery 8
3.1.4 Collection Chamber 9
3.2 Pipeline 10
3.2.1 Transmission Main 10
3.2.2 Distribution Lines 12
3.3 Other Components
3.3.1 Sedimentation Tank 15
3.3.2 Storage Tank 16
3.3.3 Break Pressure Chamber 17
3.3.4 Interruption Chamber 17
3.3.5 Distribution Chamber 18
3.3.6 Standpost 21
3.3.7 Suspended Crossing 22
3.3.8 Gully Crossing 23
3.4 System Appurtenances
3.4.1 Air Valve 23
3.4.2 Washout 24
3.4.3 Branch Valve 25

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 3.4.4 Valve Chamber 25
3.5 Drawings 26

4.0 DESIGN CRITERIA

4.1 Population 28
4.1.1 Present Population 28
4.1.2 Annual Population Growth Rate 29
4.2 Design Period 29
4.3 Population Forecast 31
4.3.1 Geometric Growth Method 31

4.3.2 Incremental Increase Method 32

4.4 Water Demand
4.4.1 General 32
4.4.2 Domestic Demand 32
4.4.3 Institutional Demand 33
4.4.4 Livestock Demand 35
4.4.5 Wastage and Leakage 35
4.4.6 Fire Demand 35
4.4.7 Design Water Demand 35
4.5 Water Consumption Pattern 35
4.6 Tap Flow Rate & Peak Factor 36
4.7 Determination of Storage Size 38
4.8 Pipe Line Design 41
4.8.1 System Flow Rate 41
4.8.2 Basis for Design 44
4.8.2.1 Looped Networks 44
4.8.2.2 Hydraulic Network Analysis 45
4.8.2.3 Pipe Networks Survey 46
4.8.3 Flow Velocity 47
4.8.4 Static Head 48
4.8.5 Residual Head 50
4.8.6 Design of Orifice stems 51
4.8.7 Water Hammer in Gravity Flow Water Systems 51
4.8.8 Thrust Blocks 53

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ANNEXES

A Detailed Design Flow Chart

B Population & Growth Rate - Data for Districts
C Growth Rate Factors
D Water Demand Projection
E Storage Size Determination
F Nomograph for Head Loss Determination
G Chart For Hydraulic Calculation
H Head Loss Through Orifice
I Sample Layout Plan
J Sample Longitudinal Profile
K Comparision of Technical Options

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1 Pipe Profile and Hydraulic Grade line

Fig 2 Options of Storage Tanks Layout
Fig 3 Desirable Position of Air Valves and Washouts
Fig 4 Water Consumption Pattern
Fig 5 Graph for Fixing Size of Storage Tank
Fig 6 Schematic System Flow Rate
Fig 7 Schematic System of Surge Pipe

LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Maximum Distance of Standpost Location from Users

4.1 Design Period
4.2 Per Capita Demand
4.3 Institutional Water Demand
4.4 Water Consumption Pattern
4.5 Tap Flow Rate for Assumed Population Distribution
4.6 Suggested Tap Flow Rate
4.7 Cases of Reservoir Size Distribution
4.8 Balancing Storage
4.9 Residual Head

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS

AV : Air Valve
BPC : Break Pressure Chamber
DC : Distribution Chamber
DDC : District Development Committee
DE : District Engineer / Divisional Engineer
DWSO: District Water Supply Office
DWSS : Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
GI : Galvanized Iron
HDP : High Density Polyethylene
HGL : Hydraulic Grade Line
IC : Interruption Chamber
lpcd : Litre per capita per day
lps : Litre per second
MPPW: Ministry of Physical Planning & Works
UC : Users Committee
VDC : Village Development Committee
WSSDO: Water Supply and Sanitation Division/Sub-division Office
WUSC : Water Users and Sanitation Committee

VV
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVES

This document proposes criteria to design community based small to medium scale gravity water
supply schemes. The design criteria proposed in the document can also be used to design larger
water supply schemes, though it does not cover all aspects required for their design. The
objective is to establish a uniform design approach for implementing community based water
supply schemes. Use of the suggested procedures along with the project formats, is expected to
improve the quality of water supply system and the long-term objectives of water supply
improvement would be met. The objectives are (i) to reduce the prevalence of water and
sanitation related diseases and (ii) to minimize the hardship in collecting water.

1.2 DESIGN STRATEGIES

The design of a community-based scheme should consider a number of issues. These relate to
the type of system; whether it is to be open or closed whether the supply is to be continuous or
intermittent and whether to provide provisions for future expansion. The strategy would be to
provide decentralized storage tanks (more than one) to supply water to smaller population
groups via public standpost. The designer must emphasis on a) optimal use of the available
resources and b) detailing on designs to minimize operation and maintenance requirements. A
main strategy would be to provide smaller water supply schemes catering to smaller population.
Even in one scheme, it is suggested that more than one storage tank be provided to supply
smaller group of standpost users.

When a gravity flow scheme is not feasible, alternate provision such as rainwater harvesting and
improvement of point source (spring) must be investigated. Spring protection guards against
possible contamination. This is a principal option in mountain and hill communities where water
is available nearby. It costs a fraction of gravity flow schemes and requires only simple and
virtually cash free maintenance.

All components of the gravity water supply scheme are important. However, special care should
be taken while surveying and designing the intake. A good intake must ensure that the source is
not affected, there is no leakage and contamination possibilities are minimized. Each intake
should be properly designed by undertaking detailed survey of the site to help appropriate
construction.

Even though it is desirable, the scope for treatment of water in rural water supply schemes is
limited. Treatment involves additional investment and skilled manpower for greater operation
and maintenance requirements. The level of responsibility on the part of the beneficiaries is also
increased. Due consideration have to be therefore, given on the selection of source to avoid the

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need for treatment as far as possible.
If the raw water is contaminated with physical, chemical and bacteriological impurities, which
are not properly removed, then a large number of people can be infected by water borne diseases
and it effects human health and may not be accepted by the people. Thus it is necessary to
improve the quality of water to accepted limit by providing appropriate treatment technology.
Simple treatment process is described in Vol.6

For improvement of water supply at rural community level, the following strategies should be
followed:
- Use of least contaminated spring/stream source,
- Innovation in the design of the spring and stream intakes (including source protection) to
minimize problems in their operation,
- Continue to strengthen both the institutional and community capability to operate and
maintain the water scheme,
- Health and hygiene education and training activities targeted to women and mother
groups.
- Design provision for simple, effective and easy to operate and maintain treatment
facilities to be undertaken wherever necessary.
Certain degree of limitation is inevitable in the design of community water supply scheme. The
assumptions about population growth rate for schemes planned for 15 to 20 years later for
example, may not be accurate. Lack of information leads to inaccuracies in the projected
population. The daily water demand among different users is not representative. Variations from
averages among and within communities have not yet been studied in detail. Similarly,
variations due the seasonal and consumption pattern changes, which affect demands for washing
and bathing, have not yet been assessed.
The design of pipes should also make assumptions about the actual internal diameter, which is
subjected to manufacturing tolerances. Poor workmanship when butt-welding HDP pipes
generally form beads inside the pipe and affects the friction factor. In some cases, lime deposits
in pipeline also lead to poor supply. Even with the most rational theory, friction factor and hence
head loss, can not be estimated with 100% accuracy. Friction Factor further changes with the
aging of the pipeline.
A balance has been made in the design guidelines, which provides simple approach and criteria
while maintaining flexibility. Therefore, this document is meant to be used as a guideline for the
design of community based gravity flow schemes. Wherever necessary, the designer should use
his judgement and innovation to propose a scheme that would function satisfactorily over the
design period. Designers are also advised to refer to standard textbooks and references.

A flow chart outlining the steps for designing a water scheme is given in Annex A.

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 2.0 TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

2.1 GRAVITY SCHEME

A scheme where water source(s) is located at an elevation higher than the service area is referred
to as a gravity scheme. Water can be supplied by gravity from the source to the storage tank and
distributed again by gravity. Location of the storage at a higher altitude allows adequate head to
be maintained in the distribution network. When appropriately designed, constructed and
maintained a gravity scheme is a reliable water supply system.

2.1.1 Open System

In an open system, the safe source yield must meet the peak water demand of the service area. A
storage tank is not required in an open system and all its pipes are distribution lines. In an open
system, no flow closing devices are installed in the distribution system hence no faucet is
installed on the standpost. Static pressure, therefore, never builds up in the system.

Break Pressure Chambers (BPCs) are generally not required in an open system. In some cases
however, the dynamic pressure may exceed the pressure limit of the pipe class and chambers
may need to be provided to break the excess head. These chambers are called Interruption
Chambers (IC). Distribution Chambers may also need to be provided to ensure proper
distribution of flow in different branches.

If the source yield is sufficient, an open system can be easily expanded by providing a storage
tank and closing the system at any desired section. Its operation and maintenance requirements
are low. However, continuous water flow in an open system can lead to environmental hazards if
the wastewater is not adequately drained off or used in kitchen gardens. If the drainage points
consist of sandy erodible soil, erosion hazard is also likely to be high. When the distance
between the water source and the service area is large, pipe cost may become high. Adoption of
an open system may not be justified in such case.

The adoption of an open system may be influenced by expansion possibilities of the settlement,
availability of construction materials, the pipeline profile and the water yield. In many cases, the
source yields have been observed to be decreasing, which may not allow an open system. Even if
the source is available, an open system should be built only when the community agrees and
commits to take appropriate steps to minimize the health hazards by wastewater.

2.1.2 Closed System

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 A closed system is used when the safe yield of the source cannot directly supply the peak water
demand. To balance the deficit and meet the peak demand, a storage tank is provided. As the
water thus stored cannot be allowed to go to waste, faucets and valves have to be installed to
control flow. A closed system, therefore, is subjected to the maximum static water pressure and
should be designed accordingly.

Break Pressure Chambers (BPCs), therefore, need to be provided in a closed system whenever
the working pressure limits of pipes, pipe joints and fittings are exceeded. In the distribution
system, overflow and wastage from the Break Pressure Chamber should be controlled which is
achieved by installing a float valve. Provision of faucets at standpost also allows it to be closed
and minimizes the problem of wastewater disposal in a closed system.

The choice between an open or closed system, however, is not obvious. Cost-estimates of both
options should be compared before selecting a system.

2.1.3 Continuous System

In a continuous system, water is available in the distribution lines all the time. The difference
between a continuous and an intermittent system is more valid for a closed system. A closed
system can be continuous. Water in a continuous system is available whenever the faucet is
opened. Since water is continuously available, it is a more desirable, because service is available
all the time. Since the distribution line is always under pressure, the possibility of contamination
by negative suction in the pipeline in a continuous system does not exist.

2.1.4 Intermittent Supply Condition

In this system, water is supplied to the consumers only during some fixed hours of the day.
Many schemes in Nepal are presently being operated intermittently even though they were
originally designed to function continuously. The possible reasons: source dried, faucets in the
standpost are not properly maintained leading to wastage. In many cases the non-performance of
the float valves in Break Pressure Chambers also leads to excessive wastage. When schemes are
operated on intermittent basis water is supplied for a short period within which time the design
demand has to be met.

In a scheme with only public standposts with fixed tap flow, the pipe size of the distribution
network will not be affected, even if the scheme is operated on the intermittent basis. But the
storage volume will be increased when the scheme is operated on an intermittent basis. The
likelihood of contamination in an intermittent system is higher. It is due to infiltration of
polluted and dirty water from outside into the empty water pipes through leaks and leaking joints
due to negative suction pressure. Therefore community water supply schemes should be

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 designed and operated as continuous systems, wherever possible.

3.0 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM COMPONENTS

3.1 INTAKE

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 An intake collects water from a source and feeds it to the transmission main. An intake should
allow continuous abstraction of the design flow from the source. The functioning of a water
supply scheme largely depends on the intake. Its location and construction hence, require great
care.

The type of intake required in a water scheme depends on the type of the water source (spring or
stream). As each source is unique, intake design is site specific and needs appropriate
consideration. Its construction needs special supervision to ensure that flow from the source is
not disturbed and the chances of contamination are minimized.

The site for an intake should be

- free from contamination.

- on stable soil. The site should not be erodible and free from landslides to avoid
entry of sediments and contaminants into the transmission main.
- easily accessible for regular inspection and cleaning during operation and
maintenance.

Intakes can be generally categorized into following two types depending upon the type of source
as
(a) Spring Intake and
(b) Stream Intake.

3.1.1 Spring Intake

A spring intake is provided to abstract water from a spring source. It also prevents outside water
and other sources of pollutants from entering into the transmission main. The intake thus
protects the water from getting contaminated. The water outlet points of the spring should be
properly identified before intake construction is initiated. Very low yield spring source (< 0.05
lps) should not be tapped for gravity flow schemes. Proper drainage should be provided around
the spring source to divert the run-off water and prevent it from damaging the intake. A drainage
diversion ditch should be dug at a distance of at least 8 m above and around the spring to divert
the surface water away. Special care should be taken to insure that the source is not affected and
there is no leakage.
Following requirements should be kept in mind while locating a spring intake wherever
possible.

- as close to the source as possible,

- above populated or farming areas,
- above foot path, cattle watering and washing places,
- where the immediate surrounding above the spring is not easily accessible to
people and livestock,
- where the general condition of the terrain does not allow water logging and

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 - where surface water run-off during the monsoon can be easily drained off.

In addition, the following factors should be considered while constructing the intake.

- to prevent the creation of backup pressure, the collection chamber needs

to be constructed away from the source by providing about 4-5 meter
head of free flow to occur from the intake,
- to prevent leakage, no stone soling should be provided below the floor,
- to minimize settlement, heavy intake structure should be avoided,
- to permit proper repair and maintenance, the valve box in the intake should have
enough space to freely operate pipe wrench,
- to facilitate removal of gate valve during repairs, union should be provided,
- to avoid the risk of losing its flow, care should be taken not to over excavate the
impervious layer at the base of the outlet of the spring
- to prevent entry of suspended materials, pipe inlet should be covered with stone
soling and the upstream of the intake with impervious material.
- to avoid contamination, it is essential that there should be no habitation and easy
access to animals around the area of spring for a distance of at least 30 m to
preferably 90 m

Intake type designs are shown in drawing G-01,G-02, G-03 ,G-04 of Vol III.

3.1.1.1 Point Source Protection and Improvements

Spring protection schemes are built primarily to develop and protect spring fed water supply that
communities are using. A catchment, sometimes a RT and one tap stand are provided for each
spring with adequate safe yield. These schemes are simple, inexpensive, and can be implemented
quickly due to the small scale of the project.
These systems are not necessarily designed to bring the water to the users, but to minimize the
risk of contamination. For this reason, normally 10 m of pipeline is used. This length can be
increased if additional head is available and water can be transported nearer to community. An
increased length may also be practical if all the users are clustered in one area. In any case the
pipe length should not exceed 100 m.

3.1.2 Stream Intake

A stream intake is built when a stream is selected as the water source. The characteristic of a
stream intake depends on the type of stream, its morphology and the expected maximum and
minimum flows. The intake in a stream should be located to take advantage of its morphology.
Since each river has its own unique characteristics, only a general guideline can be provided for
design and construction. Configuration and other requirement for its design should be
specifically assessed and pursued. Generally a sedimentation tank needs to be constructed with a
stream intake.

7
 The following points are worth noting while locating the site for a stream intake:

- on a stream whose watershed has good vegetation cover,

- up-stream of populated or farming areas, especially areas where chemical
fertilizers are used,
- up-stream of a foot path, bridge, cattle watering and washing places,
- whose immediate up-stream is not easily accessible to both people and livestock,
- where the ground is firm (e.g. rocky sections),
- outside of geologically unstable areas,
- where natural formation can be best used to build the structure,
- preferably at the outside bend of the river where sediment concentration is
usually lower,
- should withstand floods,
- adequate size of weir to release the flood water and
- should facilitate easy removal of sediment.

In addition, the following points should be kept in mind while designing a stream intake.
- multiple inflow points to permit flexible intake operation if the stream water level
varies considerably,
- provide the opening close to the water surface to avoid entry of large sediment &
articles whose concentration increases from the surface downwards to maximum
at the river bed level,
- provide the openings facing downstream or parallel to stream flow to minimize
entry of floating debris during floods,
- provide a trash rack with 50 to 75 mm openings and a set of fine screens
consisting of one layer of expanded metal and one layer of G.I. wire mesh.
- Pipe section starting with a big diameter and abruptly ending with a small must
be avoided. For example, 25-mm pipe should not be provided immediately after
a 50-mm pipe. Such pipelines tend to get blocked since larger sediment particles
may enter the pipe but will not be able to leave.
- Pipe diameter between intake and collection chamber shall be at least of 40 mm
diameter, since water is likely to carry sediment during the monsoon.

The type designs for stream intakes are shown in drawing G-05, G-06, G-07 and G-07 a of Vol.
III.
3.1.3 Infiltration Galleries

Infiltration galleries are suitable for tapping sub-surface flow in river beds having a moderate
depth of water bearing strata (sand). A minimum depth of about 3 m of aquifer below the
minimum water level is considered necessary for construction of infiltration galleries.

The infiltration line (collection channels) consists of single or double row of perforated pipes or
dry masonry channels. These may be laid parallel to the river axis either on the inside or outside
of the river bed. The channels are laid with the grade 1 in 300 to 500 at appropriate depths for
the purpose of extracting water. The perforated pipes or dry masonry channels are covered by
gravel filter arranged in layers; coarser material closer to the pipes or channels.

In spite of the gravel pack thus provided, some suspended matter may get into the pipe or

8
 channel. If this material is allowed to accumulate in the pipe or channel, it will block. To prevent
this, the pipes or channels should be sized to get a flow velocity that is sufficiently high to flush
out silt deposits. The self cleaning velocity should be higher than 0.5 m/s but should not be more
than 1 m/s. At velocities greater than 1 m/s the friction losses will be too high, hence
undesirable.

Supply pipes to collection chambers should be aligned laterally or longitudinally to take best
advantage of the water depth. Excavation below the water strata and laying of gallery with filter
media around it, however, needs efficient de-watering and highly skilled workmanship.

Infiltration wells or galleries are appropriate only along the foothills. The river bed infiltration
gallery should be located at a point where stream does not change direction and where water
would be available throughout the year. When an infiltration gallery is recommended, a detail
design should be prepared on the basis of site condition. A high level of supervision during
installation is also required.

The type design of infiltration galley is shown in drawing G-08. of Vol. III.

3.1.4 Collection Chamber

A Collection Chamber is constructed to:

- settle coarse material contained in river or spring water,
- remove floating debris like leaves, branches etc. from water,
- safely dispose off surplus water collected in excess of the pipe capacity,
- collect and observe the flow from the intakes when more than one source is
utilized. Each source should have its own individual pipeline to the collection
chamber for this purpose,
- allow free flow to avoid creation of back pressure in the spring.
If intake and collection chamber are separated, the overflow and drainage capacity of the
collection chamber must be equal to or greater than the maximum flow capacity of the pipeline
connecting them. The pipeline between intake and collection chamber should be able to safely
discharge the maximum flow of the spring without impounding water behind the intake if no
overflow pipe is provided at the intake.

The standard collection chamber is shown in drawing G-.16. and G-17. of Vol. III.

3.2 PIPELINE

The pipeline transfers water from the source to the service area. Pipelines require high
investment outlay, and hence careful consideration is necessary for its design. Choosing its
alignment, size and material, therefore, calls for utmost caution. Proper selection of pipe

9
 alignment route is essential to ensure that the pipeline is laid through stable terrain to minimize
disruptions later on. The operation and maintenance tasks then become easier.

Pipes are manufactured from various materials, which come in different sizes and pressure
ratings. The choice of pipe for a particular situation is governed by its availability, resistivity to
corrosion and mechanical damages, and pressure limits. The ease with which pipes can be
transported and joined also influences the selection.

Locally manufactured High-Density Polyethylene (HDP) pipes are mostly used in community
water supply schemes in Nepal. In rocky terrains, and when the static water pressure is likely to
be very high, HDP pipes are not suitable. Galvanized Iron pipes and in special cases high-
pressure steel pipes may be used whenever static head is exceptionally high. GI pipe should not
be excessively bent to facilitate its laying along the rocky terrain. This will break the GI coating
and make the pipe vulnerable. GI bends should be used instead. On unavoidable acute bends,
anchor or thrust blocks should be provided. After the pipeline is laid, protection work need to be
carried out against backfill material getting washed away.

Pipelines in a water supply scheme consist of transmission main and distribution pipelines.

3.2.1 Transmission Main

A pipe that feeds a storage tank continuously for 24 hours from a source (Intake -Storage Tank;
Storage Tank - Storage Tank) is called a Transmission Main. It is designed without considering
any peak factor. The transmission main may be designed with the concept of open flow. For
easy operation and maintenance, washouts are provided in the transmission main. In order to
prevent the static pressure in the transmission main the valves are provided only at the outlet of
the interruption chamber. When the valve is closed for maintenance the section immediately
upstream continues to flow as open system and static water pressure never builds up. When the
transmission main is designed under open flow condition the number of interruption chambers
required would be reduced. However, for easy operation and maintenance washouts should be
provided at about every 1.5 km interval.

A transmission main should closely follow the profile of the ground surface along the selected
alignment. A reconnaissance survey should be carried out and the alternative routes evaluated.
Some points to be taken into consideration in the choice of pipe alignment are as follows:

- the available head

- the distance from source to the service area
- nature of soil and its stability with regard to land slide
- nature of the terrain: steep slopes, rocky areas, forest, agricultural land etc.
- nature and type of river crossings
- whether the alignment can be along existing paths, trails, to facilitate easy
maintenance as accessibility would be easy.

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 The hydraulic grade line should be always 10 m above the ground level. Due to the nature of the
ground profile, some-times, it may fall below the ground at critical points. In such case negative
pressure would develop in the pipeline, which must be avoided. For this purpose, chambers
should be provided at suitably located points in the pipe profile. Called interruption chambers,
these are also used to break the dynamic head if it is too high. Few typical examples of hydraulic
grade line are shown in Fig 1.

H.G.L.

H.G.L.
At Least
10 m
<10 m

Larger Smaller

Diameter

Wrong Correct

H.G.L.
H.G.L.

<10 m
At Least
10 m
Critical Point

Fig 1 : Pipe Profile and Hydraulic Grade line.

The selection of the pipe route should consider the following points :

- the ease of construction,

- transportation of pipes to site,
- trench excavation,
- laying and jointing,
- refilling of trench and
- shortest technically possible route.

Many times even if the chosen pipe alignment is short and hydraulically satisfactory, it may be
unsuitable for laying the pipeline due to one or more reasons stated above. Pipe routes along
rocky terrain should be avoided, if possible. If such alignment can not be avoided, the pipeline
should be laid on the rock face with suitable pre-cover or anchors.

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 Once the alignment has been chosen, the next step is to undertake detailed survey along the
selected route (Section 3.3 Vol. I).

3.2.2 Distribution Pipelines

Distribution pipelines are used to supply water to the various consumers. Pipes of different
diameters and lengths constitute a distribution network. Distribution pipe sizes are determined by
the tap flow rate when the water is supplied through the standpost. The distribution system
should supply water at adequate residual head and should be accordingly sized.

While selecting the alignment of distribution line following points should be considered:

- avoid geologically unstable sections such as landslides, gullies, streams etc. If stream
crossings cannot be avoided then crossing such as suspended cable should be used.

- alignment along the side of an existing footpath is acceptable even if it would increase
the pipe length. People using the path observe any leakage and most likely will inform
the Village Maintenance Worker. It will also make the later maintenance task easier. If it
is not possible to follow an existing path, it is advisable to create one for which
cooperation of the users should be sought.

- sudden changes of the pipeline alignment in the horizontal or vertical directions should
be avoided. The pipeline gradient should be uniform for as long stretch as possible.
Frequent changes in gradient will result in several high points and should be avoided. For
practical reasons, not every high point need to be provided with an air valve. In
distribution systems also high points may affect flow because of entrapped air.

- stretches parallel to the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) should be avoided, as unstable
flow condition may result. This prevents the entrapped air from moving in either
direction. In the distribution pipe of a closed system, HGL changes whenever faucets are
closed and opened.

- alignment should be selected to avoid excessive pressure. Deep valley and ravines should
be avoided by re-aligning the pipeline if an alternative exists. However, this might result
in a longer alignment, which may prove to be costlier than using pipe that withstand
higher static pressure. The cost of alternatives should be compared in such cases.

Having fixed the distribution pipe alignment including the location of the storage tank, the next
step is to undertake detailed survey of the proposed service area. The surveyor should collect the
feasibility survey report and the sketch plan of the service area from the District Office. If such a
plan is available, the surveyor should work with the plan as the base map and fill in additional
information. If it is not available, a layout map of the service area showing the location of the
different villages/wards, trails, important public institutions and buildings should be prepared.
On same layout plan the surveyor should also mark the population and number of houses that
each standpost will serve.

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Most schemes at present are surveyed and designed with a single reservoir located at a point
above the service area. The distribution lines follow from top to bottom. If the elevation
difference is high, several BPC's are required in a scheme. Since BPCs increase a scheme's
operation and maintenance requirements, the design should attempt to reduce the number of
BPCs.

This may be achieved by aligning the distribution pipeline along the contours. At appropriate
points storage tanks are located to supply for each distribution line which also break the high
static pressure condition. Though the length of the pipe is increased, the number of BPC's is
reduced and the operation and maintenance requirements, which have to be undertaken by the
community are minimized.

This approach also permits the provision of distribution network with smaller pipes branching
off from a single transmission main to feed more than one-storage tanks. Different
configurations of storage tank layout in a distribution network are shown in Fig 2 a, b, c.

To minimize operation and maintenance requirements, the number of varying diameter pipes
should be reduced in the distribution lines as practicable as possible.

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3.3

OTHER

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 COMPONENTS

Other structural components that may be provided in a water scheme are as follows:

3.3.1 Sedimentation Tank

Water from streams or rivers may contain suspended matters like leaves, branches, and sediment
particles, which come with the flow. These materials may cause the following operational
problems:

- reduction of pipelines capacity which in extreme situation can block the pipe
completely,
- reduction of capacity of storage tank due to sediment deposit,
- increase of wear and tear of system appurtenances e.g. valves can not be closed
and air valves constantly leak,
- scouring of internal pipe surfaces when the water flow velocity is high.

In order to overcome above problems, a sedimentation tank is necessary before the storage tank
and close to the intake structure or collection chamber.

The amount of sediment likely to enter the water system depends on the types & volume of
sediment brought by a stream. This quantity depends on type of the river's watershed, its natural
environment and the volume of sediment generated, its land use, the characteristic of the river
such as discharge, velocity and slope. The sediment transport characteristics of a river may be
considered while deciding the detention time of a sedimentation tank. It may also use the surface
loading concept in the design. Villagers could be consulted to form an idea about the nature of
sediment carried by the stream if detailed data is not available, which generally is the case in
Nepal.

The size of sedimentation tank required depends on the type and size of sediment particles
entering the transmission mains. Sedimentation tanks should be provided as close as possible to
the collection chamber or intake. The following detention periods are recommended for
community based rural water supply schemes:

- 1 to 2 hours for rivers which carry relatively coarse material only, and for pipe
systems where the computed flow velocities in the main pipes is above 1 m/s.
- 4 to a maximum 6 hours for rivers which carry fine material and where the
computed flow velocities in the main pipes is below 1 m/s.

The volume of sediment removed depends on the type of sedimentation unit used. The
standardized plain sedimentation recommended has a detention time of 1 hour and generally
removes particle size up to the mean diameter of 0.05 mm. Guideline values for determination of
size of sedimentation tank are given in Vol.6

15
 The standard sedimentation tank is shown in drawing G-09,G-49

3.3.2 Storage Tank

Storage tanks are necessary to balance the variation of demand in a day. For economical reasons,
it is important to place the storage tank(s), as close as possible to the supply area so that the cost
of a scheme is reduced. It should be carefully sited keeping the following points in mind:

- the storage tank should be located at suitable place above the highest located
standpost of the service area so that a residual head of 5 m to 10 m can be
maintained at the standpost.

- the storage tank site should be located towards the lower edge of a terrace to
avoid long pipelines carrying peak flows in flat terrain.
- storage tanks must be accessible at all times and not located in rice fields to
reduce risk of contamination and failure from uplift pressure.

- instead of one storage tank or tanks served in sequence, several small storage
tanks which are served by independent supply lines should be provided. These
options are shown in Fig 2 a, b, c. Among the three options, the third is
recommended.

For a rural water scheme, storage tanks are usually constructed either of ferrocement or R.C.C.
or stone masonry. Stone masonry tanks are more costly compared to ferrocement tanks.
Ferrocement tanks are proposed to be used as storage tanks. A trained technician can build a
ferrocement tank in a relatively short time. Construction of ferrocement tanks also requires less
contribution from the community members.

Ferrocement tanks of capacity 1 m3 to 10 m3 in the interval of 1 m 3 and above 10 m3 upto 20 m3

in the interval of 2 m3 are standardized for community water schemes. If the required size is
more than 20 m3, a combination of two or more tanks may be adopted. For smaller storage tank
investigation could be made for use of plastic tanks.

The standard ferrocement storage tanks are shown in drawing G-10, G-11 and G-12 , the
standard stone masonry tank are shown in drawing G-13, G-14 and G-15. and R.C.C. tank are
shown in drawing G-44 of Vol. III

3.3.3 Break Pressure Chamber (BPC)

16
 At any structure/device where water is permitted to discharge freely into the atmosphere, the
hydrostatic pressure is reduced to zero. Such a structure / device will break the hydrostatic
pressure. A small tank specifically built to break the hydrostatic pressure in the pipe line is called
Break Pressure Chamber (BPC). Storage tank, sedimentation tank, collection chamber,
distribution chamber will also act as Break Pressure Chambers besides serving their primary
purposes. A float valve is always provided in a Break Pressure Chamber. It is used in the
distribution system when the pressure head exceeds 60 m of water. The limit is specified because
most float valve can satisfactorily withstand upto 60 m head. BPC should not be constructed
fully underground and protected by providing barbed wire fencing.
The following points should be considered while locating a BPC;

- in the distribution line whenever the static head exceeds 60 m even if pipe with a
pressure rating of 10 kg/cm2 is used,

- replacement of an Air Valve by a BPC at high points, if the design permits.

In a BPC when the inlet pipe size is small ( up to 50 mm ) the gate valve can be located inside
the chamber before the float valve, instead of the usual position at the outlet pipe. This will
eliminate the need for a valve chamber. BPC should be covered by a cover slab. Use of a pipe
BPC is suitable only in transmission main upto flow 0.45 l/s and pipe diameter 32 mm size.
R.C.C. BPC can be used instead of pipe BPC and stone masonry BPC.
The standard Break Pressure Chamber drawing is shown in drawing G-16, G-17 and G-18 of
Vol. III.

3.3.4 Interruption Chamber (IC)

A chamber provided in the transmission main to break high pressure without a float valve is
called Interruption Chamber.

The following points should be considered while locating a BPC or IC;

- easily accessible,
- as far as possible not within rice fields because of contamination possibilities,
- upstream of standposts and branch - off tees,
- towards the lower edge of a terrace to avoid long pipelines carrying peak flows in
flat terrain,

In an open system when the dynamic head in the pipe line exceeds 60 m an interruption chamber
may be provided.

To minimize the operation and maintenance requirements, attempts should be made to reduce
the number of both BPCs and ICs in a scheme. The number of BPCs can be reduced by aligning

17
 the distribution network along the contours which has been explained in section 3.2.2 Vol I. In
the transmission main when the pipe diameter is smaller, higher series pipe should be used to
reduce the number of ICs.

The standard IC drawing is shown in drawing G-25 of Vol. III.

3.3.5 Distribution Chamber (DC)

To split supply network into manageable sub-systems serving lesser number of standpost, a
distribution chamber should be provided. It also facilitates division of flow in the distribution
sub-systems. The respective flow in each sub-system will be carried by separate pipelines from
each decentralized storage tanks.

The standard Distribution Chamber is shown in drawing G-16 and G-17 and G-19 of Vol. III.
These Chambers will work satisfactory up to a flow rate of 3 l/s.

A distribution chamber (DC) is used to proportionally divided inlet flow. Outlet pipe size and
proper orientation (horizontal) allow the flow to be distributed at an approximate ratio
regardless of variations in the inlet flow. In some cases the proper pipe combination can
control the flow accurately enough to eliminate the need for globe valves. The outlet flows are
controlled by outlet pipe size and orientation and will be independent of any oversized
downstream pipelines.

The DC operates on the principle that open channel flow in two horizontal pipes (lower edge
at the same height) will be approximately proportional to the pipes diameters.

Diameter (pipe 1) Flow (pipe 1)


Diameter (pipe 2)  Flow (pipe 2)

The pipes must be placed LEVEL (with respect to lower edge) and in a HORIZONTAL
orientation if the outlet flows are to be in a ratio approximately equal to that of the outlet
diameters.

Distribution ratio chart for various GI outlet pipes to divide flow in two and three outlet is
given in Annex……..

The flow ratio will be slightly larger for the smaller diameter pipe due to the relationship
between area of flow and open channel flow behavior. This works to the designer’s
advantage, as flow can be precisely controlled by placing a single globe valve on the smaller
of the two outlets. The larger of the two outlets will not need a globe valve, minimizing initial
and operational and maintenance costs..

18
Three methods can be used to divide the flow:
A. Proper orientation and sizing of GI outlets
B. The pipeline from DC to RT can be designed to control the flow naturally
C. An orifice can be placed in one or all of the outlets to control the flow
(not recommended).

A. PROPER ORIENTATION AND SIZING OF GI OUTLETS

This is the most reliable and sustainable way to distribute flows. Horizontally oriented GI
outlet pipes distribute the inlet flow in a ratio approximately equal to that of the GI outlet
diameters. The major advantage of this method is that flow will continue to be distributed in
the same proportions regardless of inlet flow variations.

The major disadvantage of this method is that very precise flow distribution is not always
possible. If very accurate flows are required, a valve(s) must be placed on the smaller of the
two GI outlets. This is necessary when the ratio of the lower flow to higher flow is extremely
low, which is not uncommon in multi-RT designs. The smallest practical GI outlet ratio is
1/2" to 2 1/2”, which is 0.20 (lower diameter divided by higher diameter) to 1. For example,
an inlet flow of 0.40 lps cannot be distributed as 0.06 lps and 0.34 lps since the ratio of low
flow to large flow (0.06/ 0.34 = 0.18) is below the minimum ratio the GI pipes can provide
(0.20).

These cases, the smaller flow will usually be less 0.20 lps. Therefore, a 1/2" GI outlet (See
Table 2 Below) fitted with a globe valve can be used. The globe valve can control the flow
accurately since the head within the DC is constant. Note that only the smaller outlet is
provided with a globe valve.

B. NATURAL FLOW FROM DC TO RT

The pipelines from DC to RTs should be designed on the basis on natural flow. If the sub-
system requires a CDF that can be controlled naturally by the pipeline (using no valves), this
procedure in itself will be effective. However, two exceptions are commonly encountered.
Often the survey is faulty and/or the pipeline is laid improperly, either of which will render
this method ineffective. The other unavoidable problem is that often the sub-system requires a
CDF lower than that which the pipeline (16mm 10) can naturally control. It should be noted
that at least one of the distribution lines should be slightly oversized to ensure that any excess
flow does not simply overflow at the distribution tank.

Use of an RT/DC

This method can be used when the RTs are in series. This will often be the case since many

19
 villages in Nepal follow a given route down a hill side. RT/DCs eliminate the need for a
separate distribution chamber, lowering project costs and future operation and maintenance
requirements. The critical aspect of this approach is that it relies completely on the pipeline to
control flow.

The RT/DC is located at the site of the first sub-system tap stand. The two outlets are placed
at different levels (5 cm), the distribution line being higher than the transmission line. The
difference between the inlet CDF and outlet CDF (to the lower RT) is equal to the RT's sub-
system's CDF. The main disadvantage of the RT/DC is that a decrease in source will not be
equally distributed since the transmission main outlet is lower and will always gets preference
in terms of flow.

The transmission outlet must be slightly lower for two reasons. If the sub-system users
damage or over consume, the negative effect (empty RT) must not be felt by the other sub-
systems. In addition, the outlets cannot be at the same level because the distribution line is
designed for peak flow whereas the transmission main is only designed for the remaining
system's CDF. That is, if the tank was empty (minimum water level), the distribution line
would receive a much greater proportion of the incoming water.

This RT/DC approach relies on two factors to function properly. First, the safe source yield
must not decline. Second, the transmission pipeline must control the flow. The first problem
concerning safe yield can be overcome by using a source that has a minimum safe yield of
over 1.5 times the CDF4. The second problem of pipeline flow control can be solved if the
surveying and pipe laying are done properly. The problem of very low flows (mentioned
above for distribution chambers) is usually only encountered at the last RT since the flow to be
controlled at any given point by the transmission main is the combined CDFs for the
remaining RTs below.

The main difficulty of this approach is its reliance on proper surveying and pipe laying. Field
experience has shown that it is not uncommon to see much larger pipes installed than were
originally designed for.

3.3.6 Standpost

The standpost is a central and the most frequently used component of a water scheme. A
standpost will be more than just a physical structure and may become important landmark in the
community. Its design should therefore, conform closely to the social and cultural aspirations of

4
This criteria applies only to medium to large size systems (over 8 tap stands).

20
the community. The standpost must be appropriately located. It must be aesthetically pleasant
and robust. The central pad of the standpost should be made of concrete, while stone paving
would be desirable on the outside. The drainage from the standpost should be taken away from it
and safely disposed. When it is not possible to easily drain away waste water, appropriate
soakage pit is provided.

The location of a standpost is governed by the population density, and by the settlement pattern.
In areas having low population density, a standpost may be needed to serve only a few houses.
The provision of a standpost may be determined by the following two factors:

a) maximum desirable walking distance to fetch water, and

b) the number of people who are supplied water conveniently.

The number of people to be served by a standpost is also determined by the tap flow rate. A
standpost should serve a maximum 100 users. The following standpost location criteria based on
water carrying distance should be used as a reference.

TABLE 3.1 : Maximum Distance of Standpost Location From Users

Walking Distance Desirable In Exceptional Cases

Horizontal 150 m 250 m

Vertical 50 m 80 m

The criteria for locating standposts should be clearly explained to the users who should decide
the sites. Often the location of a standpost is influenced by certain groups. It can be avoided by
selecting a location, which would be acceptable to all the users. To avoid complications, the
following guidelines should be followed in locating a standpost:

- accessible to all users all the time.

- not located within a house or court yard.
- If the location is likely to create friction, the villagers should be persuaded to
choose an alternate location.
- located where waste water is drained away easily.

In some cases, few houses may exist along the transmission main route. These users may be
served by tapping average flow from the transmission main. A storage tank of 1 m3 capacity may
be provided along with a standpost to distribute water to these household.

The population that would be benefited from a standpost should be accurately estimated. This

21
 would need detailed study of the cluster and settlement pattern, which is explained in the
population survey section: Vol. I. It is generally assumed that the growth of the population
would occur around the standpost. However, it may not be always possible to foresee the
expansion pattern. A few extra standposts may have to be build to cater to the new demand
created by the opening of a road or other development activities later on.

In such cases, it will be hard to reject requests for additional standposts even if the number of
standposts provided were based on the design population. The request for additional standposts
may be addressed more easily in a scheme with more than one storage tanks which can easily
accommodate one or two additional standposts. Another approach may be to design the scheme
for the design period of 15 to 20 years while the standposts are provided to meet the demand of
10 years. Additional standposts can then be constructed later on as the demand comes, preferably
by the community themselves. Provision of standpost in school should be always in
combination with required storage facilitites i.e. Polytanks, Ferrocement Tanks,R.C.C/Masonary
tanks.
The standard standposts are shown in drawings G-21 and G-22 of Vol. III.

3.3.7 Suspended crossing

Suspended crossings are required whenever, the pipeline crosses a river or stream or wide and
deep gullies. Crossings may be also required to cross over a unstable terrain which may be
subjected to erosion and landslides.

Three categories of crossings are often encountered.

(a) Gully crossing for a span up to 6 m

(b) Dry khola (Stream) crossing, and
(c) Suspended crossing when the span is greater than 6 m.

Gully crossing and dry stream crossing are dealt in 3.3.8

Although several design alternatives are possible, certain fundamental principles have to be
followed in the design of suspended crossings. Each possible design incorporate the following
common characteristics :

- the suspended pipeline must be high enough not to be broken by debris floating
down the stream at its maximum flood level, or by landslides;

- the cable supporting the pipeline must be adequately anchored on stable ground
at both ends;

- the suspended crossing must be level or nearly so (i.e. at the same elevations on
both end);

22
 - the cable supporting the pipeline must be strong enough to withstand the self
weight of the pipe, the water in the pipe, as well as the forces generated by wind
and swaying;

- the pipe is securely fastened to the suspending cable, either by stirrups or clamps.

The following points should also be kept in mind while designing a suspended crossing.

- crossing should use HDP pipe.

- a HDP pipe of larger diameter must be provided as casing for protecting the
supply pipe.
- washout should be placed at the upstream point of the crossing.
- crossing on both sides should be fenced to prevent people from damaging it.

The type design of suspended crossing is shown in drawing G-23 of Vol. III.

3.3.8 Gully Crossing

Narrow and deep gullies up to 6 m spans can be crossed by a span of GI pipe above the bottom
of the gully, clear of the maximum flood level and suitably anchored to the banks of the gully or
using stone masonry wall, whichever is found to be suitable. Wide gullies or streams which dry
up should be crossed by GI pipes buried at 1.5 to 2 m depth and anchored in the masonry or
gabion walls to prevent it from getting washed away during flood times.

The pipe in the gully in the suspended crossing may be either of GI or HDP, depending upon
costs and availability of materials. An HDP pipe, however, will require a protective covering
using a higher diameter pipe wrapped around it, as this pipe will deteriorate quickly under
exposure to sunlight, and would be likely to break within a few years.

3.4 SYSTEM APPURTENANCES

3.4.1 Air Valve (AV)

An air valve allows smooth flow in the pipeline. In hilly terrains where the pipeline has to follow
deep valleys and high humps, air is entrapped in the pipe at critical points. Air valves release the
entrapped air and maintain the smooth flows in the pipeline.

An air valve serves mainly the following three purposes:

- release air from the pipeline during the filling process

- release air from the pipeline during the normal operation of the water supply, and
- prevent the development of vacuum in case a valve is closed upstream of the air
valve.

23
 For pipe diameter up to 110 mm, automatic orifice type air valve with a minimum orifice
diameter of 2 mm will be suitable. Air valve is prone to malfunction and may cause water
leakage. For this reason air valves must be equipped with an isolating gate valve.
In pipelines having high flow velocity, air valves are not efficient since the draw-off effect
created by the valve is too small. In such cases and otherwise the following alternative air release
devices & methods should be considered:

- manual operated air release valves ( Gate Valve),

- connecting to a standpost on a high point to avoid an air valve,
- replacement of an air valve by a BPC at a high point if design permits and
- connecting small diameter HDP pipe and taking it above the static level (like air
vent pipe)

However, it should be borne in mind that a manual air release valve does not release air
automatically. It needs to be operated manually on a routine basis. An air vent pipe should be
located downstream of the gate valve in the outlet pipe of intakes, storage tanks etc.

3.4.2 Washout

Washouts are provided to clean sediment accumulated in the pipeline in course of its use. During
filling of the pipe, they may also act as air release points.

When operating the washout valve a velocity big enough to overcome the bond (shear stress)
between pipe wall and sediment must be created. For this purpose, the minimum available head
at the washouts should be 10 to 20 m without creating a vacuum at a high point. For pipes
having diameters up to 110 mm, diameter of the washout should be same as the main pipe.

It is important to place a washout at the first possible low point after the collection chamber. The
desirable position of the air valves and the washouts are shown in Fig. 3.

Static Level

H.G.L.

A B C

Air Valve
24
Washouts
 Fig 3 : Desirable Positions of Air Valves & Washouts

3.4.3 Branch( Control) Valve

Branch valves are installed for the following three reasons:

- for repair purpose; to shut off parts of a supply system for maintenance,
- for rationing of water; in case of a shortage of supply or other operational factors
which would necessitate water rationing and
- for regulating the flow in the main and the branch pipelines.

Branch valves on distribution pipes should be placed in such a way that each controls flow to 3
to 5 standposts. Whenever possible, a branch valve is combined with an air release valve or a
washout. But the branch valve must be located upstream of these valves.

3.4.4 Valve Chamber

All system appurtenances shall be installed in a masonry valve chamber having a minimum
internal size of 75 x 75 cm. If more than one valve has to be installed in the same chamber, then
the size shall be increased accordingly. The floor of a valve chamber does not require drainage,
although it may prove to be of advantage when repairing a valve. The floor of a valve chamber
for a branch valve or a washout should permit leakage water to percolate into the ground. All
chambers should be provided with covers.

For a single valve, a piece of GI pipe may be used as the valve box. The diameter of the GI pipe
depends upon the size of the valve. The bottom of the GI pipe is slotted to allow it to rest over
the distribution pipe. On the remaining end at the bottom 12 mm holes are drilled in which a iron
bar is hooked. A blank flange is connected on the top end of the GI pipe with the help of nuts &
bolts. Hexagonal end caps may also be used as the cover.

3.5 DRAWINGS

Once the design of a scheme is completed, the following drawings should be prepared:

25
(a) For Feasibility Study

Preliminary layout of the service area which should show the following
- Layout of the scheme,
- Name of the source and location,
- Intake and collection chamber,
- Storage tank,
- BPC(s),
- DC(s),
- Standpost locations with population served,
- Locality names, and
- Crossings.

This sketch should be used as a reference plan for detailed survey.

(b) For Detailed Survey

The layout plan of the service area including the source should be prepared with the help
of a compass. It should show all the components mentioned above as they exist in the
design. A reference layout plan of a scheme is shown in Annex -I.

In addition the drawing should include the following:

(i) Detailed Plan of the intake at 1 m contour interval.
(ii) Longitudinal Profile showing all the details. It should show

- chainage
- ground elevation
- nature of soil/terrain along the alignment.

After the pipeline design is completed, the following details must be added on to the
longitudinal profile.
- hydraulic grade line, static line, residual head.
- pipe type (materials) and diameter, pressure.
- flow velocity, and flow in each section.
- location of

 lntake,
 storage tank,
 BPCs, ICs and DCs,
 standposts,
 crossings,
 location of valves (Gate valve, Air valve, Washouts),
 partial distance,
 cumulative distance, and
 branch points.

A sample of the longitudinal profile with hydraulic grade line is shown in Annex J. The
following drawings in the scales as shown should also be included in the design:

26
Drawing Scale

Contour Map 1:100

Layout Plan 1:5000
Longitudinal Profile 1:2000 Horizontal; Vertical1: 100
Intake Plan & Details with contour 1:100; Details 1:10 to 1:30
Storage Tank & Details with contour 1:100; Details 1:10 to 1:30
Sedimentation Tank 1:100; Details 1:10 to 1:30
Break Pressure Chamber 1:10 to 1:30
Valve Chamber 1:10 to 1:30
Distribution Tank 1:10 to 1:30
Collection Chamber 1:10 to 1:30
Public Standpost 1:10 to 1:30
Treatment Plant 1:100, Details 1:10 to 1:30
Miscellaneous Drawings 1:10 to 1:30

27
 4.0 DESIGN CRITERIA

4.1 POPULATION

The total population of a community to be served by the proposed water scheme needs to be
accurately surveyed. Firstly, the present population of the community needs to be established.
Once this is done population that is likely to be reached at the end of the design period needs to
be estimated.

The benefited population is defined as follows:

Present Population : Population at the time of survey

Base year Population : Population when construction is completed and
water scheme is commissioned
Design Population : Population at the end of design period.

The population data should be taken on household basis by actual counting. Census records are
also needed to determine the average growth rate per annum.
The main aim of population survey is to determine:
1. The population of residents in the residential houses/buildings
2. The population of day scholars and boarders in the academic institutions
3. The population of outdoor and indoor patients in hospitals and nursing homes
4. The population of birds and animals in the farms/houses
5. The population of visitors (floating population) in the hotels and restaurants and others, if
any.
The population survey is the basis for determining the capacity of the pipe network.
Knowing present population we can forecast projected population to calculate the projected
water demand and capacity of the pipe network.

4.1.1 Present Population

Population survey is one of the crucial activities in the design of a water scheme. The
surveyor/designer must spend sufficient time to establish the present population of the
community, in close co-operation with the members of the Water Users and Sanitation
Committee in particular and the beneficiaries in general. Population should be surveyed
according to the method explained in the procedural Guideline Vol. I.

4.1.2 Annual Population Growth Rate

28
 A water supply scheme should be designed to meet the community's future water requirements.
The future population is estimated with the help of the past growth trend of the particular
community. Population growth rate critically affects the design because of its impact on the
projected population, and consequently on its cost.

Population growth rates for different districts can be obtained from the results of the national
census conducted in 1981, 1991 and 2001. These rates generally represent the average growth of
of the districts. They however, may not represent the growth rate of a particular community in
the district. Population growth rates in the municipal areas, district head-quarters and market
centers are generally higher. Also new urbanizing areas have higher growth rate, which may not
be represented by the district rate. In the communities of the hills, the growth rates are low and
even negative in some case.

Population growth rates for the districts are shown in Annex B. The rates have been worked out
on the basis of the census results of 1981,1991 and 2001. For each district, the urban and rural
population are differentiated and calculated. In case of rural communities, where the growth rate
is less than 1% per year, a growth rate of 1% should be adopted. This will allow some growth
without substantially affecting the cost of the scheme.

The district wise rates should be used where better or more recent growth rates cannot be
obtained. When these rates may not be applicable, best informed judgement of the
surveyor/designer based on the prevailing conditions should be used.

District wise growth rates should also be used for estimating design population of schools. The
judgement of the surveyor should be used if it is unrepresentative and new value has to be taken.

4.2 DESIGN PERIOD

Design period refers to the duration for which a scheme will meet water demands of different
water users. This time begins from the day a scheme is commissioned and operated by the users.
The general practice in Nepal is to design water schemes for a period of 15 to 20 years.

The design period of a water supply scheme generally depends on :

* Rate of population growth,

* Present and future settlement pattern,
* Economical life of the system components, and
* Potential for development.

At high population growth rate, if a high design period is taken, the cost of the scheme generally
becomes high. As such there is less justification for the high investment by taking a longer

29
design period. When the growth rate is higher, phased implementation may be considered or a
lower design period may be more appropriate.

In some cases, storage tanks may be designed to meet the demand of a lesser period while the
distribution pipes are sized to meet the design water demand. Storage could be added later.
Logistic, re-mobilization of community and other administrative supports make impractical to
consider phased implementation in community water supply schemes.
It may be considered, only if obvious reasons such as very high population growth rate justifies
it.

Following design periods should be adopted:

TABLE 4.1 : Design Period

Design Rationale Basis District

Period
Years
15 For Populat Manang Mountain
communities ion
Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kaski, Hill
where the Growth
Shurkhet,Sindhuli, Makawanpur, Doti,
growth rate is Rate >2
Ilam, Pyuthan
high %
Kailali, Kanchanpur, Rupandehi, Terai
Banke,Bara,Sunsari,Parsa,Chitawan,Bard
iya,
Rautahat,Udayapur,Dang,Sarlahi,Kapilb
astu,Nawalparasi,Mahottari,Morang,Sira
ha, Dhanusha,Saptari

20 Where the Populat Rasuwa,Mugu,Darchula,Bajhang,Kalikot Mountain

communities ion ,Dolpa,Dolakha,Jumla,Humla,Taplejung,
are isolated Growth Solukhumbu,Mustang,Sankhuwashaba,S
and have low Rate <2 indhupalchowk
growth %
Dhading,Rukum,Dadeldhura,Dailekh,Ka Hill
potential
vrepalanchowk,Tanahu,Bajura,Jajarkot,
Nuwakot,Salyan,Baitadi,Achham,Rolpa,
Baglung,Arghakhanchi,Lamjung,Pancht
har,Gorkha,Palpa,Dhankuta,Magdi,Rame
chhap,Gulmi,Okhaldhunga,Terhathum,P
arbat,Syangja,Khotang,Bhojpur
Jhapa Terai

The time needed for construction of the scheme should also be taken into consideration while
computing the design population. Time needed for construction depends on the size of the
scheme, logistics, planning and participation of the users. Community water supply schemes
should be completed within a reasonably short period. Otherwise the participation of the

30
 community cannot be sustained satisfactorily. For design purposes 2 years construction period
after the detailed design should be adopted.

4.3 Population Forecast:

The design population will have to be estimated with due regard to all the factors governing
the future growth and development of he project area in the industrial, commercial,
educational, social and administrative spheres. Special factors causing sudden imigration or
influx of population should also be foreseen to the extend possible.

Based on those factors there are numerous methods for population forecast, which are listed as
follows:
1. Demographic method
2. Arithmetic increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Geometrical increase method
5. Decreasing rate of growth method
6. Graphical method

The following two methods are more applicable for population forecast in our conditions:

4.3.1 Geometric growth method:

As urban and suburban areas of Terai are rapidly growing towns and cities having vast scope
of expansion, geometrical increase method is mostly applicable to forecast the design
population in this case.
In this method percentage increase is assumed to be the rate of growth and average of the
percentage increase is used to find out future increment in the population. The population is
forecasted by using the following formula:

P = P0 * (1+ r)n
Where, P0 - the present population.
r - the mean geometric growth rate per annum.
n is the number of years.

For ease of calculation, the growth factors computed by geometric growth method for each
district are given in Annex B. When the present population is multiplied by the growth factor,
the design population is obtained.

4.3.2. Incremental increase method:

31
 This method should be applied for population forecast in the areas where there are no vast
expansion possibilities of the town but population forecasted (i.e. population projected) with
arithmetic increase method maybe found lesser than the actual. The designer should be
critically think on the population increase trend of the service area. In this method population
calculation is done by using the following formula:

P = P0 + n *X + [ n(n +1)/2] *Y

Where, P and P0 are the projected and present Populations respectively

X and Y are the average increase and incremental increase in population per year
.n is the number of years.
While forecasting the population in both cases the designer has to consider the growth rate by
analyzing the census data for the service area instead of using district average growth rate.

4.4 WATER DEMAND

4.4.1 General

The amount of water required for a rural community depends on factors like the economic level
of the community, their consciousness and other physical and social aspects. In case of a bazaar,
the demand would be higher due to commercial activities and the transient population.

Piped water supplies for communities should be provided adequately for the following
purposes:

1. Domestic needs:
2. Institutional needs
3. Public purposes: street washing, sewer flushing, public parks watering etc.
4. Industrial and commercial use
5. Fire fighting
6. Requirement for livestock and poultry
7. Likely wastes amongst all users

4.4.2 Domestic Demand

Water used by an individual for different purpose is referred to as the domestic demand and
denoted as litre per capita demand (lpcd).It includes drinking, cooking, washing, bathing,

32
 toilets flushing, gardening, individual air conditioning etc.
Generally adopted per capita domestic needs are presented in Table No. 4.2

Table No.4.2: Generally adopted Per Capita Domestic Needs:

S.No. Community Adopted Remarks

Population lpcd
1. < 20,000 45 Supply through Public taps
2. <20,000 70 to 100 Supply through private taps
3. >20,000 100 to 150 Supply through private taps
<100,000
4. > 100,000 150 to 200 Supply through private taps

The design of gravity flow community water supply schemes in Nepal, in the past, has taken 45 l
as per capita demand as per the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO). The
provision of 45 lpcd is considered to include allowances for drinking and cooking, personal
washing, wastage and leakage, and some portion of the domestic animals demand. Water
consumption studies in the country are limited and are based on short duration though some
study has shown the per capita consumption in rural area to vary between 20 to 45 liters while in
the bazaar it varied between 50 to 70 liters 1.

In some communities, a source that could supply the recommended per capita water demand
may not be located at an economical distance from the service area. The tendency in such
circumstances is to seek source(s) away from the community so that the per capita water demand
could be supplied. This approach may have grave implications on the cost of the scheme 2 whose
operation and maintenance also create difficulties. In such case, closer water sources should be
selected, even though per capita demand may have to be lowered.

Supply below 45 lpcd should be considered by the Disigner in consultation with senior
Engineers. When yield is limited, demand as low as 230 liters per day for a family of 8 to 10
have been considered in the past. Decision on lower per capita demand should be based on the
extent of water scarcity and reliability of the closer water source(s). These factors must be
carefully evaluated by the designer/surveyor and information provided to the District based
Office. To what extent per capita demand may be lowered should be decided by the officer-in-
charge. If source yield is not adequate, the system may supply 45 lpcd during all other seasons
except in dry season. It should however, be kept in mind that the primary objectives of water

1 ?
The study was carried in Western Hills of Nepal (IRC 26)

2 ?
In some projects like Danchi in Kathmandu, the cost of providing water at the per capita demand of
45 lpcd was 35% more than the investment when the per capita demand was reduced by more than fifty
percent.

33
 supply improvement have to be fulfilled.

In such circumstances, other options of water supply such as improvement and protection & use
of traditional spring sources as well as rain water harvesting should also be investigated as
supplementary supply sources. Traditional spring sources must be protected even in bazaar areas.
When only a low capita demand can be supplied livestock demand shall not be provided. (also
see section 4.4.4)

4.4.3 Institutional Demand

Institutional demand refers to the water needed for offices, schools, and health posts, in the
community. In some case, tourist resorts, local industries like brewery and dairy, may also have
to be supplied water from the schemes. Past experience shows that the likelihood of such
example are less. In case of such demand the final decision should be made by the Water User
Committee. The Committee may allow service if these big users agree to support the community
in both the construction, operation and maintenance of the water scheme.

Government institutions deriving service from the water scheme must also support the Water
User Committee in operating and maintaining the schemes. In government offices, a standpost
should be provided in the court yard. This would also allow the members of the community
around to take service from the standpost.

In community water supply schemes priority should be given to supply water to schools and
health posts. The following institutional water demand should be adopted:

TABLE 4.3 : Institutional Water Demand

Type of Institutions Demand

School 10 l / student

Health post 1000 l per day if no sanitary facility

3000 l per day if sanitation facility

exist
Health Center 500 l / bed

4.4.4 Livestock Demand

Livestock is an important component of the life style in rural Nepal. It has utilities both as draft
animals for tilling land, and as a source of income. In most villages, livestock is taken out for
grazing which use the local springs and rivers. Livestock demand may be, therefore, included
only if the source yield is more than enough to supply the recommended per capita water

34
 demand. Livestock demand however, should not exceed 20% of the design domestic water
demand. The water demand for livestock should not be the guiding factor for selecting a
source(s).

4.4.5 Wastage and Leakage

In case of community based gravity flow schemes, wastage and leakage are incorporated in the
per capita demand and are not considered separately.

4.4.6 Fire demand

Water required for fire fighting is usually known as fire demand. It is usual to provide for fire
fighting demand as a coincident draft on the distribution system along with the normal supply
to the consumers as assumed. It is related as a function of population and may be computed
from the following formulae:

Q = 100 * P 0.50
Where, Q is the quantity of water in kiloliters per day.
P is the population of the service area in thousands.
If it results more than 1 liter per capita per day, for small cities and towns 1 liter per capita per
day can be adopted as fire fighting demand. Only one third of this volume should be added as
fire demand storage while determining the capacity of the service reservoir.

4.4.7 Design Water Demand

The per capita water demand for different users when multiplied by the design population gives
the design water demand in each category. When the different demands of each type are added
up the total design water demand is obtained. The chart for calculating the water demands, and
the total design water demand is shown in Annex D.

4.5 WATER CONSUMPTION PATTERN

Water consumption pattern refers to the variation in the amount of water consumed with respect
to time. This pattern depends on geographic location, peoples habits etc. Water consumption
varies at different times even in a day, morning, noon and evening. Detailed study of water
consumption pattern is yet to be undertaken in Nepal. Until more specific pattern is obtained, the
following consumption pattern should be adopted :

TABLE 4.4 : Water Consumption Pattern

35
 Hours % of Daily Demand
0.500 - 0.700 25
.700 - 1200 35
200 - 1700 20
1700 - 1900 20
1900 - 0.500 Negligible

4.6 TAP FLOW RATE AND PEAK FACTOR

Tap flow rate in a community water supply scheme should be fixed on the basis of the peak
demand and convenience of water collection. Peak demand is influenced by the consumption
pattern. As mentioned in Section 3.3.5, one standpost is provided to serve a maximum of 100
users. For this population at a capita demand of 45 lpcd, the standpost should supply 4500 liter
water in a day. This would require an average flow of about 0.05 l/s to be maintained in the
faucet. The following reasons however, make this flow rate both inconvenient and impractical.

- At this flow rate, a gagro (vessel) having a Volume of 15 liter would be filled in
about 5 minutes. If this flow rate is maintained, the users have to spend more
time in the standpost, which becomes inconvenient. This flow rate is also
inadequate to meet peak water demand in the morning.

- Between 5 to 7 AM in the morning, for example, Table 4.4 shows that the tap has
to supply 25% of the water demand. In this two hours period, for the same
populations of 100, the standpost has therefore, supply 1125 lites, at a flow rate
of 0.156 l/s. This rate is three times the average flow rate calculated earlier.
(0.156/0.05 > 3).

The ratio between this peak flow and the average flow is termed as the Peak Factor.
P.F. = Peak Flow / Average Flow.

At the flow rate of 0.156 l/s, the gagro of 15 liter capacity will be filled in about one and half
minutes. This filling time is more convenient and may be acceptable in the rural communities.

36
Higher flow rate (> 0.156 l/s) can be maintained in the tap which will also fill the vessel faster.
Higher flow rate may lead to wastage of water if the faucet is left open. Higher flow rate would
also require large size distribution pipes which will mean higher project cost. If pipe sizes are
higher the desired residual head may also not be achieved. (see section on residual head).

At each standpost, therefore, the design population and its total design water demand should be
determined.This water demand may then be converted in terms of the average tap flow rate
which when multiplied by the peak factor three yields the required tap flow rate. For an assumed
population distribution, the calculation of the flow rate is shown in the following table.

TABLE 4.5 : Tap Flow Rate for Assumed Population Distribution

Standpost Design Average Total Flow Rate Peak Flow

No. Population Demand Demand Average Rate
(p) (q) lpd (pxq=Qt ) l/s l/s
3 83 45 3735 0.043 0.129
4 97 45 4365 0.05 0.15
2 75 60 3375 0.031 0.117
1 50 45 2250 0.026 0.078

From practical consideration it is not desirable to vary flow in the distribution with different
flow rate in each tap. This causes difficulties in flow adjustment. The following criteria (Table
4.6) has been suggested based upon the design water demand to standardize the tap flow rate. As
evident from the table when the population served is more or less than the desirable 100, the
peak factor changes but remains within the range of three.

TABLE 4.6 Suggested Tap Flow Rate

Design P.C. Tap Flow Peak Factor Population Type of User

WaterDemand Rate (l/s) (P.F.)
(l) (lpcd)
4500 - 6000 60 0.20 3.8 - 2.88 75 - 100 Bazaar
3300 - 4500 60 0.15 3.92 - 2.88 55 - 75 Bazaar
3375 - 4500 45 0.15 3.84 - 2.8 75 - 100 Village

In the hills, it might not always be practicable to serve 100 users by one standpost because the
houses are dispersed. In such case the standpost may have to serve lesser users. When the
number served is less, the tap flow required will also be less. In such cases, the faucet can
supply lower flow rate. The lowest tap flow rate flow should be 0.1 l/s. This rate should be used
when the design demand is less than 3300 l/day. Such situation is likely to be encountered along

37
 the transmission main when few houses may have to be supplied. In such case required average
flow can be tapped from the transmission main. A small storage tank with float valve should be
provided with a standpost.

4.7 DETERMINATION OF STORAGE SIZE

The size of the reservoir for a particular community water system is a function of the
community's total demand, the community's consumption patterns, and the continuous demand
flow (CDF) from the source to the reservoir tank (R.T.). Among the above three parameters
the second one i. e. the consumption pattern of the community varies drastically from one
community to another since every consumers consumes the water as per their conveniences
depending upon his/her habits which further depends on season to season and other factors.
Hence, the study of the consumption pattern is not practical to do on each and every new
project site. Therefore, the following consumption pattern is tacitly assumed:

Consumption Patterns

Closed Continuous System (Peak Factor = 3.0)

Time Period 5AM - 7AM 7AM - 12PM 12PM - 5PM 5PM - 7PM
Percent 25% 35% 20% 20%
Demand

Intermittent System (Peak Factor = 4.8) School (Peak Factor = 6.0)

Time Period 6:30AM - 9:30AM 4PM - 7PM 10AM - 2PM
Percent 60% 40% 100%
Demand

Thus, to meet the fluctuations of water demand of a service area, some water storage
mechanism has to be set up so that it can balance the demand with the supply of water from
the source. In addition to this, water storage is needed when:

 The safe yield of the source is not sufficient to meet the (minimum flow for each tap) peak
water demand of the service area;
 Daily water demand is greater than the yield of the source during the daylight hours;
 Pipeline distance from the source to the service area is so long that it is more economical to
use smaller pipe size and construct a balancing reservoir tank;
 Equalizing the pressure as it fluctuates with the demand and also to equalize the rate of
daily pumping; and

38
 Storing the water provided by the source during low demands to be put in use during high
demand periods.

The water stored for the purpose of balancing the variable demand in the distribution system
with a view to equalize the supply with the demand of the service area over a period of
consumption is called balancing reserve. The tank used for this reserve water is called a
balancing reservoir.

Reservoir Tank (RT) Sizing

Cases:

In the water distribution system, normally four cases of reservoir size determination are
practiced as shown in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7: Cases of Reservoir Size Determination

Cases Inflow to the Reservoir Outflow from the

Reservoir
Case A Continuos Continuos
Case B Continuos Intermittent
Case C Intermittent Continuos
Case D Intermittent Intermittent

Each of the cases is exemplified in Annexes-E4

The preliminary storage tank size can be determined by computing the time required in hours for
the source to meet the day's demand as shown in Table 4.8. This approach is simple but should
be adopted for initial assessment only.

TABLE 4.8 Balancing Storage

Supply meets demand inHours Hours Hours Hours Hours

18-24 15-18 12-15 9-12 <9
Storage volume (hours 10 8 6 4 0

39
 of average demand)

A graph (Fig 3) prepared on the basis of the consumption pattern also allows easy computation
of the storage size. If the source is closer and permits, it may be desirable to tap more flow than
the average design demand. This will reduce the size of the tank and may lower cost of the
scheme. The capacity of the storage tank thus obtained should be filled during the non-supply
hours during the nighttime.

Many schemes designed as continuous systems have been found to be operated on an

intermittent basis due to reasons ranging from leakages, wastage and poor performance of float
valves of the break pressure chambers. Though a continuously operated scheme is always
desirable, it might be helpful to check the storage size for intermittent operating condition. When
a system is operated on an intermittent basis, the supply hours may be computed by using the
following approach. The procedure is based on the assumption that all taps will be opened at the
time since supply will provided for a fixed time.

(Tapped Discharge x 24 x 3600)

Maximum possible supply hours = ------------------------------
(Sum of Tap flows x 3600)

(Design Demand)
Minimum possible supply hours = ------------------------
(Sum of Tap flows * 3600)

The water supply hours, however, should not be less than eight in a day if the supply is to be
intermittent. This is the time needed to provide about 45 liters to 100 users when the tap flow
rate is 0.15 l/s. The size computed by the above procedure generally yields a slightly higher
storage volume. By equipping standard float valve in the BPCs, an intermittently operated
scheme can easily be made continuous. The forms for determining storage size are given in
Annex E.

40
4.8 PIPE LINE DESIGN

4.8.1 System Flow Rate

In order to design the pipeline, the flow that each branch of the supply network has to convey
should be known. Once the tap flow rates in the standposts are fixed, the system flow rate
automatically follows. Cumulative addition of tap flow rates to be served by the pipe under
consideration yields the system flow rate. A flow diagram of the scheme should be prepared
indicating the flow from each tap and the accumulated flow in the branch and the main pipes.
The flow required for various storage tanks has to be also worked out at this stage.

Fig 6 : Schematic of System Flow Rate

4.8.2 Basis of Design

Once the flow, which a pipe section has to transmit is known, its diameter should be sized next.
The basis of pipe line design is governed by the theory of flow of water under pressure in a pipe
line, which is briefly discussed below.

Flow of water in pipe line results in loss of energy ( head) during transmission. For a pipe of
length L, following factors govern the head loss:

i. Velocity, V
ii. Pipe diameter, D
iii. Density of water, 
iv. Viscosity of water, µ
v. Type of internal surface of pipe, k, and
vi. Friction factor,f

41
The most rational formula that incorporates all these factor is the Darcy Weisbach's equation
which is as follows :

fLV2
hL = ------ (2)
2gD
Q Q4
Substituting V = --- = ---- in equation (2)
A D²

8fLQ2
We get hL = ------- (3)
²gD5

42
To calculate diameter equation (3) has to be transposed as

8fLQ2
D5 = ----- (4)
²ghL

All terms in the right hand side of equation (4) must be known to calculate the diameter D. Of
these, Q, L and g are known while h L can be set by the designer. This leaves only one unknown
factor . Experiments over the last 100 years have shown that friction factor  is not a simple
constant but varies depending upon flow condition, type of liquid, flow velocity, pipe diameter
and the pipe material. Studies have shown that it depends simultaneously on (ρ, V, µ, D, k)
whose functional relationship has been developed by Colebrook and White as

1 k 2.51
----- = - 2 log (------ + --------- )(6)
0.5 3.7 x D Re x 0.5

Where Re = VD/µ = Reynold's Number

k/D = Relative Roughness Ratio
f = Friction Factor

Friction factor thus calculated should be used in equation (4) to compute the diameter. Other
factors that need to be known for calculating , are k, D, µ which depends on temperature, and
velocity V. For High Density Polyethylene (HDP) pipes the following surface roughness factor
should be adopted.

k = 0.1 mm

For GI pipes and HDP transmission mains between a stream source and sedimentation tank in
which deposition is likely to occur, the value of k should be adopted as

k = 1 mm

Both sides of the equation (6) contains . It, therefore, can be solved only by an iterative
method, which is a cumbersome exercise. Programmable calculators can be used for this
purpose. Similarly tables derived on the basis of equations (4) and (6) allow computation of head
loss for the range of flow encountered in designs of gravity flow community water schemes is
given in annex F in which the design procedure are also provided. When a programmable
calculator is used, the following factors should be adopted.

43
 k = 0.1 mm or 1 mm
 = 1000 kg/m3
µ = 0.001 N/m2 at 4C

Flow in pipes also results in other type of losses known as minor losses. This loss is caused when
water flows through valves, fittings, and when flow direction and area is changed. In pipes,
whose length is greater than 1000 times the diameter, these losses are insignificant and can be
neglected. Only in case of pump systems and treatment network, estimation of minor losses
might be critical. In community water supply scheme design, minor losses are not considered.
The residual head provided at a standpost is sufficient to take account of minor losses.

Minor losses can be estimated by equation (7).

V2
Minor loss = factor x --- (7)
2g

Minor losses are not considered in the design of pipes.

4.8.2.1. Looped Networks

Looped Networks, as water supply distribution systems for drinking purposes should be
adopted in the urban and suburban areas of Terai communities where service area is very flat
ground and allows water to flow downstream in different node directions. This system is more
reliable than dead end system because it feeds water from different directions and if the supply
from one direction is broken down due to various reasons, supply from another direction will
continue. Looped Networks in the Terai region are suitable in when:
1. Service area is flat enough and the reservoir can be placed at an elevation submerged in
the ground located at hill foots.
2. Service reservoir may be overhead tank and service area is flat ground.
3. Properly planned streets with sufficient number of intersections are available for
sufficient pipe interconnections.
4. People are willing to have private house connections and revenue collection is easily
possible.

4.8.2.2 Hydraulic Network Analysis:

44
There are numerous methods of network analysis, which are listed as follows:

1. Hardy Cross Method

2. Electrical Analogy Method developed by Mellroy
3. Graph Theory Approach
4. Iterative procedures such as Newton Raphson Method using digital computers

Irrespective of the methods used, in any system of pipes connected together and conveying water
under pressure, the following three laws are always applicable:

i. In each separate pipe or element comprising the system there will be a relation between head
loss in the element and the quantity of water flowing through it.
2. At each junction, the algebraic sum of the quantities of water entering and leaving the
junction is zero.
3. In any closed path or circuit, the algebraic sum of the head loss in the individual elements
is zero.

Hardy Cross Method for Looped Network Analysis:

In this method on the basis of pipe sizes chosen by the engineer from experience the network
balancing reduces to a problem of solving a set of non-linear, simultaneous equations in the
pipe flows and pipe head losses. So these two methods deal with either balancing head losses
around loops by correcting assumed flows or balancing flows at junctions by correcting
assumed head losses in the pipes. For our network analysis purpose we will concentrate on the
first option.

Method of Balancing Heads by Correcting Assumed Flows:

When using this method, from knowledge of system inflows and outflow, the flow in all the
pipes of the network are disturbed so as to meet continuity constraints at all the nodes. When
inflows and outflows are explicitly known this will involve assigning, as many flows as there
are primary loops in the system. The requirement that the sum of head losses around all
primary loops should equal zero gives rise to a system of as many equations. A solution of the
exactly determined system of non-leaner equalities is affected by a systemic relaxation in the
Hardy Cross method. In the Hardy Cross method of balancing beads, which is a controlled trial
and error process, the correction factor for assumed flows (necessary formulations are made
algebraically consistently by arbitrarily assigning positive and negative signs to anticlockwise
flows and associated headless) Q in a circuit is calculated by the formula:

Q= +(H)/[n *(H/Q)]

45
 Where, Q = quantity of flow
H = head loss
N = constant, 1.85 for Hazen William's formula

The assumed flows are corrected accordingly and the procedure repeated until the required degree
of precision is reached. This is essentially a repetitive procedure. The sequential steps are
presented below:

1. Assume suitable valued of flow Q in each pipeline such that the flows coming into each
junction of the loop are equal to flows leaving the junction.
2. Assign positive sign to all clockwise flows and negative sign to all anti clock wise
3. Compute the head loss H in each pipe by use of the friction formulae with the help of chart or
monogram giving the same sign as for the flows.
4. Compute H (i.e. algebraic sum of head losses) around each loop and if this is nearly equal to
zero in all loops (within allowable limits of ± 0.15), the assumed flow are correct.
Design Example of Looped Networks by Hardy-Cross method is given in Annex-M

4.8.2.3. Pipe Networks Survey:

Pipe network survey includes detailed engineering survey and population survey of the entire
service area.

Detailed Engineering Survey:

The engineering survey of networks should be carried out by leveling instrument and the
detailed engineering survey should be carried out to determine and fix:
1. The network with loops
2. Reduced levels of service reservoir and its location
3. Reduced level of nodes
4. Information about residential, industrial, commercial, institutional areas
5. Information about storm water sewers, sanitary sewers and road intersections

The main aim of detailed engineering survey is to collect necessary data and information for
drawing street map of looped network of the service area.

Peak Factor:

The consumption of water varies with season, month, day and hour. However the hourly
variations are taken into accounts to determine the network capacity. The network is designed
to fulfill the maximum hourly demand during peak consumption.

46
 The following peak factors are recommended:
For population up to 50,000 3.00
For a population range from 50,000 to 2,00,000 2.50
For a population above 2,00,000 2.00

.Pipe materials and sizes:

Medium class ductile iron (DI) and cast iron (CI) pipes and High Density polyethylene
(HDPE) of 6 kg/sq. cm pressure pipes may be used in the distribution networks. Minimum
pipe size of 50mm inner diameter (ID) may be used for primary looped network. For
secondary dead ended branches pipe size less than 50 mm ID may be also adopted in the
design. Commercial pipe sizes should be used while network analyzing.

Layout:

Along the roads with high traffic flows, highways and streets wider than double lanes pipelines
should be laid on both sides for ease of private connection, repair and maintenance. The pipe
line is positioned at least 0.6 m above the crown of the sewer line in case the pipe intersects
the sewerline. The pipeline should be at least 1.00 m horizontally apart from the sewer. Pipe
trench depth should be enough to provide a clear cover of at least 0.60 m below natural ground
level.

Elevation of Reservoir:

Elevation of the reservoir should be such as to maintain the minimum residual head in the
ferrule points. The hydraulic gradient in the pipe should normally be between 1 to 4 per
thousand at peak flow. A suitable combination of network pipe sizes and staging height of
reservoir has to be determined for optimization of the system. The height of reservoirs may be
up to 20 m depending upon the location of the reservoir and the desired pressure in the
network.

4.8.3 Flow Velocity

While sizing the pipe diameter, minimum and maximum flow velocities in the selected pipe
should also be considered. Minimum velocity in the pipe line should be fixed to wash sediment
particles which should not be allowed to settle at any point. The velocity must be sufficient to
move sediment along with water.
To destroy excess head, small sized pipes are used, which however, increase the flow velocity.
At velocities greater than 3 m/s air and water tend to mix affecting flow and the head loss. Also
at high velocities when the faucets are suddenly closed the phenomenon of water hammer may

47
 also occur. (also see section 4.8.4)
Hence, the following minimum and maximum velocity limits should be adopted.

Minimum Velocity

Transmission mains from stream intake to storage tank need special attention. This is because
river water may bring with it sediment particles that enter the supply line.

If no sedimentation tank is provided, the minimum flow velocity shall be:

- in down hill stretches 0.8 m/s
- in up hill stretches 1.0 m/s

If a sedimentation tank is provided on transmission main from stream intakes and for
transmission main for spring intake the minimum flow velocity can be reduced to :
- in down hill stretches 0.4 m/s
- in up hill stretches 0.5 m/s

Maximum Velocity

When a valve is instantly closed, the maximum velocities in the pipes, that may allow water
hammer pressure within the permissible limit of the pipe are theoretically obtained as

- on HDP pipes class 6 kg/cm2 : v = 2.3 m/s

- on HDP pipe class 10 kg/cm2: v = 2.8 m/s

A balance, thereof must be struck between destroying excess head and the danger of creating a
flow condition where high pressures due to water hammer can easily develop. Hence, maximum
velocity in pipelines should be restricted to:

- Desirable 2.5 m/s

- Exceptional 3.0 m/s

4.8.4 Static Head

The static head in a pipeline refers to the difference in elevation between a point considered in
the supply line and the open higher end of that pipeline where the water is exposed to
atmospheric pressure. This, in most of the cases, can be a Storage Tank or a BPC. Static head
occurs in the pipeline when a pipe flowing full is closed and the flow velocity becomes zero.

Pipes manufactured from various materials come in different sizes and pressure classes
according to the pressure they can withstand under normal working conditions. The choice of
pipe for a particular situation is defined by availability, resistivity to corrosion and mechanical

48
 damage, and pressure limit. The ease with which pipes can be transported and joined also
influences its selection.
Locally manufactured High Density Polyethylene (HDP) pipes are mostly used in community
water supply schemes in Nepal. In rocky terrains and when the static water pressure is likely to
be very high, HDP pipes are not suitable. GI, pipes and in special cases high pressure steel pipes
may be adopted whenever static head is higher than 10 Kg / cm2.

Transmission Main

The static pressure in the transmission main should be as follows :

- for HDP pipes pressure class 10 kg/cm2 not exceeding 100 m

- for GI pipes pressure class conforming to BS 1387 medium grade not exceeding
160 m

The maximum pressure for G.I. pipes shall not exceed 16 kg/cm 2 since most valves and fittings
are rated for this pressure. If the static pressure exceeds 16 kg/cm 2, the pipes should be welded
together to minimize leakage and special type of fittings should be used.

In the transmission main, the maximum static pressure should not exceed the noted pressure of
pipe used.

Distribution Line

In a distribution system, the flow changes continuously due to the opening and closing of
faucets. These changes may create high-pressure waves due to water hammer. This may affect
pipe joints, threads, and fitting and in extreme cases, even the pipeline may burst.

The effect of water hammer can be minimized by considering appropriate velocity of flow and
by installing brass taps (slow closing faucets) and valves. However, the continuous change of
pressure in a pipe system cannot be avoided. The greater the pressure variations are, the quicker
are damages to the pipe material and associated fittings.
Faucets can be affected if velocity changes are frequently. Faucets are the most frequently used
component of water supply scheme, hence should withstand frequent handling while remaining
water tight under all working conditions. Self-closing faucets with almost instantaneous closure
mechanisms such as the Jayson Taps should not be used in distribution mains where pressure is
high. A Jayson tap should be only used when the static head at the standpost is not more than 20
m with a tap flow of 0.15 l/s.

It is for these reasons, the maximum pressure in the distribution main should not exceed a

49
 maximum static pressure 60 m even if pipe material with a permissible working pressure of 10
kg/m2 is used. Only in cases of pipe sections aligned along areas and gullies that would not be
habituated in the future, the static head can be increased to say 80 meters.

4.8.5 Residual Head

The dynamic head remaining at the end of a pipe section is referred to as residual head. The
residual head at a standpost, BPC or storage tank is required to account for :

- Appurtenance head loss, which is caused by the design flow rate passing through
a faucet, float valve etc.

- Pipe installation loss, which is caused when the design flow rate passes through
the pipe within the standpost structure. .

- Safety head, to provide safety against survey inaccuracies.

For public tap stand post following Residual head has been recommended

TABLE 4.9 Residual Head

Structure Residual Head (m)

Standpost
ideal 5-10
acceptable up to 15
BPCs and Storage Tanks 10-15

If the residual head exceeds the specified values at the standpost, the excess head over the
minimum required should be controlled by installation of a ferrule at the main line or an orifice
near the standpost or a flow regulating key at the standpost (Used in Western Development
Region).

If the residual head is high, excess head should be burned off by installing an orifice plate. The
charts for hydraulic calculations is given in Annex G. Head loss through orifice is shown in
Annex H.

4.8.6 Design of Orifice

There may be points in a system where the residual head at a discharge point is excessively
high. This can particularly happen to tap stands. For such cases, it is possible to install a device
(orifice) which creates high frictional losses in only a short length of pipeline. Design of such
orifice can be done by this formula:

50
 Where,
Q=flow
C= Coefficient of Orifice(generally-0.6)
A=cross-sectional area of orifice
g=gravitational acceleration
h=head loss through orifice
Knowing value of Q,C,g,and h it can be calculate the area of the required orifice and then
diameter of the orifice.

Distribution network should be designed for the following minimum residual pressures (heads)
at ferrule points:

Single storey building 5m

Two-storey building 10 m
Three-storey building 15 m

4.8.7. Water Hammer in Gravity Flow Water Systems - A Surge Pipe as a Remedy

When a tap stand faucet or globe valve is shut, the velocity head (flow) is converted into
pressure head. The excess pressure due to water hammer is additive to the normal hydrostatic
pressure in the pipe and depends on the elastic properties of the liquid and pipe and magnitude
and rapidness of change in velocity. This increased pressure head is felt at the faucet or valve
and then reflected back up the distribution main. This wave oscillates back and forth between
the tap stand and the upper tank until the energy of the wave is dissipated by friction. This
increased pressure head (greater than the static head) can cause damage to the pipeline and
fittings.
Water hammer has not been thoroughly considered in rural water supply as its long-term
effects are hard to quantify and the measurement is difficult. However, field tests 1 have shown
that a typical brass tap with 60 meter static pressure recorded 120 meters of water hammer
under normal village use, indicating that steps should be taken to minimize this problem.

The degree of water hammer is a function of the rate at which flow is stopped at the
1
A pressure recorder (Vermor) was used to measure the water pressure at tap stands under
different conditions. All readings were taken when only the tap stand in question was in use.
Tap stand static conditions ranged from 40 to 60 meters.

51
 downstream end of the pipeline, how the pipeline diameter decreases in the direction of flow,
and also on the elastic properties of water and pipe material. Water hammer is a case-specific
characteristic and only general guidelines can be recommended. Educating users on slow
closure of faucets is recommended, but can not realistically be expected to solve the problem.

Two steps are recommended to minimize the hammer effect:

- Avoid laying short lengths of small diameter pipe from a larger distribution main to the tap
stands.

- Install a surge tank to absorb the pressure wave created by sudden water flow
stoppage at tap stands with static heads greater or equal to 30 meters.
-
- DO NOT locate the surge tank closer to the tap stand than 5 meters: it will cause
jet-like flow to occur for a few seconds until the surge pipe has depressurized.

A simple "surge pipe" configuration is shown in Figure below. In the field this surge pipe was
able to completely eliminate water hammer at a tap stand with 60 meters of static head and a
flow of 0.14 Lps. Optimal results were recorded when the surge pipe was placed
approximately 5 meters away from the tap stand. Likewise, the surge pipe will be ineffective if
it is located much further than 5 meters away. An optimum surge pipe was found to be a 1.5
meters length of 50mm  10 kgf/cm2 HDP pipe.

The effects of water hammer are much more severe for Jayson faucets since near instantaneous
closure occurs. For this reason, Jayson faucets should only be used when the tap stand is
directly off the RT (minimum static head).

1.5 meter of 50 mm Ø 10 kgf/cm2

HDPE Surge Pipe

Tap Stand
5 meter away

52
 Fig. 7 Schematic System of Surge Pipe

4.8.8 Thrust Blocks:

When water flows through a pipe bend either in horizontal or vertical direction, an outward thrust is
exerted on the pipe due to combined effect of unbalanced internal pressure and centrifugal force
`exerted by the moving water. The thrust has a tendency of pulling pipe apart longitudinally. So,
external resistance in the form of buttress or anchorage should be provided or joints must be made
sufficiently strong to overcome the tension.

Thrust blocks are needed not only at changes in vertical and horizontal alignment of pipeline, but also,
at fittings, which may not be able to transmit longitudinal forces such as flexible couplings. Design
Example of Thrust block is given in Annex-L. The type design of thrust block is shown in drawing G-
26a of Vol.III.

SUMMARY
OF
DESIGN CRITERIA

53
1. TABLE 1 : Domestic Water Consumption Figures

S.No. Community Minimum Remarks

Population lpcd
1. < 20,000 45 Supply through Public taps
2. <20,000 70 to 100 Supply through private taps
3. 20,000 to 100 to Supply through private taps
100,000 150
4. > 100,000 150 to Supply through private taps
200

2. TABLE 2 : Institutional Water Consumption Figures

─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
- School 10 l/d per student
- Health Post 1000 l/d for out patients only and without
improved sanitary condition e.g WC
3000 l/d for out patient only with improved
sanitary condition
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

3. TABLE 3 : Water Demand Projections

────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
- Present Water Demand at the time of survey
- Base year Water Demand when construction is completed and water
scheme is commissioned.
- Design Water Demand After 15 or 20 years service life
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

4 Safe yield = 0.9 * measured source yield at the peak of the dry season

5 Consumption Pattern

TABLE 5 : Water Consumption Pattern

┌────────────────────┬─────────────────────┐
│ Hours │ % of Daily Demand │
├────────────────────┼─────────────────────┤
│ 0.500- 0.700 │ 25 │
│ 0.700 - 1200 │ 35 │
│ 1200 - 1700 │ 20 │
│ 1700 - 1900 │ 20 │
│ 1900 - 0500 │ Negligible │
└────────────────────┴─────────────────────┘

6 Peak Flow Factor for the above consumption pattern = 3

7 Storage Tank Capacity

The storage tank capacity should be estimated on the basis of following graph:

54
 Preliminary storage can also be estimated on the basis of following method.

TABLE 7 : Balancing Storage

Supply meets demand Hours Hours Hours 12-15 Hours 9-12 Hours <9
in 18-24 15-18
Storage volume (hours 10 8 6 4 0
of average demand)

8 Flow velocity

a) Minimum Velocity

On stream intakes, if no sedimentation is provided, the minimum flow velocity

shall be:

- in down hill stretches 0.8 m/s

- in up-hill stretches 1.0 m/s

If a sedimentation is provided, the minimum flow velocity can be reduced to:

- in down hill stretches 0.4 m/s

- in up-hill stretches 0.5 m/s

b) Maximum Velocity
- desirable 2.3 m/s
- maximum 3.0 m/s

55
9. TABLE 9 : Suggested Tap Flow Rates

─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Design Water Peak Flow Remarks
Demand (l/d) Rate (l/s) (l/hr)
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
4500 - 6000 0.20 720 Bazaar
3300 - 4500 0.15 540 Bazaar
3375 - 4500 0.15 540 Village
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

When the design demand is less than 3300 l/day, the tap flow is 0.1 l/s.(360
l/hr)

10 Static Head

a) Transmission Main

- For HDP pipes pressure class 10 kg/cm2 not more than 100 m
- For GI pipes pressure class conforming to BS 1387 medium grade not
more than 160 m
- For more than 160 m use welded joints for pipe & fittings

b) Distribution Lines

- Acceptable 60 m
- Exceptional cases 80 m
- With self-closing taps (e.g. Jayson Taps) 20 m

11 TABLE 11 : Residual Head

────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Structure Residual Head
────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
- Standpost Desirable 5 m
Acceptable up to 15 m
- BPCS and Storage Tanks 10 to 15 m
────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

12 TABLE 12 : Maximum Distance of Standpost Location from Users

───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Walking Distance Desirable In Exceptional Cases
───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
- horizontal 150 m 250 m
- vertical 50 m 40 m
───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────

Design population per standpost 100

56