Equilibrium

• Rigid body:
A rigid body is a solid body in which deformation is zero (or negligible). A solid whose size and
shape remain fixed even when forces are applied.
In a rigid body the distance between two given points (or intermolecular distance) remains
constant in time even if the body is in motion (either linear motion or rotational motion).

A body is said to be rigid body if the position of its molecules (or particles) always remain
fixed either in motion or at rest.

• Centre of mass (CM) and Centre of gravity (CG):

The Centre of mass of a body is defined as a point at which mass of constituent particle is
supposed to be concentrated.
[a point where whole mass of a body is supposed to be concentrated]
The center of gravity of a body is defined as a point at which the resultant of individual force of
gravity acting on constituent particles of the body acts.
[ a point where whole weight of a body is supposed to be concentrated]
The position vector of CM and CG of a body of mass m are given as:
𝑟𝑐𝑚=∑ 𝑚𝑟 and 𝑟𝑐𝑔=∑ 𝑚𝑔𝑟
𝑚 𝑚𝑔

✓ For smaller rigid bodies (smaller symmetrical bodies), CG and CM coincide. However for
very tall bodies, they do not coincide. [Usually, cg lies below cm - if the tall body is
symmetric.]
✓ The Centre of mass (or center of gravity) may or may not lie within the material of the
body. [in other words, there may be no matter at the point of cm or cg.]

For a solid disc, the cm (or For a hollow disc (ring),

cg) lie within the material of the cm (or cg) does not lie
the body. within the material of the
. CG or CM
body.

.
CG (or CM) .
CG (or CM)

✓ For structurally symmetrical body(like square, circle, sphere, cylinder etc.), cm and cg lie
at its geometrical Centre.
 Assignment
1. Is it possible for a body to have no matter at its center of gravity? Give example.
2. Is it possible for a body to have no matter at its Centre of mass? Give example.
3. What is the difference between cm and cg?
4. Is the cg of a long, vertical rod be above, or below its cm? Explain.
5. Can an object have more than one cg?
6. Can a single force applied on a body change both its translational and rotational
motion? Explain.

Some basic terms:

• Point of action of force: A point where force is applied.

• Line of action of force: A straight line which shows the direction of applied force.
• Axis of rotation: An imaginary line about which a rigid body is rotated.
• Moment arm: Perpendicular distance between axis of rotation and line of action of force.

Axis of rotation

F (applied force)

Line of action of force

point of action of force

Moment arm
 ❖ Moment of force: [OR torque]
It is defined as the product of applied force and moment arm.
Moment of force is also called as torque (𝜏), and is a vector quantity.

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹

In vector form: 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

More accurately, 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ; where 𝜃 is the angle between distance

vector and line of action of force.

The direction of torque is along the axis of rotation of the rigid body.

Torque, also called moment of a force, is the tendency of a force to rotate a

body to which it is applied (about an axis).

Significance: Torque measures the turning (rotating) effect of force.

Torque is defined as the vector product of distance between action of force and axis of rotation and applied
force.

Mathematically, 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

𝜏⃗ = 𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂ ; where 𝜃 is the angle between distance

vector and line of action of force.

r r

Ɵ
x
F
F
Here, torque 𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹 (𝑟𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛90) Here, torque 𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Or, 𝜏 = 𝑥 𝐹
Find the value of torque in each case:

a) b)

5 cm 120o 5 cm

6N
6N
Assignments:

Use the relation 𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 to answer the following short questions:

1. Why is it easier to hold down a 10 kg load in your hand at your side than to hold it with your
arm extended horizontally?
2. Why a wrench of longer arm is preferred in comparison to a shorter arm?
3. To roll a heavier stone on ground two or more people are preferred than a single man, why?

❖ Couple:
Two forces having same magnitude but acting in opposite direction with different line of action
on a body are said to form a couple.
❖ In the case of couple, two forces are involved which cause rotation in same direction.
✓ Turning effect (torque) of couple is more than that of single force.
✓ A couple produces larger torque (more turning effect).
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹2

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1

Figure: a couple

Assignments:

1. The cap of a bottle can be easily opened with the help of two fingers than with one finger, why?
2. Suppose that two equal and opposite external forces act on a rigid body. Under what conditions
the body will rotate?
3. What is moment of couple?

• Linear equilibrium:
A body is said to be in linear equilibrium if net external force acting on the body is zero.
[If 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, or 𝑎 = 0 or if the body is in linear motion at constant velocity.]

For linear equilibrium: ∑ 𝐹 = 0 or ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

• Rotational equilibrium:
A body is said to be in rotational equilibrium if net external torque acting on the body is zero.
[If 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 0 or the body is in rotational motion at constant angular velocity.]

For rotational equilibrium : ∑ 𝜏 = 0

Assignments:
1. Is it possible that a moving body be in equilibrium?
2. Is it possible for the net force on a body be zero but the body not to be equilibrium? Explain.
3. Is it possible for a body to be in equilibrium if the net force is not zero? Explain.
4. A body is not in translational equilibrium, will the torque about any point be zero if the torque
about some particular point is zero?

Types of equilibrium:
1. Stable equilibrium:
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it returns back to its original position when it
is slightly displaced.

When displaced, the

CG rises above the

. CG
initial position.

For a body to be in stable equilibrium, it should possess minimum potential energy.

Hence the CG should be as low as possible.

2. Unstable equilibrium:
A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not return back to its original when
it is slightly displaced. The body now displaces to a new position.
 . CG
When displaced, the
CG falls below the
initial position.

For a body to be in unstable equilibrium, it should possess larger potential energy.

Hence the CG should be as high as possible.

3. Neutral equilibrium:
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium if initial position and displaced position
remains same.

When displaced, the

. CG
CG remains at same
height (as initial
position).

An object in static equilibrium, if left undisturbed, will undergo no translational or rotational acceleration since
the sum of all the forces and the sum of all the torques acting on it are zero. However, if the object is displaced
slightly, three outcomes are possible:
(1) the object returns to its original position; it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
(2) the object moves even farther from its original position, and it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
(3) the object remains in its new position, and it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

In general, an object whose center of gravity (CG) is below its point of support, such as a ball on a string, will
be in stable equilibrium. If the CG is above the base of support, we have a more complicated situation.
 Consider a standing refrigerator (Fig. a). If it is tipped slightly, it will return to its original position due
to the torque on it as shown in Fig. b. But if it is tipped too far, Fig. c, it will fall over.
The critical point is reached when the CG shifts from one side of the pivot point to the other. When the
CG is on one side, the torque pulls the object back onto its original base of support, Fig. b. If the object
is tipped further, the CG goes past the pivot point and the torque causes the object to topple, Fig. c.

In general, an object whose center of gravity is above its base of support will be stable if a vertical line
projected downward from the CG falls within the base of support. This is because the normal force
upward on the object (which balances out gravity) can be exerted only within the area of contact, so if
the force of gravity acts beyond this area, a net torque will act to topple the object.

Questions:

1. Write the differences between stable and unstable equilibrium.

2. What is neutral equilibrium?
3. You are balancing a wrench by suspending it at a single point. Is the equilibrium stable,
unstable, or neutral if the point is above, at, or below the wrench’s center of gravity?

• Conditions for stable equilibrium:

A body is likely to be in stable equilibrium if:
1. The CG of the body lies as low as possible.
2. The base area of the body is as large as possible.
3. The CG of the body falls within the base area (a vertical line passing through the CG of the
body passes within the base area).

[In general, the larger the base and the lower the CG, the more stable the object is.]
In the sense of stability, humans are less stable than four-legged mammals, which have a larger base of support
because of their four legs, and most also have a lower center of gravity.
When walking and performing other kinds of movement, a person continually shifts the body so that its CG is over
the feet, although in the normal adult this requires no conscious thought. Even as simple a movement as bending
over requires moving the hips backward so that the CG remains over the feet, and we do this repositioning without
thinking about it.
To see this, position yourself with your heels and back to a wall and try to touch your toes. You won’t be able to do
it without falling.
Persons carrying heavy loads automatically adjust their posture so that the CG of the total mass is over their feet.
Assignments:

1. Single decker bus is safer than double decker, why?

2. The base of the ship is made heavy, why? (Answer this question including the concept of
metacenter, as far as possible).
3. Cow is more stable than man, why?
4. When four footed animals walk, they always has three of their legs on the ground at any
instant. Explain.
5. Why doesn’t the leaning tower of Pisa topple over?
6. Standing is prohibited in double decker bus, why?
7. During pregnancy, women often develop back pains from leaning backward while walking. Why
do they have to walk this way?
8. A man carrying a bucket of water on his hand always leans to the opposite side. Explain why?
9. Explain why a man carrying a load on his back leans forward?

principle of moment
If a body is in equilibrium under the action of a number of forces, the sum of clockwise moments is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments. Examples:
r1 r3
• Balancing of
1 1
see saw
r2 • Physical
r4
1
balance
1
F1 F2 F4 F3 • Rope
walking

Here, the moments due to 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 tend to rotate the rod in anticlockwise direction. While the
moments due to 𝐹3 and 𝐹4 tend to rotate the rod in clockwise direction.

For the rod to be in equilibrium,

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑘𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑟1 × 𝐹1 + 𝑟2 × 𝐹2 = 𝑟3 × 𝐹3 + 𝑟4 × 𝐹4

Note:

For the body to be in equilibrium,

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 0

𝑟1 × 𝐹1 + 𝑟2 × 𝐹2 − 𝑟3 × 𝐹3 − 𝑟4 × 𝐹4 = 0

Think!!! What is the significance of positive and negative sign.