NEET Revision Notes

Biology
Human Health and Disease

Introduction

Health is defined as a state of mental, social and physical being. Disease on the other
hand is disturbance in the proper functioning of the body. Which further affects the
functioning of organs and organ systems. Thus, both health and disease together
contribute to the state of entire well-being. Human health and diseases is an
important topic that needs to be studied for a better understanding of our body.

Types of Diseases

The human body suffers from many diseases. Diseases occur due to genetic defects,
infections or an unhealthy lifestyle.

Diseases can be classified into two types:

1. Congenital Diseases: The diseases that are present by birth. These are genetic
in nature. These may be due to gene mutation, chromosomal aberration or
environmental effects. These defects are transferred from one generation to
the other. e.g. Hemophilia, color blindness, Down syndrome, Turner’s
syndrome, etc.
2. Acquired Diseases: The diseases that are acquired during a lifetime are
known as acquired diseases.
a. Infectious or communicable disease: These are transmitted from one
person to another.
b. Non-communicable disease: These kinds of diseases do not spread by
infection.
c. Deficiency disease: Such kinds of diseases are caused due to deficiency
of an important nutrient, enzyme or hormones, e.g. anemia,
kwashiorkor, beriberi, diabetes, etc.
d. Allergies: hypersensitivity to foreign substances causes some kinds of
allergies.The allergies are caused by pollen, dust, mites, etc.

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Common Diseases in Humans

● The disease-causing organism is known as a pathogen, e.g. bacteria, virus,

protozoan, fungi, worms.
There are many ways by which a pathogen can enter our body. Here is a table
of the most common diseases found in humans.

Name of the Causing agent/ Vector/ mode of

Symptoms Effects
disease pathogen infection

Can be
Continued
diagnosed
high fever,
by Widal
headache,
Salmonella typhi By contaminated test.
Typhoid stomachache,
(Bacteria) food and water Intestinal
constipation
perforation
and loss of
in severe
appetite
cases

Respiratio
By inhaling
Streptococcus n problems
droplets or
pneumoniae, Fever, chills, due to
aerosols released
Pneumonia Haemophilus cough and fluid that
by an infected
influenzae headache gets filled
person or using
(Bacteria) in the
infected utensils
alveoli

Nasal
congestion
By cough,
and Nose and
Common sneezes and
Rhinoviruses discharge, respiratory
cold contaminated
sore throat, passage
objects
cough,
headache

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 The
parasite
Female
multiplies
Plasmodium anopheles
High fever in liver
Malaria falciparum, P. mosquito is a
with chills cells,
vivax (Protozoan) vector. Spread by
attacks
mosquito bite
RBCs and
rupture
Houseflies are a
Constipation,
carrier
Entamoeba abdominal Infection
Amoebic -spread by
histolytica pain, mucous in the large
dysentery contaminated
(Protozoan) and blood in intestine
food by the
the stool
faecal matter

Contaminated
water,
vegetables, Muscular
Blockage
fruits. Parasite pain, internal
Ascaris of
Ascariasis eggs are excreted bleeding,
(Helimenthes) intestinal
our in faeces of anaemia,
passage
the infected fever
person, which
contaminates soil

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 Lymphatic
Bloodsucking vessels,
Wuchereria Inflammation
black flies and especially
Filariasis/ bancrofti, of the lower
female of the
Elephantiasis W.malayi limb and
mosquitos act as lower
(Helminthes) genital organs
a vector limbs, get
blocked

Spread from the

Microsporum,
soil, using a Dry scaly Effects
Trichophyton,
Ringworms towel, clothes or lesions, itchy skin, nail
Epidermophyton
comb of an skin scalp
(Fungi)
infected person

The lifecycle of Plasmodium (malarial parasite)

● Plasmodium enters in the body by the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes.

● The infectious form is sporozoites, which come from the saliva of female
anopheles when they bite.
● It further multiplies in the liver cells and then attacks RBCs resulting in RBCs
rupture.
● A toxic substance known as Hemozoin is released.
● The gametocyte from the human blood gets transferred to the mosquito when
it bites an infected person.
● Further sporozoites are formed.
● These sporozoites migrate to the salivary gland of mosquitoes and the cycle
is repeated.
● Plasmodium sp. needs human and female Anopheles mosquitoes to complete
their life cycle.

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Image: Life cycle of Plasmodium falciparum

Types of Immunity

● Immunity is defined as the ability of the body to protect and fight against any
pathogen or foreign body.
● The immune system defends our body against any infection.

There are two types of immunity:

Innate immunity: This immunity is present at the time of birth. There are 4 types
of barriers present in the defence mechanism of our body.
● Physical barriers: skin and mucous coating of the epithelial lining of the
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urinary tract.
● Physiological barriers: saliva, tears, and stomach acid.
● Cellular barriers: neutrophils, monocytes, natural killer lymphocytes.
● Cytokine barriers: interferons that are secreted by virus-infected cells.

Acquired immunity is something that we acquire during the lifespan moreover it is

pathogen-specific in nature.
● The primary response towards acquired immunity is seen after the first
encounter with a pathogen.
● Often infection results in secondary response or anamnestic response due to
memory of the first response.
● B-lymphocytes produce antibodies in response to a foreign antigen.

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 ● Antibodies are Y shaped protein molecules. Antibodies have 4 peptide chains
out of these 2 are light and 2 are heavy in nature.

Image: Structure of an Antibody

● There are five types of antibodies present in humans; IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA and
IgE.
● IgG is the most abundant antibody that is found in the blood.
● IgG is transferred to a foetus through the placenta and protects the infant until
their own immunity develops.
● IgA is present in the breast milk colostrum, the yellowish fluid secreted
initially during lactation has a lot of IgA.
● IgE is involved in the allergic reaction.
● T-lymphocytes mediate the cell-mediated response.
● Cell-mediated response is responsible for distinguishing between self and
non-self.
Active immunity: Antibodies are produced in the host body in response to antigen.
Vaccination, where a pathogen is injected is a type of active immunity.
Passive immunity: Giving ready-made antibodies to get the quick response against
a pathogen is known as passive immunity. Injecting antitoxin for snakebite, which
contains antibodies against the venom, is an example of passive immunity.
Recombinant DNA technology has helped in producing large-scale vaccine
production.
The hepatitis-B vaccine is produced from yeast.

Allergies

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Immune response to certain environmental antigens, e.g. pollens, dust, mites, etc.
● IgE antibody is produced during an allergic reaction
● Mast cell releases histamine and serotonin during an allergic reaction

Auto Immunity

● When the body attacks self-cells it results in auto-immune disorder.

● Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disorder

Immune System in the Body

The human immune system comprises lymphoid organs, cells and antibodies
Primary lymphoid organs: These include bone marrow and thymus. Here
lymphocytes develop, get mature and are differentiated into antigen-specific
lymphocytes.
Secondary lymphoid organs: These organs include spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils in
the small intestine and appendix. These are the sites for reaction with antigen.
● The spleen acts as a filter of the blood. It contains lymphocytes,phagocytes
also erythrocytes are present.
● Lymph nodes trap the antigens present in the lymph or tissue fluid.
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): the mucosal lining of respiratory,
urinary and digestive tract accounts for the 50% of total lymphoid tissues present in
the body.

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

Image: Life cycle of HIV virus

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 ● It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus and It is a retrovirus
with RNA as its genome.
● The virus produces viral DNA in the host by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
● The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host genome and multiple copies of
the virus are produced.
● The virus attacks helper T-cells, where it replicates and multiplies, resulting
in a marked decrease in the number of T lymphocytes.
● The infected person shows weak immunity after the virus attacks T- helper
cells.
● AIDS patients become prone to various infections like mycobacterium,
toxoplasma, fungal, and other viral infections.
● ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay) is a widely used diagnostic
test for AIDS.
● AIDS may be transmitted by sexual intercourse, contaminated blood
transfusion, using an infected syringe, or from mother to fetus through the
placenta.
● NACO (National AIDS Control Organisation) works for the awareness and
prevention of AIDS by educating people and spreading awareness.

Cancer

● Cancer is caused due to uncontrolled cell division leading to the formation of

tumours.
● There is a breakdown of regulatory mechanisms in the normal cells.
● Cancerous cells lack contact inhibition property, which inhibits further growth
of cells in contact with other cells.
Benign tumours remain at their original location.
Malignant tumours have invading ability and damage surrounding tissues. These
are destructive in nature.
Metastasis: It is a property of a malignant tumour when cells sloughed off from it
reach distant sites and form a tumour in the various parts of the body.
● Cancer is caused due to DNA damage or genetic mutation resulting in the
mismanaged regulation of the cell division.
● Cancer can also happen due to the activation of proto-oncogenes present in
normal cells.

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 ● Tumour suppressor genes, also known as anti-oncogenes, control the cell
during cell division as well as replication, and if genes fail to function
properly, these methods of cell division and replication become
uncontrollable, potentially leading to cancer.
Carcinogens: ionising radiation, non-ionising radiation (UV rays), chemical agents
(e.g. present in tobacco), viral oncogenes of oncogenic viruses.
● Cancer can be diagnosed by using a CT scan (computed tomography), MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging), X-ray, PET scan (positron emission
tomography).
● Cancer can also be diagnosed using molecular biology techniques to identify
inherited genes which cause cancer.
● Antibodies against cancer antigens can also be used for diagnostic purposes.
● Cancer can be treated by surgery, transplantation and even radiation therapies
are quite useful.
● 𝛂-interferon act as biological response modifier, which activates the immune
system to destroy tumour and also is useful.

Drugs and Alcohol Abuse

● Opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids are commonly abused drugs.

● Diacetylmorphine is commonly known as heroin or smack. It is extracted
from the latex of the poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
● Cannabinoids bind with the cannabinoid receptors present in the brain. They
affect the cardiovascular system.
● Cannabinoids, e.g. marijuana, hashish, charas, ganja, etc. are obtained from
the flower tops, leaves.
● Cocaine or coca alkaloid is obtained from the plant Erythroxylum coca.
● Cocaine acts by interfering with the transport of dopamine, a neurotransmitter.
● Atropa belladonna and Datura also have hallucinogenic properties.
● Sportspersons also take cannabinoids to enhance their performance and can
practice for long hours thus increasing stamina.
● Morphine is used as a sedative and painkiller.

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Image: Morphine
● Nicotine (alkaloid) present in tobacco releases adrenaline and nor-adrenalin
hormone by the adrenal gland. It increases heart rate and blood pressure.

Image: Nicotine
● Smoking causes oxygen deficiency by increasing the concentration of carbon
monoxide in the blood thereby decreasing the concentration of oxygen bound
to haemoglobin.
● The excessive use of drugs and alcohol damages the nervous system and
causes liver cirrhosis so we should avoid them.
● Anabolic steroids make men more masculine and make females more
aggressive.

Key points to remember:

● Health is more than simply the absence of disease. It is a perfect state of

physical, mental, social, and psychological well-being.
● Typhoid, pneumonia, cholera, fungal infections of the skin, malaria, and other
diseases cause significant suffering in humans.
● Malaria and other vector-borne diseases, particularly those caused by
Plasmodium falciparum, can be fatal if not treated.

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 ● Aside from personal hygiene and cleanliness, public health initiatives such as
proper waste disposal, disinfecting drinking water, vector control such as
mosquito control, and immunisation are very effective in stopping these
diseases.
● When we are subjected to disease-causing agents, our immune system plays a
critical role in avoiding these diseases.
● Our bodies' innate defences, such as skin and mucous membranes, as well as
antimicrobial substances found in tears and saliva, Phagocytic cells aid in the
prevention of pathogen entry into our bodies.
● If pathogens gain entry into our bodies, specific antibodies (humoral immune
response) as well as cells (cell mediated immune response) kill them.
● The cells of the immune system have memory. When exposed to the same
pathogen again, the immune response is faster and more intense.
● This is the foundation of the protection provided by vaccination and
immunisation.
● AIDS and cancer, among other diseases, affect a large number of people
worldwide.
● The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS, which is fatal unless
certain steps are taken.
● Many cancers are treatable if detected early and appropriate treatment is
administered.
● Drug and alcohol misuse among youth and adolescents has recently increased.
Because of the addictive qualities of alcohol and drugs, as well as their
perceived benefits such as stress relief, a person may experiment with them in
the face of peer pressure, exam-related, and competition-related stresses. As
a result, he or she may become addicted to them.
● Individuals would be completely liberated from these evils if they were
educated about their harmful effects, counselled, and sought immediate
professional as well as medical help.

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