Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

UNIT-IV

Syllabus:
Security Technology: Intrusion detection, Access control and other security
tools: Intrusion detection and prevention systems, Scanning and analysis tools,
Access control devices.
Cryptography: Foundations of cryptology, cipher methods, cryptographic
Algorithms, Cryptographic tools, Protocols for secure communications, Attacks on
cryptosystems
Objective: Introduces IDPS, Access controls and Foundations of Cryptography
Outcome: Usage of reactive solutions, network perimeter solution tools such as
firewalls, host solutions such as antivirus software and Intrusion Detection techniques
and knowledge of ethical hacking tools.
Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS)

Introduction:

The protection of an organization’s information assets relies on people as well as on

technical controls.

• Technical solutions that are guided by policy with properly implementation are
essential to an information security program.
• Advanced technologies can be used to enhance the security of information
assets.

Basic Security technology:

• Firewalls, Dial-up protection
• mechanisms, Content filtering, and VPNs.
Advanced technologies:
• Intrusion detection and prevention systems
• Honeypots, Honeynets, Padded cell systems, Scanning and Analysis tools, and
Access Controls.

Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems:

An intrusion occurs when an attacker attempts to gain entry into an information
system/disturbs normal operations of an information system with an intent to do
harm.

Intrusion prevention: It consists of activities that seek to deter an intrusion.

Some important intrusion prevention activities are writing and implementing good
enterprise information security policy, planning and executing effective information
security programs, installing and testing technology-based information security
counter measures (such as firewalls and intrusion detection systems), and
conducting and measuring the effectiveness of employee training and awareness
activities.

Intrusion detection: It consists of procedures and systems that identify system

intrusions.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

Intrusion reaction: Actions to be done by an organization when an intrusion is

detected. These actions seek to limit the loss from an intrusion and return operations
to a normal state as rapidly as possible.

Intrusion correction: Activities finalize the restoration of operations to a normal

state and seek to identify the source and method of the intrusion. So that the same
type of attack cannot occur again.

Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) became commercially available in the late 1990s.

• It works like a burglar alarm. Detects a violation and activates an alarm

(Audio/Visual)
• Many IDSs enable administrators to configure systems to notify them directly
of trouble via e-mail or pagers.
• Systems can also be configured to notify an external security service
organization of a “break-in”.
• A current extension of IDS technology is the intrusion prevention system (IPS).
So both are combinedly called as IDPS.

IDPS terminology

In order to understand IDPS operational behavior, be familiar with some IDPS

terminology.

• Alert or alarm: Notification

• Evasion: An attacker changes the format and/or timing of their activities to avoid
being detected by the IDPS.
• False attack stimulus: An event that triggers an alarm when no actual attack is in
progress.
• False negative: The failure of an IDPS to react to an actual attack event
• False positive: An alert or alarm that occurs in the absence of an actual attack
• Noise: Alarm events that are accurate and noteworthy but that do not pose
significant threats
• Site policy: The rules and configuration guidelines
• Site policy awareness: Ability to dynamically modify its configuration in response
to environmental activity
• Tuning: Adjusting an IDPS to maximize its efficiency in detecting true positives,
while minimizing both false positives and false negatives.
• True attack stimulus: An event that triggers alarms and causes an IDPS to react
as if a real attack is in progress.
• Confidence value: The measure of an IDPS’s ability to correctly detect and identify
certain types of attacks.
• Alarm filtering: The process of classifying IDPS alerts so that they can be more
effectively managed.
• Alarm clustering and compaction: Grouping almost identical alarms that happen
at close to the same time into a single higher-level alarm.

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Why Use an IDPS?

According to the NIST documentation on industry best practices, there are several
compelling reasons to acquire and use an IDPS:

1. To prevent problem behaviors by increasing the perceived risk of discovery and

punishment or those who would attack or otherwise abuse the system
2. To detect attacks and other security violations that are not prevented by other
security measures
3. To detect and deal with the preambles to attacks (commonly experienced as
network probes and other “doorknob rattling” activities)
4. To document the existing threat to an organization
5. To act as quality control for security design and administration, especially in large
and complex enterprises
6. To provide useful information about intrusions that do take place, allowing
improved diagnosis, recovery, and correction of causative factors

One of the best reasons to install an IDPS is that they serve as deterrents by
increasing the fear of detection among would-be attackers.

Another reason to install an IDPS is to cover the organization when its network cannot
protect itself against known vulnerabilities or is unable to respond to a rapidly
changing threat environment.

Types of IDPS:

• Network-bases IDPS
• Host-based IDPS.

A network based IDPS is focused on protecting network information assets. Two

specialized subtypes of network based IDPS are
• the wireless IDPS and
• the network behavior analysis (NBA) IDPS.

The wireless IDPS focuses on wireless networks, while the NBA IDPS examines traffic
flow on a network in an attempt to recognize abnormal patterns like DDoS, malware,
and policy violations.

Host-based IDPS (HIDPS) resides on a particular computer or server, known as the

host, and monitors activity only on that system.

NIDPS

Network-Based IDPS A network-based IDPS (NIDPS) resides on a computer or

appliance connected to a segment of an organization’s network and monitors network
traffic on that network segment, looking for indications of ongoing or successful
attacks.

• When identifies an activity, it responds by sending notifications to

administrators.

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• When examining packets, a NIDPS looks for attack patterns within network
traffic
• An NIDPS can detect many more types of attacks than a host based IDPS, but
it requires a much more complex configuration and maintenance program.
• Installed at specific place in the network where it can watch traffic going into
and out of particular network segment.
• The NIDPS can monitor a specific grouping of host computers, or it can monitor
all traffic between the systems that make up an entire network. When placed
next to a hub, switch, or other key networking device, the NIDPS uses device’s
monitoring port.
• The monitoring port also known as a switched port analysis (SPAN) port or
mirror port, is a specially configured connection on a network device that is
capable of viewing all of the traffic that moves through the entire device.

NIDPS signature matching

To detect an attack, NIDPSs look for attack patterns and compares them with their
knowledge base.

Done by using special implementation of TCP/IP stack:

TCP/IP stack reassembles the packets and applies protocol stack verification,
application protocol verification and other comparison techniques.

Protocol Stack Verification: NIDPSs look for invalid data packets. Data packet
configuration must match with defined configuration of various protocols (IP, TCP,
UDP)

Application protocol Verification: In this higher-order protocols (HTTP, FTP,

Telnet)are examined for unexpected packet behavior or improper use. Sometimes an
attack uses valid protocol packets but in excessive quantities.

Example: DNS cache poisoning attack uses valid packets

DNS cache poisoning is the act of entering false information into a DNS cache, so that
DNS queries return an incorrect response and users are directed to the wrong
websites.

Protocol stack verification looks for violations in the protocol packet structure, the
application protocol verification looks for violations in the protocol packet’s use.

Advantages of NIDPSs
• Good network design and placement of NIDPS can enable organization to use
a few devices to monitor large network
• NIDPSs are usually passive and can be deployed into existing networks with
little disruption to normal network operations
• NIDPSs not usually susceptible to direct attack and may not be detectable by
attackers
Disadvantages of NIDPSs
• Can become overwhelmed by network volume and fail to recognize attacks

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• Require access to all traffic to be monitored

• Cannot analyze encrypted packets
• Cannot reliably ascertain if attack was successful or not
• Some forms of attack are not easily discerned by NIDPSs, specifically those
involving fragmented packets

Wireless NIDPS

Monitors and analyzes wireless network traffic, looks for problems with wireless
protocols.

• Cannot evaluate or diagnose issues with TCP and UDP.

• Wireless IDPS capability can be built into a device that provides a wireless
access point.

Issues associated with it include physical security, sensor range, access point and
wireless switch locations, wired network connections, cost

Network Behavior Analysis (NBA) Systems

Examine network traffic in order to identify problems related to the flow of traffic.

Anomaly detection method is used to identify excessive packet flows in the case of
equipment malfunction, DoS attacks, virus and worm attacks, and some forms of
network policy violations.

NBA IDPSs typically monitor internal networks but occasionally monitor connections
between internal and external networks

Host-based IDPS

Host-based IDPS (HIDPS) resides on a particular computer or server, known as the

host, and monitors activity only on that system. HIDPSs are also known as system
integrity verifiers.

HIDPS benchmark and monitor the status of key system files and detect when an
intruder creates, modifies, or deletes monitored files.

An HIDPS can access encrypted information traveling over the network and use it to
make decisions about potential or actual attacks.

HIDPS is also capable of monitoring system configuration databases, such as

Windows registries, in addition to stored configuration files like .ini, .cfg, and .dat
files.

HIDPS work on the principle of configuration or change management, which means

that they record the sizes, locations, and other attributes of system files.

HIDPS triggers an alert when one of the following occurs: file attributes change, new
files are created, or existing files are deleted.

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HIDPS monitor systems logs for predefined events to determine if an attack is

underway or has occurred and if the attack is succeeding or was successful.

HIDPS maintains its own log file so that an audit trail is available even when hackers
modify files on the target system to cover their tracks.

Once properly configured, an HIDPS is very reliable.

Advantages of HIDPSs
• Can detect local events on host systems and detect attacks that may elude a
network based IDPS
• Functions on host system, where encrypted traffic will have been decrypted and
is available for processing
• Not affected by use of switched network protocols
• Can detect inconsistencies in how applications and systems programs were
used by examining records stored in audit logs
Disadvantages of HIDPSs
• Pose more management issues
• Vulnerable both to direct attacks and attacks against host operating system
• Does not detect multi-host scanning, nor scanning of non-host network devices
• Susceptible to some denial-of-service attacks
• Can use large amounts of disk space
• Can inflict a performance overhead on its host systems

IDPS Detection Methods

Several detection methods are available to monitor and evaluate network traffic. Three
dominating methods are:
• the signature-based approach,
• the statistical-anomaly approach,
• the stateful packet inspection approach.

Signature-based IDPS

• Examine data traffic in search of patterns that match known signatures

• Widely used because many attacks have clear and distinct signatures
• Problem with this approach is that as new attack strategies are identified, the
IDPS’s database of signatures must be continually updated

Statistical anomaly based IDPS

The statistical anomaly-based IDPS (stat IDPS) or behavior-based IDPS collects

statistical summaries by observing traffic that is known to be normal.

• Summary of normal period of evaluation creates a performance baseline

• The baseline data can include variables such as host memory or CPU usage,
network packet types, and packet quantities.
• IDPS periodically samples network activity and compares with baseline, when
measured activity is outside baseline parameters or clipping level, IDPS will
trigger an alert

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• IDPS can detect new types of attacks

• Requires much more overhead and processing capacity than signature-based
• May generate many false positives

Stateful protocol analysis IDPS

SPA: Process of comparing predetermined profiles of generally accepted definitions of

original activity for each protocol state against observed events to identify deviations.

It relies on vendor-developed universal profiles that specify how particular protocols

should and should not be used

Stores and uses relevant data detected in a session to identify intrusions involving
multiple requests/responses allows IDPS to better detect specialized, multisession
attacks

Drawbacks: analytical complexity; processing overhead; may fail to detect unless

protocol violates fundamental behavior; may cause problems with protocol it’s
examining

Log file monitors

Log file monitor (LFM) similar to NIDPS

Reviews log files generated by servers, network devices, and even other IDPSs for
patterns and signatures

Patterns that signify attack may be much easier to identify when entire network and
its systems are viewed holistically

Requires allocation of considerable resources since it will involve the collection,

movement, storage, and analysis of large quantities of log data

IDPS Response Behavior

Depending on configuration and function each IDPS responds to external stimulation

in a different way.

IDPS Response Options: When an IDPS detects a possible intrusion, it has a number
of response options, depending on the implementing organization’s policy, objectives,
and system capabilities.

IDPS responses can be classified as active or passive

Active response: collecting additional information about the intrusion, modifying the
network environment, taking action against the intrusion

Passive response: setting off alarms or notifications, collecting passive data through
SNMP traps

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The following list describes some of the responses an IDPS can be configured to
produce

• Audible/visual alarm
• SNMP traps and plug-ins
• E-mail message
• Page or phone message
• Log entry
• Evidentiary packet dump
• Take action against the intruder
• Launch program
• Reconfigure firewall

Selecting IDPS Approaches and Products

The process of selecting the best IDPS that fit for any particular organization is
challenging. The following considerations and questions may help an organization to
prepare a specification for acquiring and deploying an intrusion detection product.

Technical and policy considerations

• What is your systems environment?

• What are your security goals and objectives?
• What is your existing security policy?

Organizational requirements and constraints

• What are requirements that are levied from outside the organization?
• What are your organization’s resource constraints?

IDPSs product features and quality

• Is the product sufficiently scalable for your environment?

• How has the product been tested?
• What is the user level of expertise targeted by the product?
• Is the product designed to evolve as the organization grows?
• What are the support provisions for the product?

Strengths and Limitations of IDPSs

IDPSs perform the following functions well:

• Monitoring and analysis of system events and user behaviors

• Testing security states of system configurations
• Baselining security state of system and tracking changes
• Recognizing system event patterns matching known attacks
• Recognizing activity patterns that vary from normal activity
• Managing OS audit and logging mechanisms and data they generate
• Alerting appropriate staff when attacks are detected

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• Measuring enforcement of security policies encoded in analysis engine

• Providing default information security policies
• Allowing non-security experts to perform important security monitoring
functions

IDPSs cannot perform the following functions:

• Compensating for weak/missing security mechanisms in protection

infrastructure
• Instantaneously detecting, reporting, responding to attack when there is heavy
network or processing load
• Detecting new attacks or variants of existing attacks
• Effectively responding to attacks by sophisticated attackers
• Investigating attacks without human intervention
• Resisting attacks intended to defeat or circumvent them
• Compensating for problems with fidelity of data sources
• Dealing effectively with switched networks

Deployment and Implementation of an IDPS

The strategy for deploying an IDPS depends on the following factors.

• How the IDPS will be managed.

• Where it should be placed.

The above factors determine the number of administrators needed to install,

configure, and monitor the IDPS and the number of management workstations, the
size of the storage needed for retention of the data generated, and the ability of the
organization to detect and respond to remote threats.

IDPS Control Strategies: A control strategy determines:

• How an organization supervises and maintains the configuration of an IDPS.

• How the input and output of the IDPS is managed.

An IDPS can be implemented via one of three basic control strategies.

1. Centralized
2. Partially distributed
3. Fully distributed.

Centralized: In a centralized IDPS control strategy all IDPS control functions are
implemented and managed in a central location.

Fully distributed: In this all control functions are applied at the physical location of
each IDPS component. It is the opposite of Central strategy.

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Partially distributed: It combines the best of the above two. In this strategy individual
agents can still analyze and respond to local threats and report to a hierarchical
central facility to enable organization to detect widespread attacks.

Other Security Tools

Honeypots, Honeynets, and Padded Cell Systems:

A class of powerful security tools that go beyond routine intrusion detection.

Honeypots: These are decoy systems designed to lure potential attackers so that he
is kept away from critical/main systems. They are also known as decoys, lures, and
fly-traps.

When a collection of honeypots connects several honeypot systems on a subnet, it

may be called a honeynet.

Honeypots are designed to do the following:

• Divert an attacker from critical systems

• Collect information about the attacker’s activity
• Encourage the attacker to stay on the system long enough for administrators
to document the event and, perhaps, respond.

Because the information in a honeypot appears to be valuable, any unauthorized

access to it constitutes suspicious activity.

Padded Cell Systems

A padded cell is a honeypot that has been protected so that that it cannot be easily
compromised—in other words, a hardened honeypot.

Beside attracting hacker with tempting data, it can work as IDPS. Once it detects
hackers, it transfers them to a special environment where they can cause no harm.

This environment can be filled with interesting data, which can convince an attacker
that the attack is going according to plan.

IDPS researchers have used padded cell and honeypot systems since the late 1980s,
but until recently no commercial versions of these products were available.

The advantages and disadvantages of using the honeypot or padded cell are

Advantages:

• Attackers can be diverted to targets that they cannot damage.

• Administrators have time to decide how to respond to an attacker.
• Attackers’ actions can be easily and more extensively monitored, and the
records can be used to refine threat models and improve system protections.

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• Honeypots may be effective at catching insiders who are snooping around a

network.

Disadvantages:

• The legal implications of using such devices are not well understood.
• Honeypots and padded cells have not yet been shown to be generally useful
security technologies.
• An expert attacker, once diverted into a decoy system, may become angry and
launch a more aggressive attack against an organization’s systems.
• Administrators and security managers need a high level of expertise to use
these systems.

Trap and Trace Systems

These systems use a combination of techniques to detect an intrusion and then trace
it back to its source.

The trap usually consists of a honeypot or padded cell and an alarm. While the
intruders are distracted, or trapped, by what they perceive to be successful
intrusions, the system notifies the administrator.

The trace feature is an extension to the honeypot or padded cell approach.

If the intruder is an internal person, trap and trace is easy. but if the intruder is from
external, administrator may even be tempted to back hack which is a dangerous
crime, if the hacker uses IP spoofing.

There are more legal drawbacks to trap-and-trace.

When using honeypots and honeynets, administrators should be careful not to cross
the line between enticement and entrapment.

• Enticement is the act of attracting attention to a system by placing tantalizing

information in key locations.
• Entrapment is the act of luring an individual into committing a crime to get a
conviction.
• Enticement is legal and ethical, whereas entrapment is not.

Scanning and analysis tools

To truly assess the risk within a computing environment, you must deploy technical
controls using a strategy of defense in depth, which is

likely to include intrusion detection systems (IDSs), active vulnerability scanners,

passive vulnerability scanners, automated log analyzers, and protocol analyzers.

These are typically used to collect information that attacker would need to launch
successful attack.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

Attack protocol is series of steps or processes used by an attacker, in a logical

sequence, to launch attack against a target system or network

Footprinting: Collection of publicly available information about a potential target.

Organized research of Internet addresses owned or controlled by a target organization

The next phase of the attack protocol is a data-gathering process called fingerprinting.
This is a systematic survey of all of the target organization’s Internet addresses. This
survey is conducted to identify the network services offered by the hosts in that range.

Access control devices.

Biometric Access Controls:

Based on some measurable human characteristics or trait a supplicant is

authenticated by using his identity.

Relies upon recognition

Biometric authentication technologies include the following:

• Fingerprint comparison
• Palm print comparison
• Hand geometry
• Facial recognition using a photographic id card or digital camera, Retinal print
• Iris pattern

Characteristics considered truly unique: Fingerprints, Retina of the eye, Iris of the
eye.

Most of the technologies that scan human characteristics convert these images to
some form of minutiae.

Minutiae are unique points of reference that are digitized and stored in an encrypted
format when the user’s system access credentials are created.

Each subsequent access attempt results in a measurement that is compared with the
encoded value to determine the user.

Signature and voice recognition technologies are also considered to be biometric

access controls measures.

Signature recognition: In this, signature is digitized and either saved for future
reference, or compared with a signature on a database for validation.

Voice recognition: Initial voiceprint of the user reciting a phrase is captured and
stored. Later, when the user attempts to access the system, the authentication
process requires the user to speak this same phrase so that the technology can
compare the current voiceprint against the stored value.

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Effectiveness of Biometrics:

Biometric technologies evaluated on three basic criteria:

• False reject rate: the rejection of legitimate users
• False accept rate: the acceptance of unknown users
• Crossover error rate (CER): the point where false reject and false accept rates
cross when graphed.

Acceptability of Biometrics

Many biometric systems that are highly reliable and effective are considered
somewhat intrusive to users.

Interestingly, the order of effectiveness is nearly exactly opposite the order of

acceptance.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

Cryptography:
Introduction:

The science of cryptography is not a new one. A variety of cryptographic techniques

are used regularly in everyday life like word puzzles, shorthand writing, abbreviated,
symbolic writing.

The science of encryption, known as cryptology, which includes both cryptography

and cryptanalysis.

• Cryptography derived from the Greek words Krypto’s, meaning “hidden,” and
graphein, meaning “to write,” is the process of making and using codes to
secure the transmission of information.
• Cryptanalysis is the process of obtaining the original message (called the
plaintext) from an encrypted message (called the ciphertext) without knowing
the algorithms and keys.
• Encryption is the process of converting an original message into a form that is
unreadable.
• Decryption is the process of converting the ciphertext message back into
plaintext so that it can be readily understood.

The field of cryptology is so complex.

Foundations of cryptology

Cryptology has a long and multicultural history. Since 1900BC to till date people are
using Cryptology for secure communication.

• 1942: Navajo code talkers entered World War II. Navajos developed code words
for subjects and ideas that did not exist in their native tongue.
• 1948: Claude Shannon suggested using frequency and statistical analysis in
the solution of substitution ciphers.
• 1970: Dr. Horst Feistel led an IBM research team in the development of the
Lucifer cipher.
• 1976: A design based on Lucifer was chosen by the U.S. National Security
Agency as the Data Encryption Standard is accepted worldwide.
• 1976: Whitefield Diffie and Martin Hellman introduced the idea of public-key
cryptography.
• 1977: Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman developed a practical
public-key cipher for both confidentiality and digital signatures. 1978: Initial
RSA algorithm was published in Communication of ACM.
• 1991: Phil Zimmermann released the first version of PGP (Pretty Good Privacy);
PGP was released as freeware and became the worldwide standard for public
cryptosystems.
• 2000: Rijndael’s cipher was selected as the Advanced Encryption Standard.

Because of the advancement in technology and rapid growth in computer usage, need
for encryption in information technology environment greatly increased.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

All popular Web browsers use built-in encryption features for secure e-commerce
applications.

Terminology

• Algorithm: The programmatic steps used to convert an unencrypted message

into an encrypted sequence of bits that represent the message.
• Cipher or cryptosystem: An encryption method or process encompassing the
algorithm, key(s) or cryptovariable(s), and procedures used to perform
encryption and decryption
• Ciphertext or cryptogram: The encoded message resulting from an encryption
• Code: The process of converting components (words or phrases) of an
unencrypted message into encrypted components
• Encipher: To encrypt, encode, or convert, plaintext into the equivalent
ciphertext.
• Decipher: To decrypt, decode, or convert, ciphertext into the equivalent
plaintext.
• Key or cryptovariable: The information used in conjunction with an algorithm
to create the ciphertext from the plaintext.
• Key can be a series of bits used by a computer program, or it can be a
passphrase used by humans that is then converted into a series of bits used
by a computer program.
• Keyspace: The entire range of values that can be used to construct a key.
• Plaintext or cleartext: The original unencrypted message, or a message that
has been successfully decrypted.
• Steganography: The hiding of messages in a picture or graphic.
• Work factor: The amount of effort (usually in hours) required to perform
cryptanalysis to decode an encrypted message when the key or algorithm (or
both) are unknown.

Cipher methods

There are two methods of encrypting plaintext: the bit stream method or the block
cipher method.

Bit Stream Ciphers: In the bit stream method, each bit in the plaintext is
transformed into a cipher bit, one bit at a time.

• Bit stream methods commonly use algorithm functions like the exclusive OR
operation (XOR).

Block Ciphers: In the block cipher method, the message is divided into blocks, for
example, sets of 8, 16, 32, or 64-bit blocks, and then each block of plaintext bits is
transformed into an encrypted block of cipher bits using an algorithm and a key.

• Block methods can use substitution, transposition, XOR, or some combination

of these operations

Note that most computer-based encryption methods operate on data at the level of its
binary digits (bits), but some operate at the byte or character level.

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Substitution Cipher

Substitute one value for another or one bit for another bit.

• Example: Substitute the letter with third letter to its right or substitute the bit
with fourth bit towards its left.

Example: Three-character substitution to the right results in the following Initial

alphabet yields: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Encryption alphabet: DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC

Monoalphabetic substitution: Uses only one alphabet for substitution.

Polyalphabetic substitution: It is more advanced one. Uses two or more alphabets

Plaintext = ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Substitution cipher 1 = DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC

Substitution cipher 2 = GHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEF
Substitution cipher 3 = JKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHI
Substitution cipher 4 = MNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKL

Example: TEXT is coded as WKGF

Vigenère cipher: Advanced Polyalphabetic substitution cipher type that uses 26

distinct cipher alphabets.

• In each subsequent row, the alphabet is shifted one letter to the right
until a 26 X 26 block of letters is formed.

Transposition Ciphers

Easy to understand, but if properly used, produces ciphertext that is difficult to

decipher
• Rearranges values within a block to create ciphertext
• Can be done at the bit level or at the byte (character) level

Example:

Key pattern: 1 ->4, 2 ->8, 3 ->1, 4-> 5, 5-> 7, 6 ->2, 7 ->6, 8 ->3

Bit locations: 87654321 87654321 87654321 87654321

Plaintext 8-bit blocks: 00100101|01101011|10010101|01010100
Ciphertext: 00001011|10111010|01001101|01100001

Example plaintext message presented earlier, “SACK GAUL SPARE NO ONE,” yields
the following:

Letter locations: 87654321 | 87654321 |87654321|87654321|

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Plaintext: SACKGAUL|SPARENOO|NE | |
Ciphertext: UKAGLSCA|ORPEOSAN| E N | |

• To make the encryption even stronger, the keys and block sizes can be made
much larger

Exclusive OR (X-OR)

The exclusive OR operation (XOR) is a function of Boolean algebra in which two bits
are Compared.

• If the two bits are identical, the result is a binary 0.

• If the two bits are not the same, the result is a binary 1.

A very simple symmetric cipher that is used in many applications where security is
not a defined requirement

Example: Plaintext is the word “CAT.” The ASCII binary representation of the
plaintext is “01000011 01000001 01010100”
key pattern is the letter “V” (01010110)

Text Value Binary Value

CAT 010000110100000101010100
VVV 010101100101011001010110
Cipher 000101010001011100000010

Vernam cipher was developed by AT&T, uses a set of characters only one time for
each encryption process (hence the name one-time pad).

To perform the Vernam cipher encryption operation:

• The pad values are added to numeric values that represent the plaintext
that needs to be encrypted
• Each character of the plaintext is turned into a number and a pad value
for that position is added
• The resulting sum for that character is then converted back to a
ciphertext letter for transmission
• If the sum of the two values exceeds 26, then 26 is subtracted from the
total

Plaintext: S A C K G A U L S P A R E N O O N E
Plaintext value: 19 01 03 11 07 01 21 12 19 16 01 18 05 14 15 15 14 05
Pad text: F P Q R N S B I E H T Z L A C D G J
Pad value: 06 16 17 18 14 19 02 09 05 08 20 26 12 01 03 04 07 10
Sum : 25 17 20 29 21 20 23 21 24 24 21 44 17 15 18 19 21 15
Modulo: 03 18
Ciphertext: Y Q T C U T W U X X U R Q O R S U O

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

To Decrypt, subtract cipher text value from pad value

Book Cipher
Uses text in book as key to decrypt a message. Ciphertext contains codes representing
page, line, and word numbers.
Example: Message: 259,19,8; 22,3,8; 375,7,4; 394,17,2.
Algorithm is the mechanical process of:
• Looking up the references from the ciphertext
• Converting each reference to a word by using the ciphertext’s value and
the key
To decrypt the ciphertext, the receiver must know the book used.
Typical sources are dictionaries and thesauruses

Hash Functions

Important encryption technique that is often embedded into cryptosystems.

Hash functions are mathematical algorithms that generate a message summary or

digest to confirm the identity of a specific message and to confirm that there have not
been any changes to the content.
• Hash algorithms: Publicly known functions that create hash value.
• Keys are not required
• Message authentication code (MAC), however, may be attached to a message
• Used in password verification systems to confirm identity of user

Cryptographic Algorithms
In general, cryptographic algorithms are often grouped into two broad categories:
Symmetric and Asymmetric. In practice, today’s popular cryptosystems use a hybrid,
i.e. combination of symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
Symmetric and Asymmetric algorithms are distinguished by types of keys used for
encryption and decryption operations.
Symmetric Encryption
Encryption methodologies that require the same secret key to encipher and decipher
the message.
• It is called private key encryption or symmetric encryption.
• Uses mathematical operations that can be programmed into extremely fast
computing algorithms and requiring minimal processing.
• Both sender and receiver must possess encryption key.
• If the copy of key is compromised, any intermediate person can decrypt and
read messages.
The primary challenge of symmetric key encryption is sharing the key to the receiver

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Example of Symmetric Encryption

Data Encryption Standard (DES): One of most popular and widely known symmetric
encryption cryptosystem.

• Developed by IBM, based on lucifer algorithm.

• 64-bit block size; 56-bit key
• Adopted by NIST in 1976 as federal standard for encrypting non-classified
information, after which it became widely employed in commercial applications.
• In 1998, a group called the Electronic Frontier Foundation developed a
computer that cracked DES key in less than three days.

Triple DES (3DES): Created to provide security far beyond DES.

• 3DES was an advanced application of DES. As the name indicates, encryption

process is repeated for three times.
• 3DES can be employed using two or three keys and a combination of encryption
or decryption for additional security
• As the computing power continued to double every 18 months. Within just a
few years, 3DES needed to be replaced.

The notation used to represent the encryption process:

M to represent the original message, C to represent the ciphertext, E to represent the

encryption algorithm, D represents the decryption

E(M, K) -> C , D(C, K) -> M So D[E(m,K),K] -> M

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

3DES encryption is the same as that of standard DES, repeated three times.

3DES encryption is done by using one of the following strategies:

• In the first operation, 3DES encrypts the message with key 1, then decrypts it
with key 2, and then it encrypts it again with key 1. In cryptographic notation,
this is [E{D[E(M,K1)],K2},K1]. Decrypting with a different key is essentially
another encryption, but it reverses the application of the traditional encryption
operations.
• In the second operation, 3DES encrypts the message with key 1, then it
encrypts it again with key 2, and then it encrypts it a third time with key 1
again, or [E{E[E(M,K1)],K2},K1].
• In the third operation, 3DES encrypts the message three times with three
different Keys. [E{E[E(M,K1)],K2},K3]. This is the most secure level of encryption
possible with 3DES.

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): To replace both DES and 3DES

• AES is a federal information processing standard (FIPS) that specifies a

cryptographic algorithm used within the U.S. government to protect
information in federal agencies that are not a part of the national defense
infrastructure.
• AES implements a block cipher called the Rijndael Block Cipher with a variable
block length and a key length of 128, 192, or 256 bits.
• Electronic Frontier Foundation special computer would require approximately
4,698,864 quintillion years (4,698,864,000,000,000,000,000) to crack AES.

The AES version of Rijndael can use a multiple round-based system. Depending on
the key size, the number of rounds varies from 9 to 13.

• for a 128-bit key, nine rounds plus one end round are used
• for a 192-bit key, eleven rounds plus one end round are used
• for a 256-bit key, thirteen rounds plus one end round are used

There are four steps within each round.

1) Byte Substitution (S-Box is used)

2) Shift Rows
3) Mix columns
4) Add round key

Asymmetric Encryption:
It uses two different but related keys, in which one key is used to encrypt and the
other key is used to decrypt the message.
• For Example: If A and B are two related keys. If key A is used to encrypt the
message, only key B can decrypt it, and if key B is used to encrypt a message,
only key A can decrypt it.
This technique has its highest value when one key is used as a private key, which
means that it is kept secret, known only to the owner of the key pair, and the other

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

key serves as a public key, which means that it is stored in a public location where
anyone can use it.
• The most common name for asymmetric encryption is public-key encryption
• Asymmetric algorithms are one-way functions. A one-way function is simple to
compute in one direction, but complex to compute in the opposite direction.
• Strength of public key encryption algorithm depends on the length of the two
prime numbers chosen.

Example of Asymmetric Encryption

One of the most popular public key cryptosystems is RSA, whose name is derived
from Rivest-Shamir-Adleman, the algorithm’s developers. The RSA algorithm was
the first public key encryption algorithm developed (in 1977) and published for
commercial use.

Algorithm:

Step-1: Choose two large prime numbers, p and q, of equal length, and compute p X
n, which is the public modulus.

Step-2: Choose a random number (public key) ‘e’, so that e and (p-1)(q-1) are
relatively prime (i.e., e and d must have no common factors except 1).

Step-3: Compute e X d =1 mod (p-1)(q-1), where ‘d’ is the private key. Thus d = e - 1
mod [(p-1)(q-1)]. d is a non negative integer.

Step-4: Then “(d, n) is the private key and (e, n) is the public key”.

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 Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

M is encrypted to generate ciphertext C as C =Me mod n, and C is decrypted to recover

the plaintext, M as M=Cd mod n.”

1. Choose two large, random prime 1. Choose P =3, Q =11 (two prime
numbers: P, Q (usually P, Q > numbers).
10^100)
2. Compute: 2. N =P * Q => 3 * 11= 33;
N=P*Q Z =(P-1)*(Q-1) => 2 * 10 = 20
Z = (P-1)*(Q-1)
3. Choose a relatively prime number 3. Choose a number E that is relatively
E with Z (E < N) prime with Z..
E=7
4. Compute D such that E*D = 1 4. Compute D such that
mod Z E * D = 1 MOD Z
i.e., 7 * D mod 20 = 1
i.e., E * D mod Z = 1 therefore D=3

5. Private key is (D,N) 5. Public Key = (7,33)

6. Public key is (E,N) 6. Private key = (3,33)
E D If M= 5
C = M mod N M = C mod N 7
C = 5 mod 33 = 14
3
M = 14 mod 33 = 5
Problems with Asymmetric Encryption

The problem with asymmetric encryption is for a single conversation between two
parties requires four keys.

Example: If four organizations want to exchange communications, each party must

manage its private key and four public keys.

That’s why asymmetric encryption is sometimes regarded by experts as inefficient.

Compared to symmetric encryption, asymmetric encryption is also not as efficient in
terms of CPU computations.

So, hybrid systems, such as “Public-Key Infrastructure (PKI),” are more commonly
used than pure asymmetric systems.

Encryption Key Size:

• When using ciphers, size of cryptovariable or key is very important

• Strength of many encryption applications and cryptosystems measured by key
size
• For cryptosystems, security of encrypted data is not dependent on keeping
encrypting algorithm secret
• Cryptosystem security depends on keeping some or all of elements of
cryptovariable(s) or key(s) secret

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Cryptographic tools

These are the most widely used tools that bring the functions of cryptography to the
world of information systems.

Potential use of these tools are:

• Ability to conceal the contents of sensitive messages

• Verify the contents of messages and the identities of their senders

Public-Key Infrastructure (PKI)

PKI is an integrated system of software, encryption methodologies, protocols, legal

agreements, and third-party services that enables users to communicate securely.

• PKI systems are based on public-key cryptosystems and include digital

certificates and certificate authorities (CAs).

Digital certificates are public-key container files that allow computer programs to
validate the key and identify to whom it belongs.

Certificate authority (CA), which issues, manages, authenticates, signs, and

revokes users’ digital certificates, which typically contain the username, public key,
and other identifying information.

PKI protects information assets in several ways:

• Authentication: Validate the identity of each parties

• Integrity: Ensures that the message is not altered
• Privacy: Protected from interception during transmission.
• Authorization: Proper validations of users
• Nonrepudiation: Customers or partners can be held accountable for
transactions which cannot dispute in later times.

Typical PKI protects the transmission and reception of secure information by

integrating:

• A certificate authority (CA): Which issues, manages, authenticates, signs,

and revokes users’ digital certificates,
• A registration authority (RA): Verifies registration information, generating
end-user keys, revoking certificates, and validating user certificates.
• Certificate directories: Central locations for certificate storage
• Management protocols: Organize and manage the communications among
CAs, RAs, and end users
• Policies and procedures: Which assist an organization in the application and
management of certificates, in the formalization of legal liabilities and
limitations, and in actual business use.

Common implementations of PKI include

• Systems that issue digital certificates to users and Servers,

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• Directory enrolment,
• Key issuing systems,
• Tools for managing the key issuance,
• Verification and return of certificates.

The strength of a cryptosystem relies on both the raw strength of its key’s complexity
and the overall quality of its key management security processes.

PKI solutions can provide several mechanisms for limiting access and possible
exposure of the private keys.

These mechanisms include password protection, smart cards, hardware tokens, and
other hardware-based key storage devices that are memory-capable

Digital Signature

Created in response to rising need to verify information transferred using electronic

systems.

• Asymmetric encryption processes used to create digital signatures.

• In this, senders private key is used for encryption, senders public key is used
to decrypt, which confirms that the message was sent by actual sender… so
identity is verified.

Nonrepudiation: the process that verifies the message was sent by the sender and
thus cannot be refuted

Digital Signature Standard (DSS): By suing these standards, digital signatures

should be created.

Digital signatures are, therefore, encrypted messages that can be mathematically

proven authentic.

Digital Certificate:

It is an electronic document or a container file with key value and identifying

information about entity that controls the key.

• The certificate is often issued and certified by a third party, usually a certificate
authority.
• Digital signature is attached to certificate’s container file to certify file is from
entity it claims to be from.
• Digital certificates authenticate the cryptographic key that is embedded in the
certificate.
• Different client-server applications use different types of digital certificates to
accomplish their assigned functions
• Distinguished name (DN): It uniquely identifies a certificate entity to a user
public key.
• Example: X.509 v3

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Hybrid Cryptosystems

• Except in digital certificates, pure asymmetric key encryption is not widely used
• Asymmetric encryption more often used with symmetric key encryption,
creating hybrid system
• Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange method:
– Most common hybrid system
– method for exchanging private keys using public key encryption.
– Provided foundation for subsequent developments in public-key
encryption
– It protects data from exposure to third parties

Example of Hybrid Encryption

Steganography
• Process of hiding information
• Has been in use for a long time
• Most popular modern version hides information within files appearing to
contain digital pictures or other images
• Some applications hide messages in .bmp, .wav, .mp3, and .au files, as well as
in unused space on CDs and DVDs

Protocols for secure communications

Most of the software's that are currently used to protect the confidentiality of
information are not true cryptosystems.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

• They are applications to which cryptographic protocols have been added.

• Particularly this is true in the case of Internet protocols.
• As the number of threats to the Internet grew, so did the need for additional
security measures increases.

1. Securing Internet Communication with S-HTTP and SSL

S-HTTP (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) are two
protocols designed to enable secure network communications across the Internet.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL) Protocol: It uses public key encryption to secure the
channel over public Internet

SSL provides two protocol layers within the TCP framework:

• SSL Record Protocol: Responsible for the fragmentation, compression,

encryption, and attachment of an SSL header to the plaintext prior to
transmission.
• Standard HTTP: Internet communication services between client and host
without consideration for encryption of the data that is transmitted between
client and server.

Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP): extended version of Hypertext

Transfer Protocol which provides encryption of individual messages between client
and server across Internet

• S-HTTP is the application of SSL over HTTP

• Allows encryption of information passing between computers through protected
and secure virtual connection
• S-HTTP can provide confidentiality, authentication, and data integrity through
a variety of trust models and cryptographic algorithms.

2. Securing E-mail with S/MIME, PEM, and PGP

Cryptosystems are adopted to work with e-mail protocols to incorporate security into
it.
• Most popular once's are S/MIME, PEM, PGP
• First commonly used Internet e-mail standard was SMTP.
Drawbacks:
• Inability to transmit executable files or binary objects.
• Cannot handle character sets other than 7-bit ASCII.
MIME was developed to address the problems of SMTP.

Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME): Builds on Multipurpose

Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) encoding format by adding encryption and
authentication.

Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM):

Proposed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

It uses 3DES symmetric key encryption and RSA for key exchange.

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP): It uses IDEA Cipher for message encoding.

PGP also uses RSA for symmetric key exchange and digital signatures.

3. Securing Web Transactions with SET, SSL, and S-HTTP

To secure web browsers and electronic commerce sites, number of protocols are
available.
• Secure Electronic Transactions (SET)
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
• Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP)
• Secure Shell (SSH-2)
• IP Security (IPSec).
Secure Electronic Transactions (SET):
• Developed by MasterCard and VISA in 1997 to provide protection from
electronic payment fraud.
• Uses DES to encrypt credit card information transfers and RSA for key
exchange.
Provides security for both Internet-based credit card transactions and credit card
swipe systems in retail stores.

4. Securing Wireless Networks with WEP and WPA

In wireless local area networks (Wi-Fi) communication between the wireless network
interface of any computing device and the access point that provides its services uses
radio transmissions.
• Most these transmissions are insecure.
Two sets of protocols are currently and widely used to help secure wireless
transmissions.
• Both are designed for use with the IEEE 802.11 wireless networks.
1. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP):
• Developed to provide security with the 8002.11 network protocol.
• WEP uses RC4 cipher stream to encrypt packets using a 64-bit key.
• Drawbacks: Key management and small Initialization Vector.

2. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2):

• Created to resolve issues with WEP.
• WPA has a key size of 128 bits and uses TKIP
• In 2006, WPA2 was introduced and WPA2 became mandatory for all new Wi-Fi
devices.

3. Bluetooth: Standard for short-range wireless communications between devices. It

can be exploited by anyone within approximately 30 foot range, unless suitable
security controls are implemented.

5. Securing TCP/IP with IPSec and PGP

Internet Protocol Security (IPSec): It is an open-source protocol framework for
security development within the TCP/IP family of protocol standards.
• It is used to secure communications across IP-based networks such as LANs,
WANs, and the Internet.

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Unit-IV Subject: Information Security

• Designed to protect data integrity, user confidentiality, and authenticity at the

IP packet level.
IPSec includes the IP Security protocol itself, which specifies the information to be
added to an IP packet as well as how to encrypt packet data
IPSec uses several different cryptosystems
• Diffie-Hellman key exchange for deriving key material between peers on
a public network
• Public key cryptography for signing the Diffie-Hellman exchanges to
guarantees identity
• Bulk encryption algorithms for encrypting the data
• Digital certificates signed by a certificate authority to act as digital ID
cards

IPSec Headers

Securing TCP/IP with IPSec and PGP

Pretty Good Privacy (PGP):
• It is a hybrid cryptosystem designed in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann
• Combined best available cryptographic algorithms to become open-source de
facto standard for encryption and authentication of e-mail and file storage
applications.
• Freeware and low-cost commercial PGP versions are available for many
platforms.
PGP security solution provides six services: authentication by digital signatures;
message encryption; compression; e-mail compatibility; segmentation; key
management

Attacks on cryptosystems

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Attempts to gain unauthorized access to secure communications is called as brute

force attacks.

In this attacks ciphertext is repeatedly searched for clues that can lead to the
algorithm’s structure.

• To protect against this, modern algorithms attempt to remove the repetitive and
predictable sequences of characters from the ciphertext.

Known-plaintext attack:

An attacker may obtain duplicate texts, one in ciphertext and one in plaintext, and
thus reverse-engineer the encryption algorithm

Selected-plaintext attack:

Attackers may send a specific text to the selected victims, such that victims will send
that text to another by encrypting it. If the attacker gets the encrypted version of the
specific text sent by him to victims, he can attack on victims with this.

Attacks on cryptosystems fall into four general categories:

1. Man-in-the-middle
• Attackers attempt to place themselves between the sender and receiver.
• Once they’ve intercepted the request for key exchanges, they send each
participant a valid public key, which is known only to them.
• To the victims of such attacks, encrypted communication appears to be
occurring normally, but in fact the attacker is receiving each encrypted
message and decoding it (with the key given to the sending party), and then
encrypting and sending it to the intended recipient.
2. Correlation
Correlation attacks are a collection of brute-force methods that attempt to deduce
statistical relationships between the structure of the unknown key and the ciphertext
generated by the cryptosystem.
• Differential and linear cryptanalysis have been used to mount successful
attacks.
• Only defense is selection of strong cryptosystems, thorough key management,
and strict adherence to best practices of cryptography in frequency of changing
keys.
3. Dictionary Attack
• In a dictionary attack, the attacker encrypts every word in a dictionary using
the same cryptosystem as used by the target in an attempt to locate a match
between the target ciphertext and the list of encrypted words.
4. Timing Attack
• In a timing attack, the attacker eavesdrops on the victim’s session and uses
statistical analysis of patterns and inter-keystroke timings to discern sensitive
session information.
• Can be used to gain information about encryption key and possibly
cryptosystem in use.

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• Once encryption successfully broken, attacker may launch a replay attack (an
attempt to resubmit recording of deciphered authentication to gain entry into
secure source).

Defending against attacks

• No matter how sophisticated encryption and cryptosystems have become, if key

is discovered, message can be determined
• Key management is not so much management of technology but rather
management of people

Dept. of CSE, MEC 2022-2023