TEFLIN TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SERIES

Series Editors: Willy A Renandya & Nur Hayati

Assistant Editor: Rahmati Putri Yaniafari

TEFLIN Teacher Development Series contains short practical resource booklets for
English language teachers in Asia published by TEFLIN (The Association for the
Teaching of English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia) through its Publication
Division. Printed titles in the first batch of the series (2019) include:

Introducing Task-based Language Teaching by Rod Ellis

Evaluating, Adapting and Developing Materials for Learners of English as an International
Language by Brian Tomlinson
Cooperative Learning in Language Education by George M Jacobs & Willy A Renandya
Teaching Pragmatics in EFL Classrooms by Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh & Le Van Canh

Order your printed copies by sending an email to:

[email protected]

If you have any queries, please contact:

TEFLIN Publication Division
Email: [email protected]

Copyright © 2019
TEFLIN Publication Division in collaboration with Bintang Sejahtera Press
c/o Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Negeri Malang
Jalan Semarang 5 Malang, East Java, Indonesia, 65145
http://www.journal.teflin.org

ISBN: 978-602-1150-29-0

First published 2019

Cover Designer: Himawan Prakosa
Formatting: Ibnuz Zaki
 Evaluating,  Adapting  and  Developing  Materials  for  
Learners  of  English  as  an  International  Language  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Brian  Tomlinson  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
TEFLIN  Teacher  Development  Series    
published  by  
TEFLIN  Publication  Division
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TEFLIN Teacher'Development'Series'

FOREWORD FROM THE

PUBLISHER !
!

I
t'is'a'great'pleasure'for'TEFLIN'to'publish'this'Teacher'Development'Series,'a'
series' which' provides' useful' and' affordable' resources' for' English' language'
teachers' and' teacher' educators' in' Asia.' The' booklets' in' the' series' cover'
various' topics' pertaining' to' ELT' and' are' written' by' experts' in' the' field.'
Teachers' and' teacher' educators' will' enjoy' reading' the' series' as' the' booklets' are'
written'in'a'friendly'and'accessible'style.'

Throughout' more' than' sixty' years' of' TEFLIN,' we' have' shown' our' full'
commitment' towards' teacher' training' and' education' and' teacher' professional'
development'in'the'field'of'ELT'by'means'of'various'programs.'We'have'organized'
conferences'and'academic'forums'for'English'language'teachers'both'nationally'and'
internationally,'and'collaborated'with'different'organizations'to'provide'support'for'
teachers' in' developing' their' professionalism,' such' as,' by' giving' scholarships' to'
attend'conferences'and'conducting'teacher'training.''

Through' the' TEFLIN' Publication' Division,' we' have' published' volumes' of' the'
TEFLIN'Journal,'a'peerIreviewed'journal'indexed'in'Scopus'and'fully'accredited'with'
an' “A”' rating' by' the' Indonesian' Ministry' of' Research' and' Higher' Education.' The'
journal'contains'both'research'and'concept'papers'in'the'field'of'ELT.'This'TEFLIN'
Teacher' Development' Series' is' another' project' of' the' division' and' is' yet' another'
form'of'our'commitment'to'giving'continued'support'to'the'development'of'English'
language'teaching'in'Indonesia'and'in'the'wider'region.'This'year'we'are'aiming'to'
launch'five'books'of'the'series,'and'are'committed'to'publishing'more'titles'in'the'
following'years'to'support'teachers’'sustainable'professional'development.'

We' are' indebted' to' Dr' Willy' A' Renandya' for' sharing' with' us' his' brilliant' ideas'
and'for'giving'his'utmost'effort'and'lending'his'expertise'to'this'project.'Without'his'

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capacity' and' networking,' this' project' would' not' be' possible.' We' also' gratefully'
thank' all' the' experts' who' have' contributed' to' the' series.' Their' contribution' is'
invaluable.''

We' hope' this' series' will' serve' its' purpose,' to' empower' English' teachers' and'
facilitate'their'professional'development'through'quality'and'accessible'resources.'''

'

'

Joko'Nurkamto''' ' ''''''''''Yazid'Basthomi'

President'of'TEFLIN'' '''''''''''Coordinator'of'TEFLIN'Publication'Division'
'

' '

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'

SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

'
'
'

T
'
he'TEFLIN'Teacher'Development'Series'is'a'series'of'short'practical'resource'
booklets' for' English' language' teachers' in' Asia' as' part' of' a' collaborative'
project' with' the' Publication' Division' of' TEFLIN' (The' Association' for' the'
Teaching' of' English' as' a' Foreign' Language' in' Indonesia).' The' booklets' (or'
modules)'are'intended'to'be'used'by'teachers'(both'preIservice'and'inIservice)'and'
teacher' educators' as' a' learning' resource' and' as' a' basis' for' organizing' workshops,'
inIservice'courses'and'various'other'purposes'of'teaching'and'learning'and'teacher'
professional'development.'
The'booklets'in'the'Series'are'written'in'an'accessible'and'teacherIfriendly'style'
and' cover' both' principles' and' techniques' and' include' different' topics' relevant' to'
ELT'and'teacher'professional'development.'Each'booklet'contains'practical'ways'for'
teachers' to' apply' new' ideas' in' their' own' teaching' as' well' as' reflective' tasks' that'
provide'opportunities'for'the'users'to'reflect'on'their'own'classroom'practices.''
For' the' first' batch' of' the' series,' we' have' had' a' great' honor' and' pleasure' to'
work'with'experts'in'various'areas'of'ELT.'One'of'them'is'Prof'Brian'Tomlinson'who'
is' a' leading' expert' particularly' in' the' area' of' materials' development' and' has'
traveled' throughout' the' world' to' present' his' ideas' and' work' with' teachers' and'
teacher'trainers'of'different'contexts.'His'book'for'the'Series'explores'key'principles'
and' techniques' of' evaluating,' adapting' and' developing' materials' for' learners' of'
English'as'an'international'language.'This'is'an'area'where'a'lot'of'teachers'would'
undoubtedly'need'to'improve'their'knowledge'and'skills'in,'and'is'highly'relevant'to'
the'current'situation'where'the'world'is'becoming'more'connected'than'ever'and'
there'is'an'increasingly'urgent'need'for'learners'to'understand'and'use'English'as'
an'international'language.'His'wide'expertise'and'experience'in'the'area'makes'the'
book' very' easy' to' follow' and' his' ideas' applicable' in' various' teaching' and' learning'
contexts'of'EIL.'
'

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We'would'like'to'again'extend'our'utmost'gratitude'to'Prof'Brian'Tomlinson'as'
well' as' other' experts' who' have' contributed' to' the' Series' for' their' kindness' and'
generosity'in'sharing'their'knowledge'and'expertise'and'helping'make'this'project'
happen.'We'are'committed'to'publishing'more'quality'booklets'in'the'coming'years'
in' the' coming' years' in' order' to' meet' the' needs' of' English' teachers' and' teacher'
educators'in'Asia.'We'hope'to'collaborate'with'many'more'experts'in'various'areas'
of'ELT'and'publish'booklets'that'are'affordable'and'beneficial'for'the'development'
of'ELT'and'teacher'professionalism'particularly'in'the'Asian'region.

Willy'A'Renandya'
Nur'Hayati'
' '

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AUTHOR’S PREFACE '

'
'
'

I
'
often'say'that'every'teacher'is'a'materials'developer.'Some'teachers'say'that'
they'are'not'materials'developers'because'they'have'had'no'training'and'they'
rely'on'experts'to'develop'their'materials'for'them.'Yet'those'same'teachers'
use' their' course' books' every' day' in' a' slightly' different' way' from' other'
teachers' and' from' what' the' writers' intended.' For' example,' they' decide' on' a'
particular'focus,'they'spend'more'time'on'one'section'than'another,'they'miss'out'
activities,'they'add'examples'and'sometimes'even'activities,'they'make'changes'to'
instructions,' and' they' even' supplement' the' materials' by' bringing' in' photos,' by'
telling'stories,'by'talking'about'themselves,'by'showing'clips'from'YouTube,'and'by'
adding'activities.'They'are'materials'developers.'
This' book' is' for' you,' the' teacher' who' might' not' have' had' any' training' in'
materials'development'but'who'is'in'the'best'position'to'develop'materials'for'your'
learners.' You' know' your' learners,' you' know' what' they' can' and' cannot' do,' you'
know'what'they'need'and'want,'and'above'all'you'know'who'they'are.'You'are'the'
expert,'not'somebody'sitting'at'a'desk'in'London,'New'York,'or'Sydney.'
In' writing' this' book,' I' have' in' mind' teachers' whose' learners' do' not' need' to'
speak'or'write'English'like'a'native'speaker'and'will'probably'never'live'in'an'English'
speaking'country.''But'they'might'need'to'communicate'in'English'with'both'native'
and'nonInative'speakers'face'to'face,'on'the'phone,'and'on'social'media'and'they'
might' need' to' read' books,' articles,' letters,' or' eImails' written' by' native' or' nonI
native' speakers' of' English.' It' is' a' fact' that' most' users' of' English' in' the' world' are'
nonInative' speakers' of' English' and' most' interactions' in' English' are' between' nonI
native' speakers.' We' need' to' keep' this' in' mind' when' evaluating,' adapting,' and'
developing'materials.'
What' this' book' aims' to' do' is' to' help' you' to' evaluate' materials,' to' select'
materials,'to'adapt'materials,'and'to'develop'materials'for'your'learners'and'your'
institution'and'maybe'for'your'Ministry'of'Education'and'a'publisher'too.'The'book'
consists'of'information,'advice,'examples,'and'tasks.'Many'of'the'tasks'just'ask'you'
to' think' for' yourself' but' some' ask' you' to' actually' evaluate,' adapt,' and' develop'
materials.'It'is'best'to'do'these'tasks'with'colleagues'so'that'you'can'discuss'your'

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views' and' monitor' each' other’s' work.' But' the' tasks' can' still' be' useful' if' you' are'
reading'this'book'by'yourself.'If'that'is'the'case,'make'sure'you'talk'to'yourself'to'
answer'the'“think”'questions'and'that'you'evaluate'anything'you'produce.'
Hope'you'enjoy'the'book'and'find'it'useful.'
'
'
Brian'Tomlinson'
'

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
#

Foreword#from#the#Publisher#
#

President#of#TEFLIN#and#Coordinator#of#TEFLIN#Publication#Division##..........## i#
#

Preface#
## #
Series#Editors#..................................................................................................## iii#
Author##...........................................................................................................## v #
#
Table#of#Contents#
## #
Table#of#Contents#...........................................................................................## vii#
#

Chapter#One#•#Introduction#
#

Materials#Analysis#..........................................................................................## 1#
Materials#Evaluation#......................................................................................## 3#
Materials#Adaptation#.....................................................................................## 5#
Materials#Development#.................................................................................## 6#
English#as#an#International#Language#............................................................## 7#
Tasks##..............................................................................................................## 9#
#

Chapter#Two#•#Materials#Evaluation#1#
#
The#Objectives#of#Evaluations#........................................................................##11#
The#Difference#between#Materials#Analysis#and#Materials#Evaluation##.......##12#
Ways#of#Evaluating#Materials##.......................................................................##13#
Different#Types#of#Evaluation#........................................................................##14#
Materials#Evaluations#for#Learners#of#English#as#an#International##
Language##.......................................................................................................##17#
Tasks##..............................................................................................................##17#

Chapter#Three#•#Criterion#Referenced#Evaluation#of#Materials#
#

Developing#Universal#Criteria#……………………………………………………………………# 20#
Tasks#………………………………………………………………………………………………………..# 21#
Developing#Local#Criteria###.............................................................................##23#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))v! ii#
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Conducting#an#Evaluation##.............................................................................##25#
Examples)of)Materials)Evaluations+for+Learners+of+English+as+an+
International*Language##.................................................................................##26#
Materials#Evaluation#Task##.............................................................................##27#

Chapter#Four#•#Materials#Adaptation#1#
#
The#Objectives#of#Materials#Adaptation##.......................................................##29#
Task#1##.......................................................................................................##29#
Task#2##.......................................................................................................##32#
The#Principles#of#Materials#Adaptation##........................................................##33#
Procedures#for#Materials#Adaptation##...........................................................##33#
Task#3##.......................................................................................................##34#
Task#4##.......................................................................................................##35#
Task#5##.......................................................................................................##37#

Chapter#Five#•#Materials#Adaptation#2#
#
Examples#of#Materials#Adaptations#for#Learners#of#English#as#an#
International#Language##............................................................................##39#
Materials#Adaptation#Tasks##..........................................................................##45!

Chapter#Six#•#Frameworks#for#Materials#Development#
!
Introduction##..................................................................................................##47#
Content##..........................................................................................................##47#
Pedagogical#Approach##..................................................................................##55#
Tasks##..............................................................................................................##61#

Chapter#Seven#•## A#TextVDriven#Learning#(TDL)#Approach#to#Materials#
Development#
#
Description#of#a#TDL#Approach##.....................................................................##63#
Justification#of#the#TDL#Approach##.................................................................##67#
An#Example#of#the#TDL#Approach#to#Writing#Materials##...............................##68#
A#TextVDriven#TaskVBased#Approach##............................................................##70#
Tasks##..............................................................................................................##71#
#
Conclusion##.............................................................................................................##73#
Author’s#Biography##...............................................................................................##75#

!
Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))viii#
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Materials"Analysis!
What)is)materials)analysis?)

Materials)analysis)is)a)process)which)aims)to)find)out)what)a)set)of)materials)aims)
to#achieve,#how#it#intends#to#achieve#those#aims,#what#it#contains,#and#what#it#asks#
learners'to'do.'#

The$main$purpose$of$materials$analysis$is$to$find$out$the$extent$to$which$a$set$of$
materials)matches)the)content)needs)and)wants)of)the)target)learners)with)a)view)to)
either& modifying& the& contents& during& their& development& or& to& making& a& decision&
about& their& suitability& for& use.& For& example,& if& the& draft& of& a& course' book! aimed" at"
young& learners& is& found& to& contain& a& lot& of& philosophical& texts& and& to& focus& on& the&
explicit( teaching( of( grammar,( the( advice( of( a( reviewer( might( be( to( add( more(
narrative( texts,( to( reduce( the( focus( on( grammar,( and( to( add( songs,( games,( and(
creative( activities.' If' a' course' book! focuses' mainly' on' developing' the' skills' of'
conversation,,it,might,be,decided,not,to,use,it,with,a,group,of,learners,whose,main,
objective)is)to)develop)their)reading)skills.#

Another(purpose(of(materials(analysis(is(to(find(out(what(is#missing#from#a#set#of#
materials) already) selected) for) use) so) as) to) inform) the) development) of)
supplementary,materials,which,match,the,needs,and,wants,of,the,specific,learners,
and/or' the' pedagogical' preferences' of' the' teacher.' For' example,' a' teacher' might'
add# activities# in# which# learners# make# discoveries# for# themselves# about# the# target#
language'to'a'course'book!which%focuses%on%the%presentation%of%rules.###

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))1#
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Is)materials)analysis)important)for)language)teachers?)
)
Materials) analysis) is) important) for) teachers) who$ have$ the$ freedom$ to$ select,$
adapt,&and&supplement&materials&for&their&classes&as&a&systematic&analysis&can&help&
them% to% make% decisions% which% could% benefit% their% learners.% It% is% also% important% for%
teachers(without(such(freedom(as(being(aware(of(what(a(set#of#materials#contains#
and$what$it$intends$to$achieve$can$help$teachers$in$making$decisions$about$how$to$
use$the$materials.#

What)are)the)procedures)of)materials)analysis?)

There%are%many%models%for%analysis%in%the%literature%on%materials%development,%
but$most$of$them$require$too$much$time$and$expertise$to$be$useful$for$classroom$
teachers.)My! recommendation+for+teachers+is+to+make+use+of+the+following+simple+
template:#

Objectives:)
1. What#are#the#main#objectives#of#the#materials?#
2. To#what#extent#do#these#objectives#match#the#objectives#of#the#course?#

Methodology:)
1. What#methodology#do#the#materials#use?#
2. To#what#extent#does#this#methodology#match#my#preferred#methodology?#

Contents:)
1. What#language#contents#do#the#materials#include?#
2. What#topic#contents#do#the#materials#include?#
3. What#do#the#materials#ask#the#learners#to#do?#
4. To#what#extent#do#the#contents#match#what#the#learners#need#and#want?#
5. What#can#be#done#when#teaching#the#materials#to#achieve#a#greater#match#with#
what#the#learners#need#and#what?#

"
"
"

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))! 2"
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Materials"Evaluation"
What)is)materials)evaluation?)

Materials)evaluation)is)a)process)which)aims)to)predict)or)measure)the)effect)of)
language' learning' materials' on' their' users.' The' evaluators* could* be* teachers,*
materials) developers,) researchers,) or) learners.) They) could) be) users) (or) potential)
users)& of& the& materials& themselves,& & for& example,& students& using& the& materials& & to&
learn&a&language,&teachers&using&them&to&teach&a&language,&or!administrators*using*
them%to%facilitate%the%teaching%and%learning%of%a%language.%The%evaluators%could%also%
be#developers#of#the#materials#(e.g.#teachers#or#materials#writers)#or#investigators#of#
the$materials$(e.g.$publishers,$inspectors,$researchers).#

The"main"purpose"of"materials"evaluation"is"to"increase"the"prospect"of"learners"
acquiring)a)language.)This)is)achieved)by)predicting)or)measuring)the)likely)effect)of)
draft& or& finalised& materials& on& target& users& with& the& eventual& aim& of& making& the&
materials! (and/or( similar( materials)( more( effective.( Materials( evaluation( is( not( just(
an#academic#activity.#It#is#a#principled#but#practical#activity#aiming#at#improvement#
of#effect.#

Materials)evaluation)is)not)about)making)materials)intrinsically)better)but)about)
making'them'more'effective'for'their'target'users.#

Is)materials)evaluation)important)for)language)teachers?)

I"believe"that"materials"evaluation"is"very"important"for"language"teachers."Most"
publications,which,focus,on,materials,evaluation,seem,to,be,addressed$primarily$to$
professional+materials+writers+who+are+engaged+in+the+development+of+textbooks+or+
digital' courses.' Whilst' I! hope% that% such% professionals% will% find% the! chapters) on)
materials)evaluation)useful,)one)of)my!main%aims%is%to%help%teachers%to%improve$the$
effectiveness)of)their)teaching)by)evaluating)the)materials)they)are)using)or)intend)
to#use#so#as#to:#

• help%them%to%select%which%materials%to%use;#
• make%discoveries%which%will%enable%them%to%use%materials%more%effectively;#
• make%discoveries%will%enable"them"to"adapt"materials"in"order"to"make"them"
more%effective%for%their%target%learners;#
• help%them%to%develop%and%articulate%their%beliefs%about%language%learning;#
• help%them%to%gain%greater%awareness%of%ways%to%learn%and%to%teach%languages.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))! 3"
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What)are)the)principles)of)materials)evaluation?)

The$main$principles$of$materials$evaluation$are$that:#

• no#set#of#materials#is#ideally#suited#for#any#particular#learner#or#group#of#learners;#
• not$set$of$materials$is$ideally$suited$for$any$particular$teacher;#
• all#materials!can$be$made$more$effective$for$particular$target$users;#
• the$preErequisite(for(making(materials(more(effective(is(evaluation;#
• materials)evaluation)needs)to)be)informed)by:)#
o substantiated*beliefs*about*the*optimum*ways*for*learners*to*acquire*a*
language;#
o the"needs"and"wants"of"the"target"users"of"the"materials;#
o the$contextual$constraints$of$the$target$users;#
• materials)evaluation)needs)to)be)valid)in)the)sense)that)what)is)predicted)or)
measured(is(of(value(for(the(target(users;#
• materials)evaluation)needs)to)be"reliable"in"the"sense"that"different"evaluators"
following(the(same(procedure(s)(would(reach(similar(conclusions."

What)are)the)procedures)of)materials)evaluation?)

There% are% many% different% ways% of% evaluating% materials,% with% some% being% much%
more%valid%and%reliable&than&others.&For&example,&many&teachers&evaluate&a&course'
book!by#flicking#through#its#pages#and#gaining#an#impression#of#what#it#contains#and#
what% it% asks% the% learners% to% do.% Some% teachers% evaluate% materials% by% discussing%
them% with% their% colleagues,% some% by% asking% themselves% whether% the% map% of% the%
contents'matches'what$they$want$the$materials$to$do,$some$by$focusing$on$specific$
sections(of(the(materials(and(asking(themselves(how(effective(they(are(likely(to(be,(a(
few$ by$ asking$ learners$ for$ their$ responses$ to$ the$ materials$ and$ a$ few$ by$ actually$
trialling( the( materials! with% classes% of% learners.% Most% publishers% and% professional%
materials) writers) ask) experts) to) review) their) materials,) get) teachers) to) trial) their)
materials,*get*teachers*to*fill*in*questionnaires*about*the*materials,*or*ask*teachers*
to# form# focus# groups# to# discuss& the& materials.& A& very& small& number& of& materials&
writers' and' an' even' smaller' number' of' teachers' conduct' criterion' referenced'
evaluations+ in+ which+ they+ ask+ questions+ about+ the+ effectiveness+ of+ materials+ in+
relation) to) beliefEbased& criteria& (e.g.& ‘Are! the$ reading$ texts$ likely$ to$ engage$ the$
learners?’).#

In# Chapters# 2# and# 3# we# will# discuss# the# validity# and# reliability# of# the# ways# of#
evaluating*materials*mentioned*above.*Which*one*do*you*think*I*will*recommend?#

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Materials"Adaptation#
What)is)materials)adaptation?)

Materials) adaptation) is) making) changes) to) materials) in) order) to) increase) the)
likelihood(of(them(being(used(effectively(with(their(target(learners.(The(changes(are(
made%to%achieve%a%better%match%with%second%language%acquisition%(SLA)%principles,%
to#make$them$more$relevant$and$meaningful$to$the$learners,$to$achieve$a$better$fit$
with%the%needs%and%wants%of%the%learners,%and%to%achieve%a%better%match%with%the%
beliefs,(experience(and(personalities(of(the(teachers.)

Is)materials)adaptation)important)for)teachers?)

We# believe# that# materials# adaptation# is# one# of# the# most# important# procedures#
carried'out'by'teachers'and'that'being'able'to'adapt'materials'effectively'is'a'preE
requisite(for(becoming(a(successful(language(teacher.#

If# a# teacher# uses# a# course' book! or# institutional# set# of# materials# as# a# script# to#
follow,& the& materials& are& unlikely& to& be& effective.& After& all,& the& materials& have& not&
been$ developed$ specifically$ for$ that$ teacher$ and$ that$ class$ of$ learners$ to$ use.$ The$
teacher'needs'to'use'the'materials'as"a"resource"and"to"make"changes"and"additions"
to# them# so# as# to# make# the# use# of# them# more# likely# to# be# effective# for# the# actual#
learners.#

What)are)the)principles)of)materials)adaptation?)

The#main#principles#of#materials#adaptation#are#that:#

• no#set#of#materials%is%ideally%suited%for%any%particular%learner%or%group%of%learners;#
• not$set$of$materials$is$ideally$suited$for$any$particular$teacher;#
• no#set#of#materials#is#ideally#suited#for#any#particular#context#of#learning;#
• all#materials#can#be#made#more#effective"for"particular"target"users;#
• adaptations)to)materials)should)be)principled)in)the)sense)of)being)informed)by)
substantiated*beliefs*about*language*learning;#
• adaptations)to)materials)should)aim)at)contextual)suitability)(e.g.))suitability)with)
regards'to'the#local#culture,#to#the#ages,#levels,#gender#and#learning#objectives#of#
the$learners,$to$the$training$and$experience$of$the$teachers,$to$the$specifications$
of#the#syllabus,#to#examination#requirements,#etc.)#

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What)are)the)procedures)of)materials)adaptation?)

Materials#can#be#adapted:#

• as#an#instinctive#reaction#to#the#materials#prior#to#or#during#use;#
• as#a#considered#response#to#the#materials#after#use;#and#
• after&a&criterionEreferenced'evaluation'of'the'materials.#

Materials#can#be#adapted#by:#

• reducing)a)text!or#activity;#
• simplifying*a*text*or*activity;#
• adding&an&achievable&challenge&to&a&text&or&activity;#
• lengthening(a(text(or(activity;#
• modifying)a)text)or)activity;#
• omitting'a'text'or'activity;#
• replacing*a*text*or*activity;#
• adding,'subtracting'or'modifying'a'visual;(and#
• supplementing+with+additional+material.#

These%procedures%will%be%described%and%exemplified%in%Chapters%4%and%5.)

"
Materials"Development"
What)does)developing)materials)involve?)

Developing* a* course* of* materials* involves* creating* materials* to* be* used% by%
specified( target( learners( in( specified( learning( contexts.( Ideally( it( follows( the(
sequence'of'stages'below:#

• Establishing+universal+and+local+criteria+for+the+development+and+evaluation+of+
the$materials;#
• Deciding(on(the(objectives(of(the(materials;#
• Deciding'on'the'pedagogical'approach;#
• Deciding(on(the(content(of(the(materials;#
• Writing'a'sample'unit;#
• Evaluating*the*sample*unit*against*the*universal*and*local*criteria;#

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• Revising(the(sample(unit;#
• Writing'further'units;#
• Evaluating*and*revising*the*further*units;#
• Trialling(units(with(groups(of(learners(as(similar(to(the(target(learners(as(possible;(#
• Eliciting(feedback(on(the(trialled(units(from(learners(and(teachers(through(
questionnaires,,interviews,and,focus,groups;#
• Revising(the(units;#
• Completing+the+course"of"materials;#
• Evaluating*the*course*of*materials;*and#
• Finalising(the(course(of(materials.#

Obviously*teachers*do*not*normally*have*the*time*to*follow*this*ideal*procedure*
when% developing% supplementary% materials% for% their% classes% or% institution.% In% such%
cases%though,%it%is%still%important%that%their%materials%are%driven%by%principled%criteria%
and$that$they$evaluate$and$revise$the$materials$before$and$after$use.#

The$key$decisions$to$be$made$when$developing$materials$are$those$concerning$
the$ language$ and$ topic& content& of& the& materials& (i.e.& what& they& focus& on)& and& the&
pedagogical*approach*of*the*materials*(i.e.*how*they*try*to*help*learners*to*acquire*
the$ target$ language).$ Once$ these$ decisions$ have$ been$ made$ I$ have$ found$ it$ really$
helps& if& a& flexible& framework% is% developed% which% the% writer(s)% can% make% use% of% in%
writing' their' materials.' The' choices' of' content,' approaches,' and' frameworks'
available' to' teachers' and' professional' material' writers' will' be' discussed' and'
exemplified)in)Chapters)6)and)7.#

"
English"as"an"International"Language"
What)is)English)as)an)International)Language?)

English( as( an( International( Language( (EIL)( is( used( by( nonEnative' speakers' and'
writers' of' English' when' communicating' with' other' nonEnative' users' of' English' or'
with% native% speakers% of% the" many" varieties" of" English" (e.g." East" Coast" American"
English,)Australian)English,)Educated)Southern)British)English,)Irish)English,)Southern)
American)English,)Scouse)English)(i.e.)the)variety)spoken)in)Liverpool)).)EIL)is)not)in)
itself' a' distinct' variety' of# English# with# its# own# pronunciation,# grammar# and#
vocabulary* but* rather* a* way* of* communicating* which* involves* developing* various*
skills%and%competences.%To%be%an%effective%communicator%in%EIL,%you%do%not%need%to%

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speak& and& write& exactly& as& a& native& speaker." You" do" not" need" an" RP" (Received"
Pronunciation)+ accent+ or+ a+ productive+ mastery+ of+ the+ grammar+ of+ British+ or+
American) Standard) English.) What) you) need) is) a) pronunciation) which) is)
internationally* intelligible* and* a* grammar* and* a* lexicon* which* approximate*
sufficiently)to)those)used)by)people)from)different)language)backgrounds)so)as)not)
to# cause# communication# problems.# You# also# need# the# ability# to# understand# the#
spoken' and' written' English' of' people' from' a' variety' of' language' backgrounds' as'
well$as$the$ability$to#tolerate#ambiguity,#to#seek#clarification,#and#to#accommodate#
your%own%English%towards%that%of%the%people%you%are%communicating%with.#

What)are)the)needs)and)wants)of)learners)of)English)as)an)
International)Language?)

Obviously* the* needs* and* wants* of* learners% of% English% as% an% International%
Language' (EIL)' will' differ' according' to' age,' gender,' level,' locality' and' likelihood' of'
encounters) with) other) users) of) English.) They) will) also) differ) for) learners) of) English)
who$are$learning$English$as$an$academic$discipline,%as%a%hobby,%to%study%an%academic%
subject,)or)to)live)in)an)English)speaking)country.)#

Regardless) of) the) specific) local) needs) of) EIL) learners,) they) all) need) to) develop)
positive(attitudes(towards(English(as(a(language(which(can(facilitate(their(ability(to#
communicate* with* people* from* all* over* the* world,* can* open* up* and* enrich* their*
experience(of(the(world,(and(can(enhance(their(career(prospects.(They(also(need(to(
view%English%as%something%which%is%relevant%and%meaningful%for%them%and%to%accept%
that$they$will$not$always$immediately$understand$what$people$are$saying$to$them$in$
English.) They) will) often) need) to) persist) until) they) understand) enough) for) their)
purposes'or'at'least'enough'to'seek'clarification.#

What% learners% of% EIL% want% to% do% in% English% whilst% learning& will& obviously& differ&
from% context% to% context% and% from% learner% to% learner.% For% example,% we% found% on% a%
course'book!project(in(Namibia(that(fifteen(year(old(learners(wanted(to(read(about(
and$ discuss$ such$ serious$ topics$ as$ pollution,$ corruption,$ and$ drug$ abuse$ and$ in$
China,'three'nineEyearEold$learners$told$us$they$wanted$to$use$English$to$access$the$
web,% to% communicate! with% foreigners,% and% to% find% more% about% world% soccer%
respectively.,It,is,important,that,we,know,what,learners,want,as,well,as,predict,what,
they%will%need%when%we%are%evaluating,%adapting,%or%developing%materials.#
#

"

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Tasks"
1. Focus& on& a& particular& class& of& learners% and% then% ask% yourself% the% following%
questions.#

a. How$many$of$them$are$likely$to$live$in$an$English$speaking$country?#
b. How$many$of$them$are$likely$to$visit$an$English$speaking$country?#
c. How$ many$ of$ them$ are$ likely$ to$ visit$ countries$ where$ English$ is$ not$the$ first$
language'but'where'it'might'be'useful'for'communication'with'people'there?#
d. How$many$of$them$are$likely$to$work$in$occupations$where$English$would$be$
useful?#
e. How$many$of$them$are$likely$to$need$to$communicate$in$English$with$native$
speakers'of'English?#
f. How$ many$ of$ them$ are$ likely$ to$ need$ to$ communicate$ in$ English$ with$ nonE
native'speakers'of'English?#
g. How$ many$ of$ them$ would$ be$ able$ to$ enhance$ their$ job$ prospects$ if$ they$
became&proficient&in&English?#
h. How$ many$ of$ them$ would$ be$ able$ to$ further$ their$ interests% if% they% became%
proficient*in*English?#
i. How$many$of$them$need$to$develop$native$speaker$accents?#
j. How$many$of$them$need$to$acquire$native$speaker$accuracy?#
k. What% are% the% implications% of% your% answers% for% your% evaluation,% adaptation%
and$development$of$materials)for)your)learners?)
)

If)it)is)possible,)discuss)your)answers)with)a)colleague.)

2. Use#your#answers#in#1#above#to#answer#the#following#questions#in#relation#to#the#
students#you#teach:#

Should#the#course#book#which#is#used#by#your#students:#

a. be# set# in# an# English# speaking# country,# in# your# country,# or# in# many# different#
countries#around#the#world?#
b. focus# on# English# culture,# the# culture# of# your# country,# or# many# different#
cultures#around#the#world?#
c. focus# on# helping# the# learners# to# develop# grammatical# accuracy# or# on#
communicative#ability?#

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d. focus on preparing the learners for examinations or on increasing their

awareness of the world and their ability to communicate with people from
different parts of it?
e. aim to engage the learners and motivate them to learn English or insist that
learning English is important for them?
f. offer a choice of topics, texts and tasks to the learners or make sure all the
learners do the same things?

What are the implications of your answers for your evaluation, adaptation and
development of materials for your learners?

If it is possible, discuss your answers with a colleague.

3. On the back of most course books is a blurb describing what the book contains
and what it intends to achieve. Here are two extracts from the back page blurbs
of course books:

Outcomes is a completely new general English course in which…

Natural, real-world grammar and vocabulary help students to

succeed in social, professional and academic settings

CEF goals are the focus of communication activities where students

learn and practise the language they need to have conversations in
English

Clear outcomes in every lesson of every unit provide students with a

sense of achievement as they progress through the course

Dellar, H. & Walkley, A. (2010). Pre-intermediate Outcomes. Andover: Cengage Learning.

The world’s most trusted English course

A perfectly-balanced syllabus with extensive resources at all levels

• In-depth treatment of grammar

• Integrated skills throughout
• Full-support in print, online, and on disc
Soars, J. & Soars, L. (2012). New Headway Pre-Intermediate. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Would you want to use either of these books with your students? Why? Why not?

Write the blurb for the course book which you want to use with your students.

Materials for Learners of EIL 10

CHAPTER TWO
MATERIALS EVALUATION 1
)

The$Objectives$of$Evaluations" "
The$ most$ important$ objectives$ of$ evaluations$ for$ a$ teacher$ are$ to$ inform$
decisions(about(which(materials(to(select(for(the(target(learners((see(Chapter(3)(and(
what%changes%to%make%to%the%materials%in%order%to%make%them%more%effective'for'the'
target&learners&(see&Chapters&4&and&5).&Both&decisions&need&to&take&into&account&the&
distinctive)characteristics)of)the)target)learners,)such)as)their)age,)their)gender,)their)
level,% their% previous% learning% experiences,% their% social% contexts,$ their$ educational$
contexts,)their)needs,)their)wants,)and)their)interests.#

In# my# experience,# teachers# are# often# not# involved# in# decisions# about# which#
textbooks( their( students( should( use,( but( when( they( are,( they( should( grab( the(
opportunity) to) make) sure) that$ the$ textbooks$ selected$ are$ the$ ones$ most$ likely$ to$
help%their%students%to%develop%communicative%competence%in%the%target%language.%
They%should%not%be%overEinfluenced)by)the)prestige)of)the)publishers)or)authors)of)
the$ materials$ they$ are$ considering,$ by" the" surface" appeal" of" the" materials" (e.g."
colourful'photos'and'attractive'design)'or'by'the'claims'made'for'the'materials'by'
their& publishers.& Rather& they& should& focus& on& the& suitability& of& the& content& and&
activities(of(the(materials(for(their(learners(and#on#their#likely#effectiveness.#This#is#
particularly*so*if*their*learners*are*learning*English*as*an*international*language*and*
will$need$to$use$it$as$a$lingua$franca$to$achieve$communication.#

Whether&or&not&teachers&are&involved&in&selecting&the&materials&for&the&courses&
they% teach,% they% will% inevitably% be% making% selections% from% those% materials.% They%
might&focus&on&particular&texts&and&activities&because&they&match&the&needs,&wants,&
and$prior$experience(of(their(learners,(they(might(omit(activities(which(do(not(seem(
useful& for& their& learners,& they& might& select& some& activities& for& homework& because&
using&them&in&the&classroom&might&not&enhance&learning,&and&they&might&omit&some&

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activities(to(save(time.&All&these&decisions&need&to&be&informed&by&evaluations&of&the&
materials)either)prior)to)their)use)or)spontaneously)during)their)use.#

Other&objectives&of&materials&evaluations&include&gaining&feedback&on&materials&
as# they# are# being# developed,# writing# reviews' of' materials' for' a' publisher' or' a'
journal,)and)gaining)data)for)research)studies)of)materials)development.)In)my)view,)
all#evaluations,#whether#formal#or#informal,#should#be#principled#and#be#informed#by#
an# awareness# of# how# languages# are# best# acquired.% Formal% evaluations% need% to% be%
rigorous'and'systematic'too.#
"

"

The$Difference$between$Materials$
Analysis(and(Materials(Evaluation"
Materials)analysis)seeks)to)find)out)what)materials)contain,)what)they)provide)for)
the$learners,$what$they$provide$for$the$teachers,)and)what)they)invite)the)learners)
to#do.#They#ask#‘Yes/No#questions’#(e.g.#“Do#the#materials#contain#practice#tests?”;#
“Do$ the$ texts$ represent$ different$ varieties$ of$ English?”),$ they$ ask$ ‘how$ many$
questions’* (e.g.* “How* many* pronunciation* activities# are# there# in# each# unit?”),# and#
they%ask%‘What’%questions%(e.g.%“What%do%the%students%do%immediately%after%reading%
a"text?”)."Analysis"questions"are"objective"and"seek"to"collect"information"about"the"
materials)rather)than)to)make)judgements)about)them.)However,(often(the(analysts(
have% a% hidden% agenda% and% are% subjective% in% their% choice% of% questions% to% ask.% For%
example,( the( analyst( who( asked,( “Do( the( texts( represent( different( varieties( of(
English?”* almost* certainly* thinks* they* should* do.* And,* of* course,* decisions& made&
about& materials& selection& and/or& supplementation& based& on& an& analysis& are&
evidenceEbased&but&ultimately&subjective.#

Materials) evaluation) attempts) to) measure) the) effect) (or) likely) effect)) of) the)
materials)on)their)users.)It)is)inevitably)subjective%as%it%requires%the%evaluator(s)%to%
make%judgements.%These%judgements%are%not%about%whether%the%materials%are%good%
or# bad# but# about# how# useful# they# are# (or# are# likely# to# be)# for# the# target# learners.#
Examples)of)evaluation)questions)would)be,)“To)what)extent%are%the%texts%likely%to%
engage% the% learners?”,% “To% what% extent% does% the% activity% provide% an% achievable%
challenge(for(the(learners?”,(and(“To(what(extent(do(the(listening(activities(expose(
the$learners$to$the$accents$they$are$likely$to$encounter$in$their$jobs?”$#

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See# Tomlinson# (2013)# and# Tomlinson# &# Masuhara# (2017)# for# a# more# detailed#
discussion(of(the(difference(between(materials(analysis(and(materials(evaluation.#

In# this# book,# we# are# going# to# focus# on# materials# evaluation# as# we# believe# that#
teachers(need#to#evaluate#the#materials#they#are#using#all#the#time#in#order#to#aim#at#
optimum' effectiveness' for' their' learners.' We' also' believe' that' teachers' can' be'
helped&to&become&more&effective&evaluators&by&being&shown&systematic&procedures&
to#make#use#of.#

"

Ways"of"Evaluating"Materials"
Many%teachers%and%other%professionals%responsible%for%materials%evaluation%save%
time% by% doing% impressionistic% evaluations.% This% could% involve% flicking% through% a%
course' book," looking" at" the" list" of" contents" at" the" front" of" a" course! book! and$ the$
blurb% on% the% back% cover,% sampling% a% unit,% fast% forwarding% a% video,% looking% at% the%
illustrations,+or+playing+some+of+the+games+on+a+computer+course.+Such+evaluations+
can$ be$ very$ misleading$ as$ many$ publishers$ design$ their$ courses$ to$ appeal$ in$
impressionistic+evaluations.+For+example,+they+put+colourful+photos+in+the+top+right+
hand% corner% of% the% right% hand% pages% of% a% course' book! to# appeal# to# flickers,# they#
ensure& the& list& of& contents& covers& as& many& topics,& skills,& and& learning& points& as&
possible,! they% make% sure% they% stress% how% up% to% date% the% courses’% methodology% is,%
they% draw% attention% to% the% experience% of% their% authors% and% to% the% match% between%
their& course& and& a& renowned& examination,& they& ensure& their& illustrations& are&
‘contemporary’,.they.include"catchy"music"in"their"videos,"and"they"often"portray"a"
cheerful,) harmonious,) successful) world) in) their) texts) and) illustrations.) While) many)
of#these#characteristics#might#be#desirable,#none#of#them#is#particularly#significant#in#
helping(learners(to(develop"communicative"competence."We"need"more"principled"
and$systematic$ways$of$evaluating$materials$which$take$into$account$what$we$know$
about&what&facilitates&the&development&of&communicative&competence.&These&ways&
can$include,$for$example:#

• doing&all&the&activities&in&two&or&three&sample&units&as&though&you&were&a&student&
and$then$answering$evaluation$questions$about$the$materials;#
• getting& sample& students& to& do& all& the& activities& in& a& typical& unit& and& then&
answering)evaluation)questions)about)the)materials;#

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• trialling&a&sample&of&the&materials&with&students&and&then&measuring&the&effect&of&
the$ materials$ on$ the$ students$ (using,$ for$ example,$ questionnaires,$ interviews,$
and$performance$tasks);#
• giving%a%different%unit%to%each%of%a%number%of%teachers%and%then%getting!them%to%
form%a%focus%group%to%discuss%their%responses%to%the%units;#
• developing* and* using* evaluation* criteria* based* on* what* is* known* about* what*
best% facilitates% language% acquisition% and% on% what% you% know% about% the% target%
students'and'what'they'need,'want,'and#are#likely#to#benefit#from.#

In# our# experience,# developing# and# using# principled# criteria# can# be# the# easiest,#
most%efficient,%and%most%reliable%of%the%above%ways%and%we%will%be%concentrating%on%
this%in%Chapter%3.#

"

Different"Types"of"Evaluation"
PreN Use$Evaluation*of*Materials)

PreEuse$ evaluation$ of$ materials$ involves$ making$ predictions$ about$ the$ likely$
effects& of& a& set& of& materials& on& their& target& users& prior& to& them& being& used.& Such&
predictions+are+based+on+what+is+known+about+language+acquisition,+what+is#known#
about& the& use& of& materials,& what& is& known& about& the& target& users,& and& what&
experience(the(evaluators(have(of(teaching(and(of(evaluating(materials.(No(matter(
how$ experienced$ and$ knowledgeable$ the$ evaluators$ are,$ they$ are$ likely$ to$ be$
influenced) by) their& personal& beliefs& and& preferences& and& their& evaluations& will&
inevitably*be*subjective.*In*order*to*increase*the*pool*of*knowledge*and*experience*
and$ to$ reduce$ subjectivity,$ we$ would$ recommend$ wherever$ possible$ the$ use$ of$
small%teams%of%evaluators%(especially'for'such'important'decisions'as'the'selection'of'
materials)for)a)course).)We)would)also)recommend)the)articulation)of)principles)and)
criteria' prior' to' the' evaluation' and' the' revision' of' them' during' and' after' the'
evaluation.#

Because' preEuse$ evaluations$ are$ predictive,$ we$ would$ recommend$ the$ use$ of$
such%expressions%as,%“To%what%extent%are%the%…%likely%to%…”%as%in%such%questions%as:#

To#what#extent#are#the#learners#likely#to#be#able#to:#
• carry%out%the%task%instructions?#
• connect&the&texts&to&their&lives?#

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• make%use%of%their%prior%knowledge%to%help%them%understand%the%texts?#
• make%use%of%their%existing%linguistic%resources%to%express%their%solutions%to%the%
problems)posed)in)the)tasks?)

WhilstN Use$Evaluation$of$Materials$)

WhilstEuse$evaluation$of$materials$is$conducted'while'the'learners'are'using'the'
materials.* It* consists* mainly* of* observing* the* learners’* interactions* with* the*
materials)and)looking)out)for)evidence)of)the)immediate)effects)of)the)materials)on)
the$ learners.$ This$ is$ obviously$ a$ very$ restricted$ form# of# evaluation# as# it# is# not#
possible( for( the( observer( to( see( into( the( minds( of( the( learners.( However,( useful(
information)can)be)gained)by)looking)out)for)signs)of:#

• attention#
• understanding#
• ability'to'do'the'activities#
• engagement#
• motivation#
• learner&uptake&of&language&(i.e.&trying&to&make&use&of&language&introduced&in&the&
materials)*#

The$observer$could$be$the$teacher$or$someone$else$seated$unobtrusively$at$the$
back%of%the%class.%Indications%to%look%out%for%include%whether%the%learners’%eyes%are"
focused( on( the( materials( or( elsewhere,( whether( the( learners( lean( towards( the(
materials) or) away) from) them,) whether) the) learners) are) actively) engaged) on) the)
tasks%or%doing%something%else%(e.g.%looking%out%of%the%window;%texting;%chatting%to%
their& neighbour),# and# whether# the# learners# look# disturbed# or# relaxed.# Obviously#
focusing) on) the) materials,) leaning) towards) the) materials,) active) engagement,) and)
appearing(relaxed(are(positive(indications.(Their(opposites(would(indicate(a(need(to(
adapt%the%materials%next%time%they%are%used.#

PostN Use$Evaluation$of$Materials)

PostEuse$ evaluation$ of$ materials$ is$ conducted$ after$ the$ learners$ have$ used$ the$
materials.* This* is* actually* the* most* useful* type* of* evaluation* as* it* can* provide*
information) about) the) effect) of) the) materials# on# the# acquisition# of# the# target#
language.( It( is( also( the( most( demanding( type( of( evaluation( as( it( is( very( difficult( to(
establish,*that*it*was*the*materials*which*were*the*main*cause*of*the*effects*on*the*
learners,(rather(than,(for(example,(rapport(with(the$teacher,$teacher$adaptations$of$

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the$materials,$or$learner$exposure$to$the$target$language$outside$the$class.$To$some$
extent% though% the% effects% of% the% materials% can% be% focused% on% by,% for% example,%
measuring* the* effects* of* the* materials* with* different* classes# of# learners# and# with#
different( teachers,( observing( the( same( materials( taught( by( different( teachers( and(
seeing& if& this& influences& the& effect& of& the& materials,& getting& the& teachers& to& keep&
records' of' what' they' do' with' the' materials' which' are' going' to' be! evaluated,) and)
getting&learners&to&keep&records&of&their&out&of&class&encounters&with&English.#

The$effects$of$materials$which$can$be$measured$include:#

• teacher(s)* perceptions* of* the* effects* of* the* materials* on* their* learners’*
motivation,)confidence,)knowledge$of$the$target$language,$and$ability$to$use$the$
language;#
• learners’( perceptions( of( the( effects( of( the( materials( on( their( motivation,(
confidence,)knowledge)of)the)target)language,)and)ability)to)use)the)language;#
• increases(in(the(learners(looking(out(for!English(outside(the(course;#
• actual&increases&in&learners’&knowledge&of&the&target&language;#
• actual&improvements&in&learners’&ability&to&use&the&target&language.#

Ways%of%measuring%the%postEuse$effects$of$materials$include:#

• performance*tests*set*immediately!after&the&use&of&the&materials&and&also&after&a&
period'of'time;#
• learner&questionnaires;#
• learner&interviews;#
• teacher'focus'groups;#
• reports' of' postEcourse' target' language' performance' in' academic' courses' or' in'
work%activities;#
• observation!of#postEcourse'target'language'performance'in'academic'courses'or'
in#work#activities.#

See# Tomlinson# (2013)# and# Tomlinson# &# Masuhara# (2017)# for# discussion# of# the#
three% different% types% of% evaluation% (preEuse,% whilstEuse,% and% postEuse)% outlined%
above.#

"

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Materials"Evaluations"for"Learners"of"
English"as"an"International"Language"
When% evaluating% the% effects% of% materials% on% learners% of% English% as% an%
international)language,)it)is)important)to)predict)and/or)measure)their)effect)on)the)
learners’(ability(to:#

• understand(English(spoken(by(speakers(of(different(regional(accents;#
• understand)different)varieties)of)spoken)and)written)English;#
• interact( with( users( of( English( as( an( international( language( from( a( variety( of(
language'backgrounds;#
• understand) and) use) English) after% their% course% in% the% situations% where% they% are%
likely&to&need&English;#
• achieve'the'purposes'for'which'they'are'likely'to'need'English'after'their'course;#
• make% use% of% interactional% skills% such% as% tolerance% of% ambiguity,% achieving%
accommodation) with) other" users" of" English," seeking" clarification," providing"
clarification,+cultural+sensitivity,+and+achieving+rapport.#

In#this#chapter,#we#have#looked#at#what#materials#evaluation#is.#In#Chapter#Three,#
we#will#look#at#how#to#conduct#materials#evaluation.#

Tasks"
1. Fix$in$your$mind$a$particular$class$of$learners.#

Take%any%English%textbook%at%the%level%of%learners%in%your"mind"and"open"it"at"any"
page.&Then%ask%yourself:#
To#what#extent#are#the#texts#on#this#page#likely#to:#

• be#relevant#to#the#learners?#
• be#understood#by#the$learners?$#
• interest'the'learners?#
• engage%the%learners?#

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To#what#extent#are#the#activities#on#this#page#likely#to:#
• be#relevant#to#the#learners?#
• be#achievable#by#the#learners?##
• interest'the'learners?#
• engage%the%learners?#
• be#useful#to#the#learners?#

2. Fix$in!your%mind%a%particular%class%of%learners.#
List%five%situations%in%which%you%think%the%learners%might%need%to%use%English%after%
their&course(s).#
List%five%varieties%of%English%which%you%think%the%learners%might%encounter%after%
their&course(s).#
List% five% purposes' which' you' think' the' learners' might' need' to' try' to' achieve' in'
English(after(their(course(s).#
Take%any%English%textbook%at%the%level%of%learners%in%your%mind%and%open%it%at%any%
page.&Then&ask&yourself:#

How$useful$are$the$texts$and$activities$likely$to#be#in#preparing#the#learners#for#
the$five$situations,$varieties,$and$purposes$I$have$listed?#

)
Further'Reading)
Any$of$the$following$readings$would$help$you$to$gain$greater$understanding$of$the$
content&of&this&chapter.#

Pages&19E23#of#McGrath,#I.#(2016).#Materials)evaluation)and)design)for)language)
teaching)(2nd%ed.).%Edinburgh:%Edinburgh%University%Press.#
Pages&56E61#of#Mishan,#F.#&#Timmis,#I.#(2015).#Materials)development)for)TESOL.)
Edinburgh:+Edinburgh+University+Press.#
Pages&21E35#of#Tomlinson,#B.#(2013).$Materials)evaluation.)In!B.#Tomlinson#(Ed.),!
Developing*materials*for*language*learning*(pp.$21E48).%London:%Bloomsbury.#
Pages&1E5"of"Tomlinson,"B."&"Masuhara,"H."(2004)."Developing*language*course*
materials.*Singapore:+RELC.#
Pages&52E68#of#Tomlinson,#B.#&#Masuhara,#H.#(2017).#The$complete$guide$to$the$
theory'and'practice'of'materials'development'for'language'learning."Hoboken,"NJ:"
WileyEBlackwell.#

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References)

McGrath,)I.)(2016).)Materials)evaluation)and)design)for)language)teaching!(2nd%ed.).%
Edinburgh:!Edinburgh*University*Press.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(2013).)Materials)evaluation.)In!B.#Tomlinson#(Ed.),"Developing"
materials)for)language)learning!(pp.$21E48).%London:%Bloomsbury.#
Tomlinson,)B.,)&)Masuhara,)H.)(2017).)The$complete$guide$to$the$theory$and$
practice(of#materials#development#for#language#learning."Hoboken,"NJ:"WileyE
Blackwell.#
#

# #

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))1! 9"
CHAPTER THREE#
CRITERION REFERENCED
EVALUATION OF MATERIALS
#

Developing*Universal*Criteria*"
What%is%a%criterion?)

In#materials#evaluation,#a#criterion#is#a#standard#which#you#measure#materials#
against.(#

What%is%a%universal%criterion?)

A" universal" criterion" is" one" which" can" be" applied" to" any" language" learner"
anywhere.)You)could,)for)example,)argue)that) rich%exposure%to%the$target$language$
in#use!is#a#criterion#which#is#equally#important#when#evaluating#materials#for#a#seven#
year%old%beginner%in%China,%a%fifteen%year%old%intermediate%level%learner%in%Malaysia,%
or#a#thirty#year#old#advanced#level#learner#in#Indonesia.#

Universal* criteria* are* established* from* principles* of* language* acquisition,* which*
are$ in$ turn$ derived$ from$ second$ language$ acquisition$ research$ and$ theory,$ from$
classroom(research(and(theory,(and(from(teacher(experience.(#

How$do$we$develop$universal$criteria?)

We# have# found# that# the# best# way# for# evaluators# to# develop# universal# criteria#
(whether' they' be' teachers' or' researchers)' is' to' first' of' all' brainstorm' their' beliefs'
about& how& second& or& foreign& languages& are& best& acquired.& We& have& just&
brainstormed,the,following'beliefs:#

We#believe#that#learners#of#an#L2#(i.e.#a#second,#foreign,#or#other#language)#need:#

1. exposure(to(the(target(language(in(use#

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2. rich%exposure%to%the%target%language%in%use%(i.e.%large%in%quantity%and%varied%in%
genre%and%in%discourse%type)#
3. comprehensible( exposure( to( the( target( language( in( use( (i.e.( it( is( sufficiently(
understandable+for+communication+to+be+effective)#
4. meaningful*exposure*to*the*target*language*in*use*(i.e.*it*relates*to*the*lives*of*
the$learners)#
5. recycled'exposure'to'the'target'language%in%use%(i.e.%‘new’%language%items%and%
features(are(encountered(many(times)#
6. to#achieve#affective#engagement#(i.e.#to#be#emotionally#involved#in#the#text#or#
task%they%are%experiencing)#
7. to#achieve#cognitive#engagement#(i.e.#to#be#thoughtfully#involved#in"the"text"or"
the$task$they$are$experiencing)#
8. to#focus#primarily#on#meaning#
9. to#notice#how#features#of#language#form#are#used#to#achieve#communication#
10. opportunities*to*use*the*language*for*themselves*to*achieve*communication#

We#obviously#have#many#more#beliefs'but'these'are'the'ones'which'first'came'to'
mind.)

Tasks"
1. List% five% universal% beliefs% of% your% own% about% what% learners% need% in% order% to%
acquire(an(L2.#

2. After&articulating&beliefs&about&what&learners&of&an&L2&need,&it&is&a&good&idea&to&
turn%each%belief%into%a%question%to%be%asked%about%the%materials%being%evaluated.%#

For$example,$if$we$wanted$to$use$our$number$6$belief$in$a$preEuse$evaluation,$we$
could&ask&the&question,&“To&what&extent&are&the&learners&likely&to&be&affectively&
engaged& by& the& reading& texts?”$ If$ we$ wanted$ to$ use$ this$ belief$ in$ a$ whilstEuse$
evaluation,+we+could+ask,+“To+what+extent+do+the+learners+seem+to+be+affectively+
engaged&by&the&reading&text?”&And&if&we&wanted&to&use&it&in&a&postEuse$evaluation$
we#could#ask,#“To#what#extent#did#the#learners%seem%to%be%affectively%engaged%by%
the$reading$texts?”#

3. After&developing&a&set&of&evaluation&questions,&it&is&important&to&monitor&them&to&
check%that%each%question:#

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• is#evaluative#
• is#answerable#
• is#specific#
• contains(only(one(question#
• is#not#dogmatic#
• is#reliable#

Any$ question$ which$ does$ not$ meet$ all$ five$ of$ the$ above$ criteria$ needs$ to$ be$
revised'or'deleted.'For'example:#

o “Does&the&book&include&glossaries&for&the&reading&texts?”&is&an&analysis&question&
and$should$be$deleted$from$an$evaluation.#

o “To$what$extent"is"the"book"likely"to"achieve"a"balance"of"skills"development?”"is"
unanswerable*because*of*the*ambiguity*of*‘balance’.#

o “To$what$extent$is$the$book$likely$to$help$the$learners$to$develop$their$reading$
skills?”'is'too'general'and'needs'to'be'made'more'specific$(e.g.$“To$what$extent$
is# the# book# likely# to# help# the# learners# to# develop# their# reading# skill# of# guessing#
the$meaning$of$unknown$words?”).#

o “To$ what$ extent$ are$ the$ listening$ texts$ likely$ to$ interest$ and$ motivate$ the$
learners?”) contains) two) questions,) which$ need$ to$ be$ separated$ (e.g.$ “To$ what$
extent%are%the%listening%texts%likely%to%interest%the%learners?”).#

o “To$what$extent$are$the$materials$likely$to$help$learners$to$remember$the$rules$
for$using$the$passive?”$is$dogmatic$as$it$insists$that$there$are$rules"for"using"the"
passive'and'that'it'is'useful'to'learn'and'remember'them.'This'question'could'be'
revised' as,' “To' what' extent' are' the' materials' likely' to' help' learners' to' use' the'
passive'effectively'in'communication?”#

o “To$ what$ extent$ are$ the$ materials$ likely" to" apply" communicative" principles?”" is"
unreliable) because) it) could) be) interpreted) in) different) ways) by) different)
evaluators.+ It+ is+ also+ too+ general,+ it+ could+ be+ considered+ dogmatic,+ and+ it+ is+ not+
evaluating* the* likely* effect* on* the* learners.* It* could* be* revised' as,' “To' what'
extent% are% the% speaking% activities% likely% to% help% learners% to% be% able% to%
communicate*effectively*in*oral*interaction?”#

Once%the%evaluation%questions%have%been%monitored%and%revised,%they%should%be%
trialled(with(a(sample(of(materials(and,#if#necessary,#revised#again.#

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Developing*Local*Criteria"
What%is%a%local%criterion?)

A"local"criterion"is"specific"to"the"particular"learning"context"which"the"materials"
are$being$evaluated$for.$For$example,$if$the$materials$were$being$evaluated$prior$to$
the#selection#of#a#course#book#for#seven#year#old#school#learners#of#English#in#a#rural#
primary'school'in'India,'the'following'might'be'relevant'local'criteria:#

1. input& which& is& meaningful& to& seven& year& old& Indian& children& living& in& a& rural&
area#
2. input&which&engages&learners&who&might&not&be&motivated&to&learn&English#
3. input&related&to&other&primary&school&subjects#

If# the# materials# were# going# to# be# used# with# undergraduate# students# who# were#
studying) Engineering) as) their) major) in) a) university) in) Thailand,) the) following& local&
criteria'might'be'relevant:#

1. input&which&is&meaningful&to&young&adults&interested&in&innovation#
2. tasks%which%involve%problem%solving#
3. tasks%which%involve%creative%thinking#
4. encouragement+to+look+for+English+outside+the+classroom#

How$do$we$develop$local%criteria?)

We#have#found#that#the#best#way#to#develop#local#criteria#is#to#first#of#all#create#a#
profile(of(the(target(learners(and(their(context(of(learning.(The(following(framework(
could&be&used:#

The$Learners)
• Age#
• Level#
• Gender#
• First&language(s)#
• Previous$learning$experience#
• Reasons'for'learning'the'language#
• Problems)in)learning)the)language#
• Interests#
• Size%of%class#

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• Number'of'lessons'per'week#
• Examinations*to*be*taken#

The$Teachers)
• Experience#
• Qualifications#
• First&language#
• Preferred&methodologies#

The$Institution)
• Location#
• Resources#
• Curriculum#
• Examinations#
• Timetables#
• Class%size#

The$Environment)
• Use$of$the$target$language$in$the$community#
• Attitudes(towards(the(target(language(in(the(community#

Once%a%profile%has%been%developed,%decisions%could%be%made%about!which%factors%
are$ particularly$ important$ in$ relation$ to$ the$ use$ of$ the$ materials$ being$ evaluated.$
Then%evaluation%criteria%can%be%developed%and%evaluation%questions%formulated.%For%
example,#

• “The% reading% texts% need% to% interest% twelveEyearEold$ girls$ in$ a$ rural$ school$ in$
northern'China.”'#
• “The%speaking%activities%need%to%help%the%learners%to%develop%the%skills%needed%to%
be#successful#on#the#speaking#section#of#the#IELTS#test.”#
• “The% writing% activities% need% to% help% the% learners% to% develop% the% skills% needed%
when!writing'laboratory'reports.”#

The$ questions$ formulated$ from$ the$ criteria$ should$ then$ be$ monitored$ and$
revised'before'being'trialled'with'a'sample'of'materials.'For'example:#

• “To$ what$ extent$ are$ the$ writing$ activities$ likely$ to$ help$ the$ learners$ to$ develop$
the# skills# needed# when# writing# laboratory# reports.”# is# too# general# and# could# be#
revised' into' more' specific' questions' such' as,' “To' what' extent' are' the' writing'

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activities(likely(to(help(the(learners(to(develop(the(ability(to(use(the(passive(voice(
appropriately"when"writing"laboratory"reports.”#

• “Will%the%reading%and%listening%texts%interest%twelve%year%old%girls%in%a%rural%school%
in# northern# China.”# could# be# revised# as# “To# what# extent# are# the# reading# texts#
likely&to&interest&twelve&year&old&girls&in&a&rural&school#in#northern#China.”##

Learners'of'English'as'an'International'Language'are'likely'to'have'specific'needs'
and$ wants$ which$ need$ to$ be$ reflected$ in$ the$ local$ criteria$ used$ in$ evaluations$ of$
materials)intended)for)their)use.)For)example:#

• To#what#extent#are#the$materials$likely$to$expose$learners$to$different$varieties$of$
English(in(action?#
• To#what#extent#are#the#materials#likely#to#help#learners#to#accommodate#towards#
the$varieties$of$English$spoken$by$their$international$interlocutors?#

Conducting*an*Evaluation"
When%conducting%an%evaluation,%it%is%best,%if%possible,%to%arrange%for%more%than%
one$ evaluator$ to$ reduce$ the$ risk$ of$ evaluator$ bias.$ Three$ or$ four$ evaluators$ is$ the$
ideal& with& each& evaluator& conducting& the& evaluation& with& the& same& questions&
independently(and(then(their(grades(out(of(five(being(averaged(and(their(comments(
sampled.)There)is)no)need)for)the)evaluators)to)evaluate)every)unit)in)a)course)of)
materials) if) it) is) first) of) all) established) that) each) unit) follows) a) similar) format) (as)
most%course%books,%for%example,%do).%If%each%evaluator%evaluates%the%same%number%
of# units! from% near% the% beginning,% the% middle% and% the% end% of% the% course,% this% is%
usually& sufficient.& Of& course& there& are& times& when& there& is& only& one& evaluator& and&
then% it% is% important" that" the" evaluator" is" careful" not" to" let" initial" impressions" and"
personal) preferences) sway) their) grading) of) the) material.) And,) of) course,) there) are)
some% criteria% which% can% only% be% evaluated% across% all% the% materials% and% not% just% by%
focusing) on) three) units! (e.g.% “To% what% extent% are% the% learners% likely% to% look% for%
English(outside(the(classroom(throughout(the(course?”)#

We# have# found# that# the# most# useful# way# to# record# an# evaluation# is# to# use# an#
instrument) which) allows) the) listing) of) criteriaEbased& questions& and" the" giving" of"
grades'and'comments'for'each'question'(as'in'the$table!on#the#following#page).#

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Criterion# Grade# Com m ent#

1. To#what#extent#are# 4! The# reading# text# in# Unit# 3# is# likely# to#

the#reading#texts# make# the# learners# laugh# and# there’s# a#
likely#to#engage#the# good#chance#that#the#reading#text#in#Unit#
learners#affectively?# 12# will# engage# their# sympathy.# The# text#
in#Unit#8#though#isn’t#likely#to#engage#any#
emotions.#It’s#very#dry.!
#
In#the#comment#column,#we#would#justify#the#grade#and#cite#examples#from#the$
materials)to)support)the)justification.)At)the)end)of)the)evaluation,)we)would)make)
use$of$the$grades$and$comments$to$highlight$the$strengths$and$weaknesses$of$the$
materials)and)to)support)proposals)for)selection)and/or)adaptation)of)materials.#

"
Examples#of#Materials#Evaluations#for#Learners#of#
English(as(an(International(Language"
1. Universal*Criteria#

As#universal#criteria#apply#to#any#learner#anywhere#and#are#based#on#principles#
of# second# language# acquisition,# any# evaluation# should# begin# with# the# listing! of#
significant)universal)criteria.)Whether)the)target)learners)are)12)year)old)secondary)
school& students& in& India& or& young& adult& engineering& students& in& Vietnam,& the&
following(criteria(could(be(used:#

To#what#extent#are#the#reading#texts#likely#to:#

• provide!a"rich"exposure"to"English"in"authentic"use?#
• provide(a(comprehensible(exposure(to(English(in(authentic(use?#
• stimulate)affective)engagement?#
• stimulate)cognitive)engagement?#
• motivate(the(learners(to(want(to(learn(English?(#
• motivate!the$learners$to$read$in$English$outside$the$course?#
• stimulate)the)learners)to)make)connections)between)the)texts)and)their)lives?#
• stimulate)the)learners)to)express)personal)responses?#

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2. Local&Criteria#

If#the#materials#are#being#evaluated#to#predict#their#likely&effect&with&young&adult&
engineering& students& in& Vietnam,& the& following& local& criteria& (and& many& others)&
might&be&also&applicable:#

To#what#extent#are#the#materials#likely#to#help#the#learners#to:#

• understand)English)when)it)is)spoken)by)nonEnative'speakers&of&English?#
• understand)English)when)it)is)written)by)nonEnative'speakers'of'English?#
• make%themselves%understood%in%speech%to%nonEnative'speakers'of'English?#
• make%themselves%understood%in%writing%to%nonEnative'speakers'of'English?#
• interact(effectively!with%nonEnative'speakers'of'English?#
• interact(with(delegates(at(an(international(engineering(conference?(#
• achieve' intelligibility' with' ' nonEnative' speakers' with' a' much' higher' or' lower'
level$of$communicative$competence?#
• seek!appropriate(clarification(without(losing(face(or(giving(offence?#
• accommodate(their(English(towards(speakers(of(different(varieties(of(English?#
• be#sensitive#to#cultural#differences#when#interacting#with#nonEnative'speakers'
in#English?#

Materials)Evaluation!Task!"
#
1. Develop'ten'universal'criteria.#
2. Think&of&a&specific&language&learning&context&in&your&country.#
3. Write&a&profile&for&your&learning&context&in&2&above.#
4. Develop'ten'local'criteria'from'your'profile'in'3'above.#
5. Evaluate( a( unit( of( a( course( book( in( relation# to# its# potential# effectiveness# for# a#
group&of&learners&in&your&learning&context.#

Further'Reading)

Any$of$the$following$readings$would$help$you$to$gain$greater$understanding$of$the$
content&of&this&chapter.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))2! 7"
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Pages&50E63#of#McDonough,#J.,#Shaw,#C.#&#Masuhara,(H.((2013).(Materials)and)
Methods(in(ELT:(A(teacher’s(guide.!(3rd!ed.).%Chichester:%WileyEBlackwell.#
Pages&24E62#of#McGrath,#I.#(2016).#Materials)evaluation)and)design)for)language)
teaching)(2nd!ed.).%Edinburgh:%Edinburgh%University%Press.#
Pages&62E66"of"Mishan,"F.,"&"Timmis,"I."(2015)."Materials)development)for)TESOL.)
Edinburgh:+Edinburgh+University+Press.#
Pages&36E48#of#Tomlinson,#B.#(2013).#Materials)evaluation.)In)B.)Tomlinson)(Ed.),)
Developing*materials*for*language*learning!(2nd!ed.).%London:!Bloomsbury.#
Pages&6E10#of#Tomlinson,#B.#&#Masuhara,#H.#(2004).#Developing*language*course*
materials.!Singapore:+RELC.#
Pages&69E81#of#Tomlinson,#B.#&#Masuhara,#H.#(2017).#The$complete$guide$to$the$
theory'and'practice'of'materials'development'for'language'learning.!Hoboken,(NJ:(
WileyEBlackwell.#
#

References)

McGrath,)I.)(2016).)Materials)evaluation)and)design)for)language)teaching!(2nd!ed.).%
Edinburgh:+Edinburgh+University+Press.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(2013).)Materials)evaluation.)In)B.)Tomlinson)(Ed.),)Developing*
materials)for)language)learning!(pp.$21E48).%London:%Bloomsbury.#
Tomlinson,)B.,!&"Masuhara,"H."(2017)."The$complete$guide$to$the$theory$and$
practice(of(materials(development(for(language(learning."Hoboken,"NJ:"WileyE
Blackwell.#
# #

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))2! 8"
CHAPTER FOUR#
MATERIALS ADAPTATION 1
#

The"Objectives"of"Materials"Adaptation"
Teacher)adaptation)of)materials)
#
All#teachers#are#materials#developers#in#that#every#day#in#the#classroom#they#use#
materials)in)a)different)way)from)that)envisaged)by)the)writers)of#the#materials#and#
from%that%of%other%teachers%using%the%same%materials.%It%could%be%that%they%only%ask%
eight&of&the&ten&questions&in&Section&A,&they&read&the&text&aloud&before&the&students&
read% it% silently,% they% give% their% answer% to% an% open% ended% question# after# their#
students' have' given' theirs' or' they' substitute' their' own' tasks' for' the' true/false'
listening(comprehension(questions.(These(adaptations(might(be(planned(in(advance,(
they%might%be%decided%on%during%the%lesson%or%the%teachers%might%not%even%realise$
they%are%making%them.%They%might%be%made%as%a%result%of%recommendations%on%an%
inEservice' training' course,' of' the' teachers’' beliefs' about' what' will' help' their'
students,(of(previous(experience(of(similar(students(finding(activities(too(difficult(or(
too# easy,% of% a% desire% to% prevent% boredom,% of% noticing% students’% reactions% to% an%
activity' or,' in' the' future,' as' a' result' of' reading' this' book.' It' could' be' that' the'
materials) have) been) written) as) a) script) for) teachers) to) follow) but) that) teachers)
nevertheless) have! decided% to% diverge% from% it;% it% could% be% that% the% materials% have%
been$ written$ as$ a$ resource$ for$ teachers$ to$ make$ use$ of$ and$ that$ teachers$ have$
added$to$and$modified$the$materials$accordingly.#
"

Task"1"
i) List%any%changes%you%can%remember%making%recently%to%materials'which'you'have'
used%with%a%class.#
ii) List%the%reasons%why%you%made%the%changes%you%have%listed%in%i)%above.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))29#
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TEFLIN Teacher#Development#Series#

The$teachers’$main$objective$in$adapting$materials$is$to$increase$the$likelihood$of$
the$materials$helping$their$students$to$acquire$the$target$language&and&to&eventually&
develop'their'ability'to'communicate'effectively'in'it.'Their'adaptations'might'not'be'
a" result" of" a" negative" evaluation" of" the" materials" per" se" but" of" a" realisation" that"
certain( changes( might( make( them( more( suitable( and( effective! for$ their$ students.$
These%changes%could%be%intended,%for%example,%to%increase%their%students’:#

• motivation;#
• engagement;#
• exposure(to(the(L2(in(use;#
• opportunities*to*use*the*L2*for*communication;#
• opportunities*to*make*discoveries*about*the*L2*themselves;#
• understanding+of+how+a+particular+structure+is+used.#

They#could#also#be#intended#to#make#the#materials#more:#

• relevant(to(the(students;#
• appealing(to(the(students;#
• comprehensible;#
• challenging.#

Of#course,#there#are#many#other#objectives#which#the#teachers#might#have#when#
adapting(materials.(They(might(want(to(achieve(a(greater(match(between(what(the(
materials))ask)the)students)to)do)and)what)the)students)will)be)asked)to)do)in)their)
examinations.+This+is+an+understandable+objective+as+teachers+tend+to+be+judged"on"
their& students’& examination& results.& However,& teachers& need& to& be& careful& not& to&
substitute' examinationElike% questions% for% activities% which% have% the% potential% for%
engagement' and' acquisition' as' this' might' reduce' the' students’' motivation,' their'
chances' of# acquiring# the# L2,# and# even# their# likelihood# of# performing# well# on# their#
examinations.+ On+ the+ PKG! (Pemantapan( Kerja( Guru! –! The$ Strengthening$ of$
Teachers’) Work)! English( Project( in( Indonesia,( one( experimental( beginners’( class( in(
each% secondary% school% followed% an% experiential% approach% in% which,% for% example,%
they%acted%out%stories%as%their%teacher%narrated%them,%they%played%games%from%the%
teacher’s) spoken) instructions,$ they$ participated$ in$ group$ simulations,$ and$ they$
made% discoveries% about% how% English% is% used.% The% attendance% was% much% higher% in%
these% classes% and% their% examination% scores% were% much% better,% despite% only% being%
introduced* to* the* examination* format* a* couple! of# weeks# before# taking# the#
examinations.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 0"
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TEFLIN Teacher#Development#Series#

Other&objectives&for&teacher&adaptations&could&be:#

• to#make#the#materials#more#interesting#for#the#teacher#to#use#(an#important#
objective) as) a) bored) teacher) is) almost) certain) to) make) their) students) bored)
too);#
• to#fit"the"materials"into"the"limited"time"available;#
• to#make#the#materials#more#culturally#acceptable#(by,#for#example,#omitting#or#
replacing*texts*which*might*cause*offence);#
• to#make#the#materials#more#suitable#for#the#cognitive#and/or#language#level#of#
the$students;#
• to#match#the#materials#more#closely#to#the#Curriculum;#
• to# provide# opportunities# for# the# students# to# experience# the# L2# outside# the#
classroom.#

An# example# of# a# miniEadaptation( by( a( teacher( would( be( when( I( decided( whilst(
reading( a( course( book( text( to( the$ class$ to$ mime$ sitting$ on$ a$ bench$ in$ a$ park$ just$
before&a&painful&spike&suddenly&shoots&up.&I&was&using&the&criteria&of&being&bizarre&
and$ achieving$ impact$ and$ aiming$ to$ make$ the$ text$ more$ comprehensible$ and$
memorable.) An) example) of) a) maxiEadaptation( would# be# when# I# was# walking# to# a#
classroom( looking( at( a( unit( in( a( course( book( I( had( been( asked( to( use( with( a( class(
whose& teacher& had& just& phoned& in& sick.& The& text& about& a& respectable& old& lady&
robbing' a' bank' seemed' to' be' potentially' engaging,' but' the' conventional$ multiple$
choice& and& filling& in& the& blank& exercises& seemed& to& be& potentially& very& boring.& I&
decided%to%drop%the%exercises%and%to%use%my%own%quickly%devised%activities%with%the%
text$ in$ the$ course$ book.$ My$ activities$ developed$ as$ the$ class$ proceeded$ and$
included' getting' the' students' to' think' about' and' then' talk' about' a' film' they' had'
recently(seen,(getting(the(whole(class(to(act(out(the(first(scene(from(a(film(about(an(
old$ lady$ robbing$ the$ bank$ as$ I$ directed$ them,$ getting$ the$ students$ in$ groups$ to$
develop' and# then# act# out# the# second# scene# from# the# film,# getting# the# students# to#
scan%the%text%in%the%course%book%in%two%minutes%to%find%as%many%differences%as%they%
could& between& the& account& of& the& robbery& in& the& course& book& and& the& first& scene&
they% had% acted% out% and# then# as# the# old# lady# writing# a# letter# to# a# newspaper#
complaining*about*the*differences*between*the*film*and*what*happened*in*reality.*
My#objectives#started#from#a#desire#to#make#the#lesson#more#interesting#for#me#but#
also%included%engaging%the%students,!motivating)the)students,)getting)them)to)make)
connections(whilst(reading,(and(providing(them(with(opportunities(to(use(the(target(
language'for'purposeful'communication.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 1"
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TEFLIN Teacher#Development#Series#

Task"2"
Look$back$at$the$list$of$adaptations) you) made) in) Task) 1)above&and&then&list&for!
each%adaptation%the%objective%you%think%you%had%for%that%adaptation.#

Writer)adaptation)of)materials))

Developers)of)materials,)whether)they)be)teachers)writing)for)their)own)class)or)
institution' or' professionals' writing' for' a' project' or' a' publisher,' often! adapt% their%
materials) to) make) them) more) likely) to) achieve) their) stated) objectives) or) more)
suitable) for) different) target) users.) They) either) adapt) their) materials) during) the)
process'of'their'development'as'a'result'of'self'or'peer'monitoring,'they'adapt'them"
as# a# result# of# trialling# them# with# classes# or# based# on# focus# group# evaluation,# they#
adapt%them%during%the%development%of%a%second%edition%as%a%result%of%feedback%or%
they%adapt%them%in%order%to%make%them%suitable%for%students%in%a%different%or%more%
specific#learning#context#than#the#original#target#students#(e.g.#a#Chinese#edition#of#a#
global& course& book).& Sometimes& materials& are& adapted& not& by& their& original&
developers)but,)for)example,)by)other)teachers)in)an)institution,)by)project)leaders,)
or#by#other#writers'employed'to'develop'a'localised'edition'of'an'existing'textbook.#

The$ objectives$ of$ writer$ adaptations$ are$ very$ similar$ to$ those$ listed$ in$ teacher$
adaptations) above,) which) is) in) general) to) increase) the) likelihood) of) the) materials)
being& effective& for! their& users.& In& addition& there& might& also& be& the& objective& of&
making'the'materials'more'acceptable'(for'example,'to'parents,'to'teachers,'and'to'
ministry( officials)( or( of( increasing( the( potential( sales( of( commercially( published(
course'books.#

An# example# of# writer# adaptation# is# what# happened# in# the# development# of# the#
course' book' On# Target," which" was" written" by" a" group" of" thirty" teachers" for" the"
Ministry( of( Education( in( Namibia( for( use( with( 15EyearEold$ students$ in$ secondary$
schools.'The'book'was'written'in'six'days'in'a'room'in'Windhoek'with'each'team'of'
three% teachers% being% responsible% for% one% of% the% ten% units% in% the% book% and% with% a%
small%team%of%advisors%being%available%to%provide%guidance%and%support.%Each%writing%
team%also%acted%as%a%monitoring"team"for"another"writing"team"and"once"a"draft"was"
written,(it(was(monitored,(returned,(and(then(adapted.(Afterwards,(the(draft(book(
was$monitored$and$adapted$by$the$team$of$advisors$and$then$used$in$schools$with$
each%teacher%adapting%the%materials%to%suit#their#own#particular#context.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 2"
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The"Principles"of"Materials"Adaptation"
Many% adaptations% are% ad% hoc% and% spontaneous% with% a% teacher% or% writer% just%
thinking'that'an'activity'might'“work”'better'if'they'changed'it.'Such'adaptations'are'
usually& informed& by& previous& experience& with& the& teacher& selecting& a& replacement&
activity' from' repertoire' (i.e.' what' they' have' done' before),' but' such' modifications'
and$replacements$are$often$unprincipled$in$the$sense$that$they$are$not$informed$by$
any$attested$theory$and$do$not$have$any$specific$behavioural$or$learning$objectives$
in#mind.#For#example,#a#teacher#might#decide#to#preEteach&the&“new”&vocabulary&in&
a"text"before"asking"students"to"read"it"because"he"knows"that"is"what"his"students"
are$used$to.$This$might$be$popular$with"the"students,"but"it"could"interfere"with"the"
students’( engagement( with( the( text( and( their( global( understanding( of( it( because(
they%are%focussing%their%attention%on%microEprocessing*those*words*in*the*text*which*
have%been%preEtaught.#

Ideally,(adaptations(should'be'principled,'whether'they'be'planned'in'advance'or'
decided%on%the%spot.%That%is%they%should%be%based%on%what%the%adapter%believes%best%
facilitates) the) acquisition) of) an) L2) and) they) should) be) aiming) to) achieve) specific)
learner& behaviour& and& to& facilitate& specific& aspects& of& acquisition.& For& example,& an&
adaptation(would(be(principled(if(it(added(a(readiness(activity(before(the(reading(of(
a" text" which" asked" the" students" to" think" about" an" experience" in" their" own" lives"
connected'to'the'theme'or'topic'of!the$text$and$then$to$tell$another$student$about$
it#(e.g.#thinking#about#their#own#first#day#at#school#before#reading#a#poem#called#First#
Day$at$School).#

Procedures"for"Materials"Adaptation"
MiniNadaptations)
A"miniEadaptation(is(one(in(which(the(materials(are#given#to#the#students#as#they#
are$ but$ the$ teacher$ makes$ very$ small$ changes$ to$ an$ activity$ when$ instructing$ the$
students' what' to' do.' ' Often' miniEadaptations) are) developed) spontaneously) just)
before& or& even& whilst& teaching,& but& even& then& they& are& ideally& implicitly( principled(
and$follow$the$procedures$recommended$below.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 3"
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The#procedures#for#miniEadaptations#are#simple#and#involve:#

i) envisaging( what( will( happen( if( the( students( do( an( activity( as( it( is( in( the( course(
book;#
ii) predicting*what*contribution,*if*any,*the"activity"is"likely"to"make"to"the"students’"
acquisition*of*the*L2;#
iii) thinking' of' a' small' addition' or' deletion' which' could' lead' to' student' behaviour'
which%is%more%likely%to%contribute%to%their%acquisition%of%the%L2.#

An#example#of#a#miniEadaptation(would(be(when%I%intended%to%use%a%course%book%
unit%about%the%advantages%and%disadvantages%of%technology%and%decided%to%start%the%
lesson& by& asking& the& students& to& think& of& the& last& time& they& used& a& technological&
device& and& to& ask& themselves& if& it& was& a& positive& or& a! negative( experience.( They(
would& then& tell& a& partner& about& their& experience.& This& would& replace& the& initial&
course'book'activity'which'asked'them'to'list'the'advantages'and'disadvantages'of'
using&technology.#
#

Task"3""
Imagine(that(the(following(activity(is(in(a(unit(of(material(that(you(are(going(to(
use$with$a$class.$Follow$the$first$two$procedures$outlined$above$(i.e.$envisaging(and(
predicting)+to+evaluate+the+activity.#

Writing!
a. Get"into"pairs."
b. Write"a"30Gword"description"of"your"partner"in"which"you"describe"what"
they"look"like"and"how"they"usually"behave."
c. You"can"use"any"of"the"following"words"to"help"you:"

handsome," pretty," tall," short," well2built," slim," dark2haired," long2haired,"

wearing" glasses," talkative," quiet," always" joking," helpful," thoughtful,"
cheerful,"friendly,"shy,"well2mannered"
#
#

Now$ think$ of$ a$ small$ deletion$ and$ a$ small$ addition$ which$ would$ increase$ the$
potential)of)the)activity)to)make)a)positive)contribution)to)the)L2)acquisition)of)the)
learners.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 4"
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TEFLIN Teacher#Development#Series#

Task"4"
Go# to# a# course# book# which# is# used# by# your# institution# and# open# it# at# the#
beginning&of&a&unit.#
Imagine(you(are(going(to(use(that(unit(with(a(class.(Look(at(the(first(activity(in(the(
unit% and% follow% the% first% two% procedures% outlined% above% (i.e.% envisaging% and#
predicting)., If, your, prediction, is, negative,, follow, procedure, iii), (i.e., thinking, of, a,
small% addition% or% deletion).% If% your% prediction% is% positive,% continue% to% apply%
procedures)i))and)ii))to)activities)until)you)make)a)negative)prediction.)Then)follow)
procedure'iii).#

MaxiNadaptations)

A"maxiEadaptation(is(one(in(which(a(number(of(modifications(are(made(to(a(unit(
or# course# of# materials# in# order# to# increase# its# potential# for# facilitating# language#
acquisition.+ MaxiEadaptations) usually) involve) preEplanning' and# sometimes# require#
production*of*modified,*replacement*or*supplementary*materials.**#

In#order#to#increase#the#potential#of#a#unit#of#material#you#can,#for#example:#

• omit% activities% which% you% predict% the% students% will% not% find% relevant,%
interesting,)engaging#or#useful;#
• omit% texts% which% you% predict% the% students% will% not% find% relevant,% interesting,%
engaging&or&useful;#
• reduce&the&number&of&questions&in&an&activity&which&the&students&might&get&
bored&by;#
• increase( the( number( of( questions( or( tasks( in( an( activity( which$ the$ students$
might&find&relevant,&interesting,&engaging&or&useful;#
• modify' activities' to' make' them' likely' to' be' more' relevant,' interesting,'
engaging&or&useful;#
• replace' omitted' activities' with' others' that' are' more' likely' to' be' more'
relevant,)interesting,"engaging"or"useful;#
• replace' omitted' texts' with' others' that' are' more' likely' to' be' more' relevant,'
interesting,)engaging)or)useful;#
• add#texts#to#increase#the#students’#exposure#to#the#L2#in#use;#
• add! activities( to( increase( the( students’( opportunities( to( make( discoveries(
about&the&L2&and/or&to&use&the&L2&for&communication.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 5"
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I"have"found"the"following"procedure"useful"in"conducting"maxiEadaptations:#

i) Do# a# criterion# referenced# evaluation# of# the# materials# to" be" used," following" the"
procedure( outlined( in( Chapter( Three( of( developing( universal( and( local( criteria.(
Then% turn% them% into% evaluation% questions% and% then% answer% the% questions% with%
grades' from' 1E5" and" comments." The" number" of" criteria" depends" on" the" time"
available.#

ii) For$any$criterion$scoring$4$or$less,$use$the$comments$you$made$when$answering$
the$ question$ to$ decide$ whether$ to$ delete,$ reduce,$ increase,$ modify,$ replace$ or$
add.#

iii) Make% your% adaptations% to% the% materials% and% then% for% each% one% envisage% what%
you$think$will$happen$when$the$students$do$the$activity.#

iv) Make%any%further%changes%you%think%would%be%useful%after%doing%iii)%above.#

I" made" my" first" ever" maxiEadaptation( when( planning( my( first( lesson( as( a( very(
young& lecturer& at& a& college& in& Nigeria.& I& was& told& to& use! a" particular" unit" from" the"
course'book'but'when'I'looked'at'the'unit,'it'asked'the'students'to'read'a'passage'
about&how&Eskimos&build&igloos&from&snow&in&the&Arctic&and&then&answer&multipleE
choice&comprehension&questions&on&the&passage&before&doing&a&filling$in$the$blank$
vocabulary*activity.*My*students*had*no*concept*at*all*about*snow*and*the*passage*
was$of$no$obvious$relevance$to$them.$As$I$had$no$choice$but$to$use$the$course$book,$
I" kept" the" passage," but" I" made" the" following" adaptations" in" order" to" make! the$
materials)more)relevant)and)engaging:#

i) I" added" a" readiness" activity" in" which" I" asked" the" students" how" they" built" their"
houses& in& their& villages.& When& they& told& me& they& made& them& from& wood& and&
leaves&which&they&obtained&from&the&forest,&I&asked&them&how!long%their%houses%
lasted.(When(they(indicated(that(they(did(not(last(very(long,(I(asked(them(what(
they%did%then.%They%told%me%they%just%went%into%the%forest,%obtained%more%wood%
and$leaves,$and$rebuilt$their$houses.#

ii) I"told"the"students"to"try"to"imagine"living%in%a%small%village%in%a%very%cold%place%
which% was% covered% in% snow% for% most% of% the% year% and% which% had% no% forests% or%
roads& nearby.& I& then& told& them& to& imagine& how& the& people& there& built& their&
houses.'#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 6"
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TEFLIN Teacher#Development#Series#

iii) I"told"the"students"they"were"going"to"read"a"passage"about"how"people"in"small"
villages(surrounded(by(snow(made(their(houses.(I(told(them(that(as(they(read(the(
passage,' they' should' compare' in' their' minds' how' these' people' made' their'
houses&with&how&they&made&theirs&in&Nigeria.#

iv) I" replaced" the" multipleEchoice! comprehension+ questions+ with+ an+ activity+ which+
asked& the& students& in& pairs& to& list& all& the& similarities& and& all& the& differences&
between&how&the&Eskimos&made&their&houses&and&how&they&made&their&houses&
in#villages#in#Nigeria.#

v) I"kept"the"blank"filling"vocabulary&activity&as&I&did&not&want&the&students&to&think&I&
was$ignoring$the$course$book$altogether,$as$the$students$had$used$many$of$the$
words&in&the&comparison&activity&in&iv)&above&and&many&of&the&words&would&be&
useful&to&them&in&the&next&activity.#

vi) I"added!an#activity#in#which#the#students#wrote#a#passage#explaining#to#students#
in#the#Arctic#how#they#built#their#houses#in#villages#in#Nigeria.#I#think#the#students#
wrote& the& passage& individually,& then& in& a& group& of& four,& they& read& each& other’s&
passages& and& chose$ one$ to$ represent$ the$ group.$ They$ improved$ the$ passage$
together'and'then'gave'it'in'for'teacher'feedback.#

Another( example( of( a( maxiEadaptation( would( be( if( learners( in( Vietnam( were(
supposed' to' use' a' course' book' in' which' all' the' texts' were' written' or' spoken# by#
native' speakers' from' England,' and' most' of' them' were' about' locations,' people' or'
customs' in' England.' Before' the' course' started,' you' could' add' equivalent' texts'
written' by' speakers' of' a' variety' of' different' Englishes' (e.g.' American' English,'
Australian*English,'and'Indian'English)'and'by'nonEnative'speakers'from'a'variety'of'
countries.+ You+ could+ also+ record+ nonEUK# English# speakers# performing# the#
monologues)and)dialogues)in)the)book)as)well)as)contributions)of)their)own.#

"
Task"5"
1. Think&of&a&particular&class&of#students.#
2. Decide&which&course&book&materials&to&use&for&a&lesson&with&these&students.#
3. Devise& five& preEuse$ universal$ and$ two$ local$ criteria$ for$ evaluating$ the$ materials$
you$have$chosen$(see$Chapter$Three).#
4. Use$ your$ criteria$ to$ evaluate$ the$ materials$ giving# a# grade# out# of# 5# for# each#
criterion(and(writing(a(comment(for(each(criterion(you(have(given(4(or(less.#

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))3! 7"
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5. Use$your$comments$from$4$above$to$develop$an$adaptation$of$the$materials$in$
order% to% make% them% more% relevant,% interesting,% engaging% and% useful% for% the!
students.#
)

Further)Reading)

You#will#find#any#of#the#following#useful:#

McDonough,#J.,#Shaw,#C.,#&#Masuhara,#H.#(2013).#Adapting#materials.#In#Materials)
and)methods)in)ELT)(3rd#ed.,#pp.#63E78).#Chichester:#WileyEBlackwell.#

Tomlinson,#B.#(2015).#Challenging#teachers#to#use#their#course#book#creatively.#In#A.#
Maley#&#N.#Peachey#(Eds.),#Creativity)in)the)language)classroom)(pp.#24E28).#
London:#British#Council.#

Tomlinson,#B.#(2018).#Making#typical#coursebook#activities#more#beneficial#for#the#
learner.#In#B.#Dat#(Ed.),#Creativity$and$innovations!in#ELT#materials#development:#
Looking'beyond'the'current'design.#Bristol:#Multilingual#Matters.)

Tomlinson,#B.,#&#Masuhara,#H.#(2017).#Chapter#4#–#Materials#adaptation.#In#B.#
Tomlinson#&#H.#Masuhara,#The)complete)guide)to)the)theory)and)practice)of)
materials)development)for)language)learning#(pp.#82E116).#Hoboken:#WileyE
Blackwell.#

# #

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CHAPTER FIVE
MATERIALS ADAPTATION 2#

Examples)of)Materials)Adaptations*for*
Learners'of'English'as'an'International'
Language"
Here$ are$ some$ examples$ of$ miniEadaptations) of) global) course' books" to" make"
them%more%appealing%and%valuable%to%students%learning%English%as%an%international%
language.( After( reading( each( one,( ask$ yourself,$ “What’s$ the$ potential$ value$ of$ this$
adaptation?”#

1.#LeadN in#Texts)

One$way$of$making$a$global$course'book!more%relevant%and%engaging%is%to%add%a%
related' story' (preferably' involving' the' teacher)' at' the' beginning' of' a' unit.' For'
example,( I( would( tell$ the$ following$ ‘personal’$ story$ about$ a$ computer$ help$ shop$
before& the& students& turn& to& 5.1& ‘The& Advantages& and& Disadvantages& of& Modern&
Technology’+in+Speak&Out&Intermediate!(Clare'&'Wilson,'2012):#

“Being" pretty" ancient," I’m" not" great" with" computers." Last" week" I" printed"
something"out"and"the"type"was"very"faint."So"I"phoned"my"local"computer"repair"
shop"and"asked"them"what"I"should"do."The"guy"on"the"phone"said,"‘Your"printer"
probably"just"needs"cleaning."If"you"bring"it"in"it’ll"cost"you"£50."You"could"easily"do"
it"yourself"though."Just"read"the"instruction"book"which"comes"with"the"printer.’"
‘Thanks"very"much’,"I"said."‘But"does"your"boss"know"you’re"helping"people"like"
this?’"
‘Oh"yes,’"he"said."‘It’s"his"idea."We"find"we"can"charge"even"more"if"customers"try"
to"fix"things"themselves"first.’”"

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After&telling&my&story,&I&would&invite&students&to&tell&their&own&computer&stories.&#
Here$is$another$example$of$a$lead$in$story.$This$one$is$about$misunderstandings$
and$ I$ would$ tell$ it$ before$ the$ students$ turn$ to$ 3.3# ‘In# Other# Words’# in# Speak& Out&
Intermediate!(Clare'&'Wilson,'2012):#

"What"would"you"like?""says"the"barman."
"What" would" I" like?"" says" Bob." "A" bigger" house," more" money" and" a" more"
attractive"wife.""
"No,""says"the"barman,"patiently.""I"meant"what"do"you"want?""
"To" win" the" lottery," for" my" motherGinGlaw" to" disappear" and" for" my" child" to" be"
born"healthy!""
"What's"it"to"be?""says"the"barman,"less"patiently."
"A"boy"or"a"girl,"I"don't"care.""
"You"misunderstand"me,""says"the"barman,"impatiently,""I"only"asked"what"you"
want"to"drink.""
"Oh,""says"Bob,""I"see."Why"didn't"you"say"so?"What"have"you"got?""
"Nothing"at"all,""says"the"barman.""I'm"perfectly"healthy.""

#
After&telling&my&story&I&would&invite&students&to&tell&their&own&stories&about&their&
experience(of(misunderstandings.#

2.#PostN Unit%Experience)

After& completing& a& unit& with& students,& I& would& give& them& an& additional& text& to&
read%or%listen%to%related%to%the%topic%or%theme%of%the%unit%and%preferably%involving%
someone& using& English& as& an& international& language.& For$ example,$ after$ doing$ 5.1$
‘The% Advantages% and% Disadvantages% of% Modern% Technology’% in% Speak& Out&
Intermediate!(Clare'&'Wilson,'2012),'I'would'give'the'students'pages'20E21#of#The#
New$Review$Section$of$the$Observer$newspaper$of$30/08/15.$This$is$a$write$up!of#an#
interview(with(the(Japanese(writer(Kentaro(Toyama,(once(an(enthusiastic(supporter(
of#the#digital#revolution#but#now#the#writer#of#a#book#warning#against#our#reliance#
on#technology.#

3.#Performances)

a.#) The$teacher$acts$out$a$text$while$reading$it$aloud&dramatically.)

For$example,$I$performed$the$text$about$Yantei$Park$on$p.$74$of$ The$Big$Picture$
Upper%Intermediate!(Brewster(&(Lane,(2012).(This(is(a(text(about(park(benches(from(

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which%spikes%shoot%up%if%somebody%sits%on%them%for%too%long%without%putting'money'
in# a# slot.# As# I# was# reading# the# text,# I# sat# down# on# a# bench# and# then# jumped# up#
shouting) in) pain) as) imaginary) spikes) shot) into) me.) This) created) a) very) bizarre) and)
memorable(image(for(the(learners(to(associate(with(the(words(in(the(text(when(they#
then%read%it%for%themselves.#

b.#)The$students$act$out$a$text$while$the$teacher$reads$it$aloud.)

For$ example,$ the$ students$ act$ out$ a$ text$ from$ the$ course' book! as# the# teacher#
reads& it& aloud& as& dramatically& as& possible.& For& example,& before& reading& aloud& a&
Korean&folk&tale&about&a&hardEworking(but(poor(farmer(and(his(lazy,(greedy(and(rich(
brother,( the( teacher( divides( the( class( into( two( halves( and( tells( one( half( to( act( out(
what% the% hardEworking( brother( does,( and( the( other( half( to( act( out( what( the( lazy(
brother'does.&The&teacher&then&performs&a&dramatic&reading&of&the&story&whilst&the&
students' all' respond' in' character.' This' can' bring' alive' what' could' be' rather' a' dull'
story&on&the&page.#

After& this& dramatization& of& the& text,& the& teacher& asks& the& True/False& questions"
from%the%course'book!as#personal#questions#to#the#brothers.#For#example,#instead#of#
saying,( ‘Hongbu( was( lazy?( True( or( false?’( the( teacher( says( to( the( students(
representing) Hongbu,) ‘You) were) lazy,) weren’t) you?) Why?’) In) this) way,) a) testing)
question)is)turned#into#a#stimulus#for#thought#and#communication.#This#is#what#I#did#
with% the% Korean% folk% tale% on% p.% 28% of% Global& Intermediate! (Clandfield* &* Benne,*
2011).#

c.#) The$teacher$(and$then$the$students)$perform$bizarre$stories$using$the$language$
of#drills.)

For$ example,& I& used& the& words& from& a& pronunciation& drill& on& p.& 55& of& English(
Unlimited) PreNIntermediate! (Tilbury) et) al.,) 2010)) to) make) up) the) following) bizarre)
story:#

‘It’s" not" been" a" great" week" to" be" a" cyclist." On" Monday," I" went" cycling" in" a"
thunderstorm"and"was"blown"off"my"bike."On"Tuesday,"I"went"cycling"in"a"tornado"
and" was" lifted" off" my" bike." On" Wednesday," I" went" cycling" in" the" gym" and" was"
knocked" off" my" bike" by" a" dog" who" was" vacuuming" the" floor." On" Thursday," after"
doing" my" household" chores," I" went" cycling" in" the" clouds" and" was" washed" off" my"
bike"by"a"lion"who"was"cleaning"a"rainbow.’"

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The$ students$ then$ used$ the$ words$ from$ another$ drill$ to$ make$ up$ and$ tell$ their$
own$bizarre$stories,$thus$getting$the$pronunciation$practice$intended$by$the$original$
activity,( having& an& opportunity& to& check& the& meanings& of& the& words& from& the& drill,&
and$gaining$opportunities$for$creative$use$of$the$L2.$#

d.#)The$ students$ perform$ dialogues$ from$ their$ textbook$ in$ character,$ with$ half$ the$
class%performing%A%and%half%performing%B.)

For$ example,( before( performing( the( following( dialogue,( the( students( are( told(
that$the$new$salesman$in$the$shoe$shop$has$recently$got$divorced$from$the$regular$
customer.*Neither*expects*to*meet*the*other*in*a*shoe*shop.#

Salesman:!# Good$morning$madam.#
Customer:!# Good$morning.#
Salesman:!# What%can%I%do%for%you%today?#
Customer:!# I’d$like$a$pair$of$red$shoes.#
Salesman:!# Certainly*madam.*What*size*do*you*take?#
Customer:!# Size%3.#
Salesman:!# What%about%these?#
Customer:!# I’d$like$something$a$bit$smarter.#
Salesman:!# For$a!special(occasion?#
Customer:!# That’s'right.#
Salesman:!# What%about%these?#
Customer:!# Yes,%that’s%better.%I’ll%try%them%on.#
Salesman:!# Shall%I%help%you%madam?#
Customer:!# No,$I$can$manage$by$myself$thank$you.#
Salesman:!# How$are$those?#
Customer:!# They’re'fine,!thank&you.&I’ll&take&them.#
Salesman:!# That’ll'be'£180.#
Customer:!# That’s'fine.'Charge'them'to'my'account.#
(The)customer)starts)to)walk)out)of)the)shop)with)the)shoes.))
Salesman:!# Wait%a%minute,%madam.%What’s%your%name?#
Customer:!# Mrs!Thompson.#
Salesman:!# Thank&you&madam.&Hope&to&see&you&again&soon.#

An#interesting#extra#activity#is#for#the#students#to#add#inner#speech#utterances#to#
the$dialogue,$as$in$the$following$examples:$#

Good"morning"madam."(Oh"no."It’s"you.)"
Good"morning."(What"the"hell"are"you"doing"here?)"

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e.#) The$students$find$ways$in$which$wrong$answers$could$become$right.)
For$example,$in$1a$on$p.$49$of$ English(Unlimited(PreNIntermediate!(Tilbury)et)al.,)
2010)%the%students%are%told:#

‘In" pairs," decide" on" the" rules" for" a" library." Complete" the" sentences" with:" can,"
can’t,"have"to"or"don’t"have"to.’""

#
The$students$are$then$given$rules$with$blanks$to$fill$in,$as$in:#

‘You"__________""keep"quiet"in"the"library.’"

#
This%just%tests%students’%knowledge)of)modal)verbs)so)I)decided)to)challenge)the)
students'by'changing'it'to:#

‘Use"the"words"I"give"you"to"complete"each"of"the"sentences.’"
e.g."‘You"__________"keep"quiet"in"the"library.’"
Use"‘can’t’"and"‘because’."

4.#Opening#Up#Closed&Activities)

For$example,$in$a$course'book!it#says:#

“Bob"went"to"work"in"his"car"from"Monday"to"Friday"and"his"wife"Mary"used"the"
car" at" weekends." The" explicit" closed" question" asks," ‘Who" went" to" work" in" his" car"
from"Monday"to"Friday?’”"

#
I"reEphrased(this(as(the(following(open(questions(to(get(students(to(think(and(to(
give%them%an%opportunity%to%communicate:#

1. Who"drove"to"the"city"five"times"a"week?"How"do"you"know?""
2. Do"you"think"it’s"a"good"idea"to"drive"into"the"centre"of"Jakarta?""
3. Find" somebody" with" a" different" answer" from" you" and" try" to" persuade" them"
that"you"are"right.#

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To# answer# this# question,# the# students# have# to# think# about# what# it# means# and#
then%search%the%whole%text%for%an%equivalent.%They%also%have%to%connect%it%to%their%
own$knowledge$and$views$and$to$communicate*their*justification*persuasively.#

Another( example( is( a( course' book! activity' in' which' the' text' reports' a' tourist’s'
amazement'at'how'late'at'night'everybody'eats'and'how'discos'stay'open'all!night.'
The$closed$question$is,#

‘Which"country"do"you"think"this"is?’"

#
The$reEphrased(question(could(become:#

‘Tell"a"partner"which"country"you"think"this"is"and"why."Then"discuss"with"your"
partner"whether"or"not"you"would"like"to"live"in"this"country.’"

#
#
5.#Discovery#Activities)

I" prefer" to" encourage" students" to# make# discoveries# for# themselves# rather# than#
always& teaching& them& and& testing& them.& Their& discoveries& can& make& much& greater&
impact'than'my'teaching.#

Here$is$an$example$from$6.2$Grammar$p.$53$ English(Unlimited(PreNIntermediate!
(Tilbury)et)al.,)2010).#

The$students'are'asked:'#

‘1a."What"are"the"comparatives"and"superlatives"of"the"adjectives"in"the"table?’""

#
This%is%a%testing%question%and%does%not%provide%any%opportunity%for%learning.#

I"changed"it"to:#

1. In" pairs," find" examples" of" words" which" are" comparing" things" in" the" passage"
Fact"File:"Weather"on"p."52"and"in"the"transcripts"of"2.13"and"2.14"on"p."148."
2. Use"the"examples"to"write"notes"on:"
• the"different"ways"of"forming"the"comparative"and"the"superlative;"

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• the"intended"outcomes"which"the"comparative"and"the"superlative"are"used"
to"achieve."
3. For" homework," find" other" examples" of" the" comparative" and" superlative." Use"
them"to"check"and"revise"your"notes.#

#
The$examples$above$are$adapted$from$those$in$Tomlinson$(2015)!and$Tomlinson$
(2017).#
"

Materials)Adaptation)Tasks"
MiniN Adaptations)

1. Adapt&the&following&activity&so&that&it&becomes&more&personalized.#

For"each"adjective"in"the"following"list,"find"the"corresponding"adverb"(e.g."quick"
="quickly)."
Write"sentences"in"which"you"use"the"adverbs"you"have"found."

#
2. Adapt&the&following&activity&so&that&it&becomes&more&localized.#

Tom"is"a"thirtyGyearGold"teacher"who"lives"in"London."Write"a"list"of"ten"things"he"
does"every"week."
e.g."In"winter,"he"watches"Chelsea"every"week."

#
3. Adapt&the&following&activity&to&make&it&more&potentially&useful&for&your&learners.#

The!Empire!State!Building!
1. The"Empire"State"Building"is"one"of"the"most"famous"buildings"in"the"world."It"
opened" in" 1931" and" meant" that" New" York" could" boast" the" tallest" building" in"
the"world"until"1972."

Read"the"passage"below"and"look"at"the"illustration"next"to"it."Then"write"ten"
sentences"using"the"simple"present"about"the"Empire"State"Building."

2. Find" out" what" the" tallest" building" in" the" world" today" is" and" then" write" a"
passage"about"it"and"draw"a"picture"of"it."

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MaxiN Adaptation)Tasks)

1. Take%a%page%from%a%global%course%book%and%then%adapt%it%so%that%it%becomes%more%
relevant( to( the( context( of( your( learners( and( encourages( them( to( connect( it( to(
their&own&experience&and&to&express#their#personal#views,#opinions#and#ideas.#

2. Take%a%page%from%a%course%book%which%you%do%not%normally%use%and%then%adapt%it%
so#that#it#becomes#potentially#effective#for#use#with#a#particular#class#which#you#
teach:#

i) Do#a#criterion#referenced#evaluation#of#the#materials#to#be#used,#following#
the$ procedure$ outlined$ in$ Chapter$ Three$ of$ developing$ universal$ and$ local$
criteria,( then( turning( them( into( evaluation( questions( and( answering( the(
questions) with) grades) from) 1E5" and" comments." The" number" of" criteria"
depends!on#the#available#time#you#have.#

ii) For$ any$ criterion$ scoring$ 4$ or$ less,$ use$ the$ comments$ you$ made$ when$
answering) the) question) to) decide) whether) to) delete,) reduce,) increase,)
modify,(replace(or(add.#

iii) Make% your% adaptations% to% the% materials% and% then% for% each% one,! envisage(
what%you%think%will%happen%when%the%students%do%the%activity.#

iv) Make%any%further%changes%you%think%would%be%useful%after%doing%iii)%above.)

The$examples$of$adaptations$in$this$chapter$are$adapted$from$Tomlinson$(2015)$and$
Tomlinson((2017).)

References)

Tomlinson,)B.)(2015).)Challenging)teachers)to)use)their)course'book!creatively.+In+A.+
Maley&&&N.&Peachey&(Eds.),&Creativity)in)the)language)classroom)(pp.$24E28).%
London:&British&Council.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(2018).!Making'typical'coursebook!activities(more(beneficial(for(the(
learner.'In'B.'Dat'(Ed.),'Creativity$and$innovations!in#ELT#materials#
development:+Looking+beyond+the+current+design."Bristol:"Multilingual"
Matters.#
# #

Materials)for)Learners)of)EIL)))4! 6"
CHAPTER SIX#
FRAMEWORKS FOR MATERIALS
DEVELOPMENT#

Introduction"
When%developing%materials,%whether%it%be%for%a%class%or%a%course,%it%is%important%
to#decide#on#what#type#of#content#and#what#type#of#pedagogical#approach#will#drive#
your% materials.% It% is% then% important% to% develop% a% flexible% framework$ which$
sequences'the'types'of'activities'to'be'used'in'a'way'which'will'help'you'to'produce'
principled)and)coherent)materials.)In)other)words,)you)need)a)framework)which)will)
help% you% to% decide% on% activities% which% are% informed% by% what% we% know% facilitates"
language' acquisition' and' to' put' these' activities' in' an' order' in' which' each' activity'
follows&from&the&previous&activity&and&leads&into&the&next&one.#

In# this# chapter,# we# will# briefly# consider# the# choices# of# content# and# approach#
available'to'the'writer'and'then%in%Chapter%Seven,%we%will%look%at%a%detailed%example%
of# a# framework# which# has# been# designed# to# help# a# writer# who# has# made# their#
choice&of&content&and&approach.#

Content"
1. Driven'by'a'Linguistic(Syllabus)

Most%course'books!have%a%predominantly%linguistic%content%and%follow%a%linguistic%
syllabus.(In(other(words(they(focus(on(teaching(grammar(and(vocabulary(and(they(

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follow%a%content%list%which%tells%them%which%structures%and%which%vocabulary%items%
to#teach#in#each#unit.#Each#unit%might%also%include%teaching%and%practice%of%the%skills%
of# reading,# writing,# listening# and# speaking# but# the# texts# are# usually# chosen# to#
illustrate) the) focused) structures) and) vocabulary) items) and) the) activities) are)
designed' to' practice' them.' So,' for' example,& the& main& teaching& focus& might& be& on&
the$simple$present$tense$and$on$the$vocabulary$of$everyday$activities.$There$will$be$
activities( focusing( on( the( teaching( and( practising( of( these( language( points( and(
maybe& a& reading& text& on& what& somebody& does& each& weekday,' a' listening' text' on'
what% somebody% usually% does% at% the% weekend% and% writing% and% speaking% activities%
focusing)on)what)the)students)usually)do)on)weekdays)and)at)weekends.#

Some%of%the%advantages%of%this%language%driven%approach%are%that%it%is%focused,%
there% are% a% lot% of% repetitions,% the% students% know% what% they% are% supposed% to% learn%
and$ the$ teachers$ know$ what$ they$ are$ supposed$ to$ cover.$ The$ disadvantages$ are$
that:#

• such%a%narrow%focus%is%unnatural%and%limits%the%learners’%exposure%to%language%
in#use;#
• texts" which" are" chosen" or" developed" because" they" illustrate" particular"
language'points'are'unlikely'to'engage'the'learners'and'without'engagement'
there%is%no%acquisition;#
• learners' (especially' those' at' lower' levels)' tend' to' focus' on' meaning' rather'
than%form%and!they%tend%to%learn%what%they%need%and%want%rather%than%what%
they%are%told%to%learn;#
• there%is%often%an%illusion%of%acquisition%created%because%of%the%narrow%focus%
and$ the$ frequent$ repetition,$ but$ acquisition$ requires$ repeated$ exposure,$
noticing'and'use'over"an"extended"period;#
• teachers( often( feel( they( have( covered( the( teaching( points( because( of( the(
intense&focus&in&one&unit&and&then&go&on&to&focus&on&other&teaching&points&in&
the$other$units.#
#
Another(disadvantage(of(this(sort(of(content(focus(is(that(the(structures'and'lexis'
taught& are& usually& specific& to& one& variety& of& English& and& are& therefore& not& really&
relevant(to(learners(of(English(as(an(International(Language.(Also(they(are(often(the(
structures' and' lexis' used' predominantly' in' formal' written' English' and" ignore" what"
has$been$discovered$about$the$grammar$and$lexis$of$speech$(e.g.$Suarez$is$a$great$
player'vs.!He’s%a%great%player,%Suarez.)%and%they%have%often%been%selected%as%a%result%
of#writer#intuition#rather#than#from#corpora#of#authentic#English#in#use.##

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o Tasks)

1. Why$do$you$think$most$course'books!still%follow%a%language%driven%approach%
when% most% researchers% think% that% this% is% unlikely% to% facilitate% language%
acquisition?#
2. Look$at$a$unit$in$a$course'book!and$decide$whether$it$is$driven$by$a$linguistic$
syllabus.(If(it(is:#

i) decide% what% the% advantages% and" disadvantages" are" of" following" this"
approach'in'this'particular'unit.#
ii) think& of& ways& of& improving& the& unit& so& that& it& is& more& engaging& for& the&
learners' and' is' more' likely' to' help' them' to' achieve' communicative'
competence.#

2. Driven'by'a'Skills%Syllabus)

This% was$ a$ popular$ approach$ in$ the$ 1980s$ and$ is$ still$ used$ by$ some$ textbooks$
today.' Its' starting' point' is' listing' the' language' skills' which' the' learners' at' the'
particular) level) need) to) develop) and) then) focusing) on) one) (or) possibly) more)) of)
these% skills% in% each% unit.& The& textbook& could& focus& on& one& macroEskill% such% as%
reading,)it)could)focus)on)each)of)the)‘four)skills’)separately)in)a)unit)or)it)could)take)
an# integrated# approach# in# which# all# four# skills# are# used# in# the# same# activity# (e.g.#
listening(to(a(text,(reading&the&same&or&a&related&text,&discussing&the&content&of&the&
texts% and% then% writing% a% text% responding% to% or% following% on% from% the% texts%
discussed).)Normally,)the)focus)is)on)the)‘four)skills’)of)reading,)writing,)listening)and)
speaking,* but* sometimes* a* focus& on& communication& skills& and& occasionally& a& focus&
on#thinking#skills#is#added.#

If#the#general#focus#is#on#a#macroEskill%such%as%reading,%the%specific%focus%will%be%
on#a#microEskill%such%as%reading%for%gist,%scanning,%deducing%meaning%from%context,%
or# tolerating* ambiguity* (i.e.* not* worrying* about* not* being* able* to* understand*
everything).,#

In# materials# driven# by# a# skills# syllabus,# the# microEskills% are% usually% not% just%
practised*but*introduced,*exemplified*and*then*practised*with*advice.*The*texts*and*
activities& are& not& chosen& to& illustrate& and& practice& language& points& but& to& facilitate&
focus&on&the&target&microEskill.#

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o Task)

What% do% you% think% are% the% advantages% and% disadvantages% of% following% a% skillsE
driven'syllabus'when'writing'materials?#

3. Driven'by'a"Competency&Syllabus)

A" competency" syllabus" is" one" which! consists' of' a' specification' of' the'
communicative+competencies+which+learners+on+a+course+are+expected+to+achieve.+A+
competency)is)something)which)a)user)of)a)language)can)do)in)that)language)(e.g.)
understand)and)follow)spoken)instructions,)make)use)of)a)train%timetable%to%get%to%
their&intended&destination,&write&an&agenda&for&a&meeting,&give&somebody&directions&
in# the# street).# # CompetencyEbased& materials& are& therefore& materials& in& which& each&
unit%focuses%on%helping%learners%to%achieve%specified%competences.#

Basing'materials'(and'examinations)'on'a'competencyEbased&syllabus&is&a&recent&
development*inspired*by*the*Council*of*Europe’s*specifications*of*competencies*and*
their& determination& of& learner& levels& from& A1& to& C2& based& on& achievement& of&
competences.* See! https://www.coe.int/en/web/commonNeuropeanNframeworkN
referenceNlanguages/!for!deEtails&of&the&Common&European&Framework&of&Reference&
for$Languages,$which$aims$to$provide%a%method%of%learning,%teaching%and%assessing%
which%applies%to%all%languages#in#Europe,(and(which(is(now(being(applied((not(always(
appropriately)+all+over+the+world.#

Here$are$some$examples$of$the$specification$of$level$specific$competences$(often$
referred$to$as$can$do$statements):$#
C1.!# Can$ communicate$ clearly$ detailed$ distinctions$ between$ ideas,$ concepts$ and$
things'that'closely'resemble'one'other.'Can'give'instructions'on'carrying'out'a'
series% of% complex% professional% or% academic% procedures.% Can% communicate%
complex(information(and(advice(on(the(full(range(of(matters(related(to(his/her(
occupational*role.*#
B2.!# Can$ communicate$ detailed$ information$ reliably.$ Can$ give$ a$ clear,$ detailed$
description+of+how+to+carry+out+a+procedure.+Can+explain+the+main+points$in$an$
idea%or%problem%with%reasonable%precision.%Can%describe%how%to%do%something,%
giving%detailed%instructions.%#
B1.!# Can$report$straightforward$factual$information$on$a$familiar$topic,$for$example,$
to# indicate# the# nature# of# a# problem# or# to# give# detailed$ directions,$ provided$
he/she%can%prepare%beforehand.%#

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A2.!# Can$give$simple$directions$from$place$to$place,$using$basic$expressions$such$as$
‘turn& right’& and& ‘go& straight’& along& with& sequential& connectors& such& as& ‘first,’&
‘then,’(and(‘next.’(#
A1.!# Can$give"a"simple"description"of"an"object"or"picture"while"showing"it"to"others"
using& basic& words,& phrases& and& formulaic& expressions,& provided& he/she& can&
prepare%in%advance.#

(CEFR&Companion&Volume&with&New&Descriptors&(Provisional&Edition)&(2017),&p.&71,&
https://www.coe.int/en/web/commonNeuropeanNframeworkNreferenceNlanguages))

o Tasks)

1. What%do%you%think%are%the%advantages%and%disadvantages%of%writing%materials%
which%follow%a%competencyEbased&syllabus?#
2. Think&of&a&specific&class&of&learners&and&then:#
• specify!six$competences$which$you$think$they$should$aim$to$achieve$by$the$
end$of$their$course.$#
• select& one& of& these& competences& and& think& of& how& you& could& develop& a&
unit%of%materials%to%help%the%learners%to%achieve%it.#

Notice' that' content' approaches' 1E3" above" are! prescriptive.* They* assume* we*
know% what% language,% skills% or% competences% the% learners% need% and% the% order% in%
which%they%should%be%taught.%However,%we%know%that%language%learners%have%their%
own$agenda$and$they$learn$what$they$need$and$want$to$learn$when$they$need$or$
want%it.%They%only%learn%when%they%are%developmentally%or%psychologically%ready%to%
learn&and&each&learner&in&a&class&will&have&a&different&degree&of&readiness.#

4. Examination)Driven)

An#examinationEdriven'course'of'materials'is'one'which'follows'the'syllabus&of&an&
examination) which) the) learners) are) being) prepared) for.) The) justification) for) this)
approach'is'that'the'more'practice'the'learners'get'in'doing'what'they'will'have'to'
do#in#the#examination,#the#better#they#will#be#prepared#for#it#and#the#higher!marks&
they%are%likely%to%achieve.%Examination%preparation%course'books!now$dominate$the$
market' in' the' UK' and' in' USA' but' many' researchers' doubt' their' validity.' A' narrow'
focus&on&satisfying&the&requirements&of&an&examination&can&lead&to&learners&passing&
the$ examination$ but$ not$ being$ able$ to$ understand$ or$ communicate$ in$ the$ target$
language.( That( certainly( happened( to( me( when( I( took( my( “A”( Level( French(
examination.* For* a* year,* we* focused* in* class* on* what* we* would* have* to* do* in* the*

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examination) and) spent) our) time) doing) translation,) comprehension) and) grammar)
exercises.( We( rarely( listened% to% French% or% spoke% it.% I% passed% the% examination% and%
now$ I$ cannot$ communicate$ at$ all$ when$ I$ go$ to$ France.$ There$ is$ also$ evidence$ that$
learners' are' more' likely' to' achieve' better' examination' results' if' they' gain'
confidence,) competence) and) selfEesteem% from# classroom# materials# which# provide#
them% with% a% rich% and% reEcycled& exposure& to& the& language& in& use,& opportunities& to&
make% discoveries% about% how% the% language% is% used% to% achieve% intended% effects% and%
opportunities*to*use*the*language*for*communication.*This*is#what#happened#on#the#
PKG$ English$ Programme$ in$ Indonesia$ (Tomlinson,$ 1988,$ 1990)$ when$ one$
experimental+class+in+each+secondary+school+followed+a+communicative+course+plus+
some% preparation% just% before% taking% the% examination.% One% of% the% teacher% trainers%
did"his"PhD"on"the"Programme"and"he"demonstrated"that"the"experimental"classes"
did#much#better#on#the#end#of#year#traditional#examination#than#the#other#classes#
who$had$been$prepared$for$it$in$the$conventional$way.#

Of# course,# if# the# classroom# materials# were# focused( on( helping( the( learners( to(
understand) and) to) communicate) and) there) was) no) difference) between) what) the)
learners'did'in'the'classroom'and'what'they'did'in'the'examination,'there'would'be'
no# problem.# This# is# what# happened# in# Vanuatu# when# we# changed# the" primary"
school& leaving& examination& from& a& grammar& translation& to& a& communicative&
examination) and) then) helped) a) large) group) of) teachers) to) write) a) booklet) of)
communication)tasks)which)could)be)used)in)class)(Tomlinson,)1981))and)a)bank)of)
similar'tasks'to!be#used#in#the#examination.#

5. Subject(Driven)

Many% countries% are% experimenting% with% a% CLIL% approach% to% teaching% English% in%
their&schools.&CLIL&stands&for&Content&and&Language&Integrated&Learning.!It#is#similar#
to# CBI# (ContentEBased& Instruction,& the& term& normally$ used$ in$ the$ USA)$ in$ that$
educational+ content+ and+ an+ L2+ are+ taught+ at+ the+ same+ time.+ So,+ for+ example,+ a+
secondary* school* science* course* in* Spain* might* be* taught* in* English* or* a* primary*
school&course&in&maths&might&be&taught&in&Malaysia&in&English&too.&As#the#subject#is#
taught,'the'language'needed'to'learn'is'taught'too.#

This%subjectEdriven'approach'is'not'confined'to'educational'subjects.'Way'back'in'
the$early$1980s,$for$example,$I$was$a$Director$of$Studies$at$a$college$where$for$one$
third& of& their& English$ course$ students$ learned$ to$ cook,$ paint,$ play$ music$ or$ play$
football'in'English'and'recently'I'was'involved'in'an'online'course'in'which'English'
was$learned$by$finding$out$more$about$English$Premier$League$clubs$and$players.#

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Research( seems( to( show( that( students' can' gain' subject' knowledge,' language'
proficiency*and*educational*development*at*the*same*time,*though*this,*of*course*
depends&on&the&pedagogical&approach&used,&the&quality&of&the&materials,&the&quality&
of#the#teaching#and#the#motivation#and#engagement%of%the%learners.#

o Tasks)

1. What%do%you%think%your%students%would%like%to%use%English%to%learn%to%do?#
2. What% do% you% think% a% unit% of% a% page% from% a% CLIL% course% book% developed% for%
your%students%should%contain?%#

6. Topic&Driven/Theme&Driven)

Many% current% global% course' books! use$ topics$ or$ themes$ to$ drive$ units$ in$ their$
course' books." For" example," I" have" just" taken" at" random" a" course' book! from% my%
bookshelf)(Goldstein,)2012))and)the)topics/themes)of)the)units)are)as)follows:#

Communication;+ A+ Good+ Read;+ Art+ Everywhere;" Man" and" Nature;" Bridges,"

Borders'and'Barriers;'Global'and'Local;'Is'This'Yours?;'Telling'a'Different'Story;'Rules'
and$Regulations;$Insights$and$Innovations:$A$Sense$of$Identity;$Memories.#

Each%of%these%topics%(e.g.%Memories)%and%themes%(e.g.%Man%and%Nature)$drives$a$
unit%in%ways%which%connect%the%activities%to%each%other%and%achieves%coherence%and%
reEcycling' of' content' and' language.' However,' there' is' a' risk' that' if' a' student' finds'
the$ topic$ or$ theme$ of$ a$ unit$ alien,$ irrelevant$ or$ boring$ then$ the$ whole$ of$the$ unit$
could&have&a&negative&impact&on&the&learner.&Also&the&topic&or&theme&could&restrict&
the$choice$of$speaking$and$listening$texts$and$limit$the$types$of$activities$too.$There$
is# also# the# potential# problem# of# topics# and# themes# being# imposed# on# reluctant#
students.( On( a( textbook( project( I( worked( on( in( Namibia,( the( teachers( said( they(
thought&their&sixteenEyearEold$students$would$be$interested$in$such$topics$as$films,$
pop# music,# fashion,# teenage# magazines# and# comics.# When# consulted# in# a#
nationwide) questionnaire,' the' students' said' they' would' like' to' see' such' topics' as'
drug% abuse,% alcohol% abuse,% smoking,% teenage% pregnancy% and% domestic% violence.%
Fortunately,, we, were, working, with, a, very, enlightened, Ministry, of, Education,, and,
they%listened%to%the%students.#

o Tasks)

1. Look$at$a$course$book$and$check$to$see$if$it$is$topic/theme$driven.$If$it$is,$do$
you$think$the$topics$and$themes$would$interest$your$students?#

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3. List% ten% topics% or% themes% which% you% think% your% students% are% likely% to% be%
interested(in.#
4. If#you#can,#ask#your#students&to&list&the&ten&topics&or&themes&they&would&like&
to#see#in#a#course#book#and#then#compare#your#list#in#2#with#theirs.#

7. Task%Driven&)

A" task" is" an" activity" in" which" learners" use" their" existing" linguistic" resources" to"
achieve'an'intended'communicative'outcome.(The(task(is(the(main(focus(of(the(unit(
and$drives$the$other$activities.#

Examples)of)tasks)include)writing)an)agenda)for)a)meeting,)arranging)a)meeting,)
designing'a'vehicle,'designing'an'advertisement'for'a'vehicle,'writing'a'report'on'a'
sports& event# for# the# local# newspaper,# performing# a# simulation# of# a# TV# news#
presentation* and* researching* and* presenting* the* views* of* local* residents* on* a*
proposed'new'bridge.#

Usually'a'task'has'an'intended'audience'and'an'intended'effect.'For'example,'the'
task%could%be#to#write#a#story#which#will#make#young#children#laugh.##

Ideally' the' tasks' in' a' taskEbased& course& for& learners& of& EIL& should& include& tasks&
relevant(to(interactions(between(nonEnative'speakers,'for'example:#

• giving%directions%in%a%taxi#
• booking'a'flight#
• giving$a$conference$presentation#
• making'friends'at'a'party#
• contributing*to*a*meeting#
• making'arrangements'to'meet'over'the'phone#
• making'requests'in'an'eEmail#
• contributing*to*social*media#
• translating)into)English)for)a)visitor#

8. Text%Driven&)

When% writing% a% textEdriven& unit,& the& writer& focuses& first& of& all& on& finding& a&
written,( spoken( or( audioEvisual' text' which' is' likely' to' engage' the' target' learners'
affectively*and/or*cognitively.*This*text*then*drives*all*the*activities*in*the*unit.#

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The$great$advantage$of$a$textEdriven'unit'is'that'the'core'text'is'much'more'likely'
to# engage# the# learners# than# a# text# which# has# been# chosen# to# illustrate# preE
determined( teaching( points.( It( is( also( more( likely( to( engage( the( learners( in( the(
activities( than( a( unit( in( which( the( activities! have% been% chosen% to% practice% a% preE
determined(teaching(point.#

Ideally' the' texts' in' a' textEdriven' course' for' learners' of' EIL' should' be' written' or'
spoken'by'users'of'a'variety'of'Englishes'and'by'proficient'nonEnative'speakers'too.#

For$an$example$of$a$textNdriven'unit'see'Chapter'Seven.)

"
Pedagogical*Approach"
Presentation,+Practice,(Production)(PPP))

The$ most$ common$ type$ of$ pedagogical$ approach$ in$ course' books! is# PPP.# This#
approach' is' based' on' a' belief' that' being' taught' about' a' feature' of' the' language,'
then% practising% this% feature% and% then% trying% to% produce% it% is% likely% to% lead% to%
acquisition*of*that*feature*and*an*ability*to*understand*and*to*use*it*automatically.$#

PPP"materials"are"usually"sequenced"as"follows:#

i) Presentation:+ The+ teacher+ uses+ the+ rules,+ generalisations,+ descriptions,+ advice+

and$ examples$ in$ the$ materials$ to$ teach$ the$ preEdetermined( feature( (e.g.( the(
present' perfect' tense;' the' vocabulary' of' shopping;% how% to% order% a% meal;%
deduction)of)meaning)from)context).#

ii) Practice:) The) learners) do) fairly) easy) exercises) focusing) on) the) teaching) point) in)
the$Presentation$stage$(e.g.$filling$in$blanks$in$sentences$with$the$correct$form$of$
the$ present$ perfect;$ matching# picture# of# people# shopping# to# sentences#
describing*what*the*people*are*doing;*rearranging*a*jumbled*dialogue*involving*
somebody(ordering(a(meal;(working(out(the(meaning(of(words(in(sentences(from(
the$other$words$in$the$sentences).#

iii) Production:+ The+ learners# ‘use’# what# they# have# learned# in# i)# and# ii)# above# (e.g.#
they%write%about%places%they%have%been%to%this%year;%they%tell%a%partner%about%the%
last%time%they%went%shopping;%they%take%part%in%a%role%play%set%in%a%restaurant%with%

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A"and"B"taking"it"in"turns"to"be#the#customer#or#the#waiter;#they#read#a#passage#in#
which% there% are% six% nonsense% words% whose% meaning% can% be% worked% out% from%
clues&in&the&passage).#

PPP"materials"are"popular"with"publishers"and"writers"because"they"can"follow"a"
standard'format'and'cover'many$features$in$a$course$of$materials.$They$are$popular$
with%administrators%because%they%make%it%easy%to%timetable%a%course%with%different%
teachers( and( to( cover( a( lesson( when( a( teacher( is( sick.( They( are( also( popular( with(
many% teachers% because% they% are% systematic,( focused( and( easy( to( teach,( because(
they%can%use%the%production%activities%for%easy%to%mark%tests%and%because%students%
usually& seem& to& have& learned& the& teaching& point& successfully& by& the& end& of& an&
intensively)focused)unit.)However,)most)SLA)researchers$argue$that:#

• the$narrow$focus$removes$a$number$of$features$of$authentic$communication$
such% as% unpredictability,% the% need% to% choose% the% most% appropriate% and%
effective' form' from' a' mental' menu' of' possibilities' and' the' value' of' paying'
attention' to' contextual" clues" such" as" gesture," facial" expression," location,"
relationship,between,the,interactants,etc.;#

• the$production$stage$does$not$really$involve$the$students$in$using$the$feature$
as# the# narrow# context# (and# often# an# implicit# instruction# in# the# materials)#
obliges$the$students$to$‘use’$(i.e.$practise)$the$structure$they$have$just$been$
taught;#

• it#is#impossible#to#acquire#a#language#feature#instantly;#it#takes#time,#frequent#
and$ varied$ exposure$ and$ many$ opportunities$ to$ use$ the$ feature$ for$
communication;#

• the$apparent$progress$made$by$the$students$is$often$an$illusion$as$they$have$
learned'the'feature'consciously'and'they'often'forget'it'or'fail'to'be'able'to'
use$it$in$authentic$communication.#

Discovery*Approaches)

A"discovery"approach"usually"involves"providing"the"students'with'an'experience'
of#language#in#use#(e.g.#a#short#story;#a#video#clip;#a#transcript#of#a#conversation)#and#
then%helping%them%to%make%discoveries%about%how%a%particular%feature%is%used.%In%my%
experience(such(an(approach(can(help(the(students(to(actually&notice&features&and&
how$they$are$used$which$they$would$otherwise$not$have$paid$any$willing$attention$
to;$ it$ can$ raise$ their$ confidence$ and$ selfEesteem% and% can% help% them% to% eventually%
become& independent& learners& outside& their& course& and& away& from& their# teacher.# I#

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will$ never$ forget$ seeing$ a$ twelve$ year$ old$ Indonesian$ boy$ rushing$ excitedly$ to$ the$
blackboard)to)write)lists)of)the)two)different)types)of)action)describing)words)he)had)
discovered) from) the) script) of) a) story) about) a) birthday) party) which) the) class$ had$
acted& out& from& the& teachers’& spoken& narrative.& He& had& discovered& regular& and&
irregular(adverbs((a(teaching(point(on(the(Syllabus)(without(realising(it.#

Some% course' books! follow% a% pseudoEdiscovery* approach* in* which* students* are*
guided&to&reach&conclusions'which'have'already'been'preEdetermined(by(the(writer(
or# the# course' book! syllabus.( This( approach( is( often( referred( to( as(
consciousnessraising., I, prefer, an, openEended$ approach$ in$ which$ the$ students$ are$
given& sufficient& evidence& to& allow& them& to& make& discoveries) for) themselves) and) in)
which% no% discovery% is% wrong% if% it% follows% logically% from% the% evidence% (e.g.% the%
interrogative*can*be*used*to*direct*people*to*do*something*as*in,*“Why*don’t*you*go*
right& on& down& there& now& and& greet& your& guests.”).& This& approach& I& refer& to& as& a&
language'awareness'approach.#

When% I% use% a% discovery% approach% to% write% materials% I% normally% follow% this%
framework:#

1. The$ students$ listen$ to,$ read,$ watch$ or$ act$ out$ an$ authentic$ text$ selected$ or$
developed' primarily' to' engage' them' (e.g.' The$ beginning$ of$ a$ novel$ about$ a$
young&man&being&given&a&graduation&party&by&his&parents&but&not&wanting&to&go&
down%and%meet%his%parents’%guests).#
2. The$ students$ respond$ personally$ to$ the$ meaning$ of$ the$ text$ (e.g.$ Why$ do$ you$
think&Benjamin&does&not&want&to&go"to"the"party?).#
3. The$students$are$guided$to$identify$a$particular$language$feature$which$is$salient$
in# the# text# (e.g.# the# use# of# the# imperative# in# the# conversation# in# Benjamin’s#
bedroom'between'Benjamin'and'his'father).#
4. The$students$in$groups$work$out$how!each%instance%of%the%feature%is%used%in%the%
text$(e.g.$the$imperative$is$used$by$Benjamin$to$plead$with$his$father$to$leave$him$
alone&in&the&bedroom,&“Tell&them&I’ll&be&right&on&down.”)#
5. The$ students$ divide$ the$ instances$ of$ the$ feature$ into$ categories$ and$ give% each%
category)a)heading.#
6. Each%group%shares%their%discoveries.#
7. For$ homework,$ the$ students$ look$ for$ other$ instances$ of$ the$ feature$ in$ written$
and$spoken$texts$they$encounter$or$can$find$(e.g.$in$YouTube$video$clips).#

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8. The$ students$ in$ their$ group$ share$ their$ new$ instances,$ allocate$ them$ to$
categories,+ revise+ category+ headings+ and+ create+ new+ category+ headings+ to+
allocate'some'of'them'to.#

This%experience%does%not%magically%lead%to%acquisition%but%it%makes%it%likely%that%
the$students$will$notice$the$feature$they$have$focused$on$in$subsequent$input$and$
will$ eventually$ acquire$ it$ (providing$ exposure$ to$ it$ is$ frequent,$ meaningful$ and$
significant).#

Immersion)

Immersion)is)a)simple)approach)based)on)the)assumption)that)if)learners)really)
need$ to$ acquire$ a$ language,$ they% will% do% so% if% they% receive% a% massive,%
comprehensible-and-meaningful-exposure-to-the-language-in-use-and-if-they-actually-
need$ to$ communicate$ in$ the$ language.$ Immigrants$ to$ countries$ or$ communities$
where% their% L1% is% not% spoken% often% acquire% the% language" of" the" country" or"
community)very)quickly)if)they)need)to)gain)employment)and)want)to)benefit)from)
living& in& the& new& area.& In& the& same& way& students& in& schools& (especially& young&
students)(can(gain(communicative(competence(in(a(new(language(if(it(is(used(in!the$
learning(of(all(their(school(subjects.(Such(an(approach(has(been(used(successfully(in(
many% countries.% For% example,% in% Canada% EnglishEspeaking) primary) students) have)
learned'to'understand'and'use'French'from'being'immersed'in'the'language'whilst'
learning" their" other" school" subjects," and" when" I" was" in" Cameroon" as" long" ago" as!
1966,%students%were%acquiring%both%English%and%French%by%using%one%language%as%the%
medium&of&instruction&in&one&term&and&the&other&language&in&the&next&term.#

For$ an$ immersion$ approach! to# work,# the# materials# have# to# be# written# so# that#
they%are%comprehensible%for%the%students%using%them,%and%they%are%meaningful%and%
significant)to)them.)This)can)be)achieved)by)making)sure)that)the)materials)connect)
to# the# learners’# lives# and# interests,# that# the# language# level# is# appropriate# and# that#
there% are% many% nonElinguistic) aids) to) understanding) (e.g.) illustrations,)
demonstrations,,learning,by,doing).,Obviously,,it,is,also,important,that,the,teachers,
are$confident$and$fluent$users$of$the$medium$of$instruction(and(that(they(use(it(all(
the$time$in$their$teaching.#

In#the#use#of#French#as#a#medium#of#instruction#for#EnglishEspeaking)students)in)
Canada%(known%as%the%Canadian%Immersion%Project),%it%was%found%that%the%students%
very% quickly% developed% the% ability# to# understand# and# use# French# in# the# classroom,#
but$that$grammatical$errors$made$early$in$the$course$persisted.$Now,$in$addition$to$

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their& classes& taught& in& French,& the& students& have& language& awareness& lessons& too&
focusing) on) grammatical) structures) which) have% been% demonstrated% to% be%
problematical,for,the,English,speaking,students.#

Content&and&Language&Integrated(Learning'(CLIL))

CLIL$approaches$are$similar$to$immersion$approaches$in$that$school$subjects$are$
taught&in&an&L2&rather&than&in&the&L1.&The&difference$is$that$the$language$used$in$the$
teaching) is) taught) to) the) students) too.) So,) if) students) are) being) taught) to) write)
scientific( reports,( they( might( be( taught( the( use( of( the( passive( voice( too.( In( some(
approaches)the)teaching)of)the)passive)would)come)before#the#teaching#of#how#to#
write&scientific&reports&and&in&some&approaches&the&two&would&be&taught&together.&
My# preference# would# be# for# an# approach# in# which# the# students# would# write#
scientific(reports(using(their(existing(linguistic(resources((which(might(or"might"not"
include( some( ability( to( use( the( passive( voice)( and( then( be( taught( (or( discover( for(
themselves))the)use)of)the)passive)voice)if)needed.)That)way)the)teaching)would)be)
responding*to*a*learner*need*rather*than*imposing*teaching*points.#

TaskN based&Language'Teaching((TBLT))

There% are% two% versions% of% TBLT.% The% original,% now% called% the% strong% version,%
consists'of'a'meaning'focused'task'in'which'the'learners'use'their'existing'linguistic'
resources'in'order'to'achieve'an'intended'outcome.'The'focus'is'very"much"on"the"
task% and% not% on% the% language% used% in% the% task,% but% the% learners% might% provide%
language' help' to' each' other' during' the' task.' The' teacher' would' normally' be'
available' as' a' language' resource' during' the' task' and' might' lead' a' postEmortem&
session&after#the#task#in#which#the#success#or#otherwise#of#the#outcomes#would#be#
linked'to'the'language'used'in'the'output'to'achieve'them.#

The$weak$version$of$TBLT$has$developed$in$countries$and$classrooms$where$the$
authorities* and/or* the* teachers* were* worried* by* the# lack# of# explicit# language#
teaching)in)the)original)version)of)TBLT.)This)weak)version)includes)explicit)teaching)
of#a#preEdetermined(language(point(from(the(syllabus,(usually(as(the(starting(point(
of#the#lesson.#A#task#is#then#chosen#because#it#will#require%the%learners%to%use%the%
language'point'which'they'learned'at'the'beginning'of'the'lesson.'So,'for'example,'
the$learners$might$be$taught$how$to$give$directions$and$then$be$asked$to$make$use$
of#a#map#to#send#an#eEmail%to%a%friend%directing%them%how%to%get#from#the#station#to#
the$ cinema$ where$ they$ are$ going$ to$ meet.$ After$ the$ completion$ of$ the$ task$ the$
teacher'might'do'some'follow'up'teaching'on'giving'directions'based'on'problems'

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faced& by& the& students& during& the& task.& Many& researchers& are& critical& of& the! weak%
version( for( being( little( more( than( a( variation( of( PPP( but( many( teachers( like( it(
because' they' feel' that' they' are' covering' the' syllabus' and' preparing' students' for'
their& examinations& (see& Thomas& && Reinders& (2015)& for& many& chapters& focusing& on&
this% weak% approach' and' Tomlinson' (2015)' for' an' endorsement' of' the' strong'
approach).#

Recently,) a) third) variation) has) developed,) the) taskEsupported) approach.) This)

consists' of' a' dominant' conventional' approach' (e.g.' PPP)' with' a' task' added' to'
provide(extra(practice(of(the"teaching"point"of"the"unit.#

The$framework$for$a$strong$version$is$usually:#

1. Introduction*and*explanation*of*the*task*and*its*goals.#
2. The$students$do$the$task.#
3. (The%students%report%or%present%their%task%to%other%students)#
4. (The% teacher% leads% a% postEmortem& in! which% the% success% or% otherwise% of% the%
students’( achievement( of( the( task( outcomes( is( linked( to( their( use( of( language(
and/or'strategies'in'their'output).#

A"unit"of"materials"might"simply"consist"of"1"and"2"or"it"might"include"instructions"
for$3$and$advice$which$could$be$used$to$support$the$teacher$in$4.#

Other&additions&to&this&framework&could&include:#

• the$ students$ comparing$ their$ output$ to$ that$ of$ proficient$ users$ of$ the$
language' who' had' been' asked' to' do' the' same' task' and' then' revising' their'
task%output%in%order$to$better$achieve$the$task$outcomes;#
• the$ students$ revising$ their$ output$ after$ the$ teacher’s$ postEmortem& on& the&
language'and/or'strategies'they'used.#

The$framework$for$a$weak$version$is$usually:#

1. The$teacher$teaches$a$language$point,$strategy$or$skill$from$the$syllabus#
2. (The%students%practise%the%language%point,%strategy%or%skill.)#
3. The$ teacher$ introduces$ and$ explains$ the$ task$ and$ its$ goals,$ and$ reminds$ the$
learners'of'the'teaching'point'they'have'just'learned.#
4. The$students$do$the$task.#
5. (The%students%report"or"present"their"task"to"other"students)#

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6. (The% teacher% leads% a% postEmortem& in& which& the& success& or& otherwise& of& the&
students’( achievement( of( the( task( outcomes( is( linked( to( their( use( of( language(
and/or'strategies''in'their'output).#
7. (The%students%revise%their%task%output).%#

The$main$strength$of$a$taskEbased&approach&is&that&the&learners&are&engaged&in&
actually' using' the' target' language' in' order' to' achieve' communicative' purposes'
rather&than&just&practising&language.#

TextN driven'Learning"(TDL))

In#a#textEdriven'learning'approach,'a'potentially'engaging'text'drives'the'unit'and'
all#the#activities#are#developed#to#prepare#the#students#for#experiencing#the#text,#for#
aiding& them& during& their& experience& of& the& text& and& for& making& use& of& their&
experience( of( the( text( to( facilitate( their( acquisition( of( language( and( their(
development*of*language*skills.#

My# preferred# approach# when# developing# materials# is# a# TDL# approach.# This# is#
because' I' have' witnessed' just' what' a' positive' effect' this' approach' can' have$ on$
learner&engagement,&motivation&and&achievement.&One&dramatic&example&of&this&is&
when% I% observed% a% class% in% a% secondary% school% in% Turkey% looking% bored% and%
unmotivated+ whilst+ appearing+ to+ suffer+ a+ PPP+ lesson+ from+ their+ course' book! and$
then%coming%alive"when"enjoying"a"TDL"lesson"developed"by"their"teacher.#

Rather' than' spending' more' time' on' TDL' in' this' chapter,! I" am" going" to" devote"
Chapter( Seven( to( a( description( and( demonstration( of( a( TDL( framework( for(
developing*a*unit*of*materials.#

Tasks#
1 Which% of% the! approaches) above) would) you) use) when) developing) materials) for)
your%class?%Why%would%you%use%these%approaches?#
2 Which% of% the% approaches% above% would% you% not% use% when% developing% materials%
for$your$class?$Why$would$you$not$use$these$approaches?#
3 Take% a% course' book! and$ analyse$ a$ unit$ from$ the$ book$ to$ see$ what$ pedagogical$
approach' it' uses.' Suggest' ways' of' revising' the' unit' so' that' it' uses' a' different'
approach.#

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4 Rewrite'the'first'two'pages'of'the'unit'you'analysed'in'3'above'so'that'it'uses'a'
different(pedagogic(approach.#

Further'Reading)

Mishan,(F.((2013).(Studies(of(pedagogy.(In(B.(Tomlinson((Ed.),(Applied'linguistics'and'
materials)development)(pp.$269E286).&London:&Bloomsbury.#
Thomas,(M.,(&(Reinders,(H.((Eds.),((2015).(Contemporary+taskNbased&teaching&in&
Asia.!London:&Bloomsbury.#
Tomlinson,)B.,)&)Masuhara,)H.)(2017).)Chapter)8)E!Developing*materials*for*the*
acquisition*of*language.*In*B.*Tomlinson*&*H.*Masuhara,*The$complete$guide$to$the$
theory'and'practice'of'materials'development'for'language'learning'(pp.!189E219).#
Hoboken,(NJ;(WileyEBlackwell.)

References)

Goldstein,+B.+(2012).+The$big$picture$intermediate$students$book."Oxford:"Richmond.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(1981).)Talking(to(learn.!Port%Vila:%Ministry%of%Education,%Vanuatu.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(1988).)The)PKG)project"in"Indonesia."The$Teacher$Trainer,!2/3,%23E24.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(1990).)Managing)change)in)Indonesian)high)schools.))ELT$Journal,"
44(1),%25E37.#
Tomlinson,)B.)(2015).)TBLT)materials)and)curricula:)From)theory)to)practice,)In)M.)
Thomas'&'H.'Reinders'(Eds.),'Contemporary*taskNbased&teaching&in&Asia!(pp.$
328E340).&London:&Bloomsbury.#
# #

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A TEXT-DRIVEN LEARNING (TDL)
APPROACH TO MATERIALS
DEVELOPMENT#

Description+of+a+TDL+Approach"
As#I#have#said#earlier#in#this#book#my#preference'when'developing'materials'is'to'
use$ a$ TDL$ approach$ in$ which$ a$ core$ text$ is$ chosen$ for$ its$ potential$ to$ achieve$
affective(and(cognitive(engagement(for(the(target(learners(and(then(this(text(drives(
all#the#activities#in#the#unit.#I#have#used#this#approach'when'developing'materials'for'
China,'Ethiopia,'Indonesia,'Japan,'Malaysia,'Namibia'and'Singapore'and'colleagues'
and$ postEgraduate( students( of( mine( have( used( it( successfully( in( Brazil,( China,(
Columbia,*Norway,*Singapore,*Tunisia*and*Vietnam.#

When%developing*TDL*materials*I*use*the*following*framework:#

1. Developing*a*library*of*potentially*engaging*texts)

You$cannot$just$find$an$appropriate$and$engaging$text$to$use$in$material$you$are$
developing*for*tomorrow*or*even*for*next*week.*What*you*need*to*do*is#to#build#up#
a"library"of"potentially"engaging"written,"spoken"and"audioEvisual'texts'over'a'period'
of#time#(or#in#my#case,#forever).#You#select#texts#which#engage#you#(i.e.#absorb#your#
interest' and' attention' by' stimulating' emotion' and' inspiring' thought)! and$ which$
might&engage&language&learners&too.&You&select&them&not&because&of&their&intrinsic&
worth& (e.g.& extracts& from& ‘great’& literature)& or& their& inclusion& of& potential& teaching&
points' (e.g.' a' lot' of' instances' of' the' present' perfect' tense)' but' because' of" their"
potential)to)engage.#

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2. Selecting)a)text)from)my)library)

When% you% are% sitting% down% to% write% a% unit% of% materials% for% a% specified% target%
audience(you(go(to(your(library(and(select(a(text(which(you(think(has(the(potential(
to#engage#that#audience#and#which"is"at"an"appropriate"level,"can"be"made"locally"
relevant,)and)is)likely)to)be)meaningful)to)the)learners.#

3. Experiencing*the*text)

You$experience$the$text.$You$do$not$just$read$it,$listen$to$it$or$watch$it,$and$you$
certainly* do* not* analyse* it* for* teaching* points.' You' experience' it.' And' then' you'
reflect' on' your' experience' of' the' text.' What' were' you' doing' in' your' mind' as' you'
experienced)it?)Were)you)visualising)it?)Were)you)talking)to)yourself)about)it?)Were)
you$connecting$it$to$your$own$life?$What$thoughts$did"you"have"immediately"after"
experiencing)it?#

You$then$make$use$of$your$reflection$to$help$you$to$develop$activities$which$will$
stimulate)the)learners)to)experience)the)text)and)respond)to)it)meaningfully)rather)
than%to%study%it.#

4. Developing*a*readiness*activity)

First&of&all&you&develop&an&activity&which&aims&to&activate&the&learners’&minds&in&
relation)to)the)location,)topic)or)theme)of)the)text.)For)example,)I)chose)a)poem)by)
Roger& McGough& called& First& Day& at& School! to# use# with# a# new# first# year#
undergraduate"class"in"a"Japanese"university."I"experienced"it"and"when"I"reflected"
on# it# I# realised# that# my# response# to# the# title# was# to# visualise# my# own# first# day# at#
school,' a' visualisation' which' I' continued' throughout' my' reading' of' the' poem' and'
when% responding% to% it.# So# I# developed# a# readiness# activity# in# which# the# students#
were$told$they$were$going$to$listen$to$a$poem$about$a$child’s$first$day$at$school$and$
that$ before$ reading$ it$ they$ should$ see$ pictures$ of$ their$ first$ day$ at$ school$ in$ their$
minds.' Then' they' were' guided% through% a% visualisation% activity% by% such% prompt%
questions)as,)“You)are)about)to)set)off)to)school)for)the)first)time.)Look)in)a)mirror)
before& you& go& out.& What& are& you& wearing?& What& are& you& carrying?& How& do& you&
look?%Happy?%Worried?%Excited?%Scared?#

5. Developing)an)initial)response)activity)

An# initial# response# activity# is# given# to# the# learners# just# before# they# start# to#
experience( the( text,( and( it( is( carried( out( by( them( while( they( are( experiencing( the(

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text.%It%is%intended%to%continue%their%mental%activation#from#the#readiness#activity#so#
as# to# focus# them# on# responding# to# the# global# meaning# of# the# text# rather# than#
worrying(about(words(they(do(not(understand.#

In#my#unit#for#the#Japanese#students#my#initial#response#activity#was:#

As"you"listen"to"the"poem,"see"pictures"of"the"child’s"first"day"at"school."Don’t"
worry" about" words" you" don’t" understand." There" won’t" be" any" comprehension"
questions"to"answer"afterwards."Just"see"pictures"of"what"you"can"understand."

#
#
6. Developing*an*intake*response*activity)

After&experiencing)a)text)in)the)L1)we)do)not)answer)comprehension)questions)
or# fill# in# blanks.# We# respond# personally# by# talking# to# ourselves# (or# sometimes# to#
others)(about(how(the(text(connects(to(our(lives,(or(what(it(means(to(us,(or(whether(
we#were#interested!by#it#or#not.#This#is#what#an#intake#response#activity#aims#to#help#
the$learner$to$do.$It$helps$them$to$deepen$and$articulate$their$personal$response$to$
the$text.#

There%are%two%types%of%intake%response%activity.%A%representational%activity%asks%
the$learners#to#express#what#they#have#understood#and#remembered#from#the#text.#
For$ example,$ the$ students$ in$ Japan$ were$ asked$ to$ draw$ anything$ they$ could$
remember% from% the% poem% First& Day& at& School." An" evaluative" activity" asks" the"
learners'to'express'their'opinion'about$a$character,$relationship,$event$or$idea$in$the$
text.% For% example,% in% a% unit% driven% by% a% poem% called% I’m$ an$ old,$ old$ woman! the$
learners'were'asked,'“Do'you'like'the'old'woman?'Why?'Why'not?”#

Here$is$an$example$of$intake$response$questions$developed$by$a"team"of"material"
developers)from)SCRELE)in)the)Shanghai)International)Studies)University.)The)team)
are$ developing$ textEdriven' materials' for' secondary' schools' in' Shanghai' and' the'
questions)follow)a)story)in)which)the)American)‘boyfriend’)of)a)Chinese)teenager%is%
invited'with'his'family'to'her'house'for'dinner.#

o !Discuss&the&following&questions&with&your&partner(s).&"

1) Do#you#like#the#story?#Give#your#reasons.##
2) Do#you#feel#sympathetic#to#the#girl’s#suffering#that#night?#Why?#
3) After&reading&the&story,&do&you&think&it&is&a&good&idea&to&treat&someone&from&a&

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different(cultural(background(from(yours(with(the(typical(family(dishes(of(your(
culture?(Why(or(why(not?(#
4) Should' we' encourage' guests' to' follow' the' rule' “When' in' Rome,' do' as' the!
Romans' do”' or' try' to' make' them' feel' at' home' by' offering' them' food' and'
utensils( that( are( familiar( to( them( and( allowing( them( to( follow( their( own(
eating'customs?#

7.#Developing#a#development#activity)

A"development"activity"is"a"written"or"spoken"production"activity"which"connects"
to# the# core# text.# For# example,# in# the# First& Day& at& School! unit% the% development%
activity'could'be'to'write'a'poem'or'story'called'First&Day&at&University!and$in$the$I’m$
an# old,! old$ lady! unit% it% could% be% to% write% an% eEmail% as% the% old% lady% to% her% son% in%
Australia,* or* to* hold* a* Skype* conversation* between* the* old* lady* and* her* son* in*
Australia,*or*to*act*out*the*conversation*between*the*old*lady*and*an*old*man*who*
sits$on$her$bench$in"the"park."In"a"unit"in"which"groups"develop"an"improved"version"
of#an#electric#vehicle#advertised#in#their#text,#the#development#activity#could#be#to#
design'a'newspaper'advertisement'for'their'vehicle'or'to'record'a'TV'advertisement'
for$it.$In$a$unit$in$which%groups%invent%a%cheap%way%of%saving%water,%the%development%
activity' could' be' to' write' a' letter' to' an' international' company' offering' to' give' a'
presentation*on*their*vehicle*and/or*for*them*to*give*a*group*presentation*designed*
to#sell#their#invention#to#the#international#company.#

Here$is$the$development$activity$from$the$SCRELE$materials$mentioned$earlier:#

2."" Retell"the"story"from"Robert’s"perspective."Add"your"own"imagination"if"
necessary."

#
The$story$of$the$Chinese$dinner$party$is$told$by$the$teenage&girl,&who&was&very&
embarrassed( by( her( family’s( behaviour( during( the( meal( (e.g.( the( father( belching)(
and$ by$ the$ traditional$ Chinese$ food$ which$ was$ served$ (e.g.$ fish$ cheeks).$ Robert$ is$
the$American$boy$who$was$invited$to$the$dinner.#

8.#Developing#an#input&response&activity)

An#input#response#activity#involves#the#learners#analysing#the#core#text#in#order#
to#discover#how#a#language#feature#or#strategy#has#been#used#to#achieve#particular#
meanings(and/or(effects.(For(example,(they(could(be(asked(to(work(out#why#the#boy#
in# First& Day& at& School! keeps% asking% such% questions% as,% “Why% are% they% so% big,! other&

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children?,+why+the+old+lady+writes+her+poem+in+the+simple+present+tense+or+how+the+
advertisement+tries+to+persuade+people+to+buy+the+electric+vehicle.#

Here$is!part%of%the%input%response%activity%from%the%SCRELE%materials:#

o Discovery)

1. Read% the% story% again% and% work% in% groups% to% identify% the% language% structures%
and$vocabulary$which$the$author$uses$to:#

• express& her& worries& when& she& found& out& that& Robert’s& family& is& about$ to$
come% for% dinner% in% paragraph% 2% [HINT:" Are$ there$ any$ common$ features$
shared'among'the'sentences?];#

• describe( the( Chinese( Christmas,( her( relatives,( and( the( Chinese( food( in(
paragraph& 2& [HINT:" Look$ for$ adjectives.$ Do$ they$ suggest$ something$
positive,)negative,&or&neutral?];#

9.#(Developing#a#research#activity))

The$unit$could$follow$up$the$development$activity$by$asking$the$students$to$do$
some% out% of% class% research.% For% example,% the% students% could% be% asked% to% find% and%
look$ at$ newspaper$ adverts$ to$ discover$ how$ they$ sell$ their$ products$ or$ to$ collect$
examples(of(the(simple(present(tense(in(authentic(use(to(further(their(investigation(
of#the#functions#of#the#simple#present#tense.#

10.$Developing$a$second$development$activity)

The$students$make$use$of$their$discoveries%in%the%input%response%activity%above%
of#any#findings#in#their#research#activity#in#order#to#produce#an#improved#version#of#
the$ text$ they$ developed$ in$ the$ first$ development$ activity.$ Only$ then$ does$ the$
teacher'respond'to'give'feedback'and,'if'required,"a"grade."#

Justification+of+the+TDL+Approach"
I" believe" from" my" experience" of" this" approach" in" use" over" the" last" twentyEfive%
years&that&it&is&a&very&useful&approach&which&helps&writers&and&teachers&to&develop&
principled)and)effective)units)of)materials)very#quickly.#In#Namibia#we#wrote#the#first#
draft&of&a&complete&course'book!in#six#days,#in#Japan#a#group#of#teachers#produced#a#

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unit% in% thirty% minutes% and% in% Botswana,% China,% Columbia,% Indonesia,% Malaysia,%
Mauritius(and(Singapore(teachers(at(workshops(have(developed'drafts'of'units'with'
great& potential& for& learner& engagement& in& less& than& thirty& minutes.& Of& course,& this&
can$ only$ be$ achieved$ if$ you$ have$ already$ built$ up$ a$ small$ library$ of$ potentially$
engaging&written,&spoken&and&audioEvisual'texts'with'the'potential'for'affective'and'
cognitive)engagement.#

In#addition#to#speed#of#development,#the#advantages#of#a#TDL#approach#include:#

• Using&a&potentially&engaging&text&to&drive&the&activities&in&a&unit&greatly&increases&
the$ likelihood$ of$ affective$ and$ cognitive$ engagement' being' achieved' and'
sustained) than) using) a) teaching) point,) topic) or) theme) to) drive) a) unit) and) then)
searching*for*texts*to*illustrate*it.#

• A" textEdriven' framework' (as' outlined' above)' can' help' the' unit' to' achieve'
coherence'in'the'sense'that'each'activity%follows%from%the%previous%activity%and%
contributes+to+the+next+one.#

• A" TDL" unit" is" principled" in" that" it" aims" to" achieve" engagement," connections,"
meaningfulness,,salience,,significance,,noticing,and,reEcycling,(all(shown(by(SLA(
research'to'be'powerful!determiners)of)language)acquisition.#

• The$ discovery$ activities$ in$ a$ TDL$ unit$ enable$ learners$ to$ notice$ and$ make$
discoveries) about) how) features) of) the) target) language) are) used) in)
communication) and) to) make) use) of) these) discoveries) to) improve) the) draft) of)
their# first# development# text# and# thus# gain# selfEesteem% and% a% higher% mark.% This%
makes& it& likely& that& they& will& notice& these& features& in& subsequent& input& and&
eventually)acquire)them.#

"
An#Example#of#the#TDL#Approach#to#
Writing'Materials"
The$following$unit$was$developed'for'use'with'first'year'undergraduate'students'
at#a#university#in#Oman.#This#is#the#teacher’s#copy.#

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1. (Teacher:""

“Write"down"the"two"words"I"say:"Not"now"…"
Now"write"down"a"third"word"to"make"a"complete"sentence."
Show"your"sentences"to"each"other."
Shout"out"your"sentences"and"I’ll"put"them"on"the"whiteboard.”)"

2. Can"you"remember"anyone"saying"“Not"now"…”"to"you."Tell"a"partner"about"
it."

3. You"are"going"to"listen"to"your"teacher"reading"a"short"story"called"Not"now,"
Bernard."As"you"listen"try"to"see"the"story"as"a"movie"in"your"mind."""""

(Teacher" reads" the" story" Not" now," Bernard" (McKee," D.," 1980)" in" a"
dramatic" way." This" is" a" story" in" which" a" young" boy" comes" home" and" says"
“Hello”"to"his"father"and"he"responds,"“Not"now,"Bernard”."He"says,"“Hello”"
to" his" mother" and" she" responds" in" the" same" way." Bernard" tells" his" mother"
that"“There’s"a"monster"in"the"garden"…”""but"his"mother"just"says,"“Not"now"
Bernard”."He"goes"into"the"garden"and"is"eaten"by"the"monster."The"monster"
goes"inside,"roars"at"the"mother,"bites"the"father,"eats"Bernard’s"dinner"and"
breaks"one"of"his"toys."All"the"mother"and"father"say"is,"“Not"now,"Bernard”."
Eventually"the"monster"is"sent"to"bed"and"exclaims,"“But"I’m"a"monster.”"Of"
course,"the"mother"replies,"“Not"now,"Bernard.”)"

4. In"groups"discuss"your"answers"to"the"question:"

Who"was"responsible"for"Bernard’s"death?"

5. Read"the"poem"below"and"as"you"read"it,"ask"yourself:"

Is"my"answer"to"4"correct?"

(The"text"of"Not"Now,"Bernard"is"inserted.)"

6. In"your"group"discuss"your"answers"to"4"again.""

7. In" your" group" write" a" story" which" is" set" in" Oman" and" is" called" Not" now,"
Fatimah."

8. Read"Not"now,"Bernard"again"and"then"work"out"in"your"group"the"meaning"
of"“Not"now,"Bernard”"when"it"is"used"by"the"mother"and"the"father."

Is"“Not"now"…”"ever"used"with"other"meanings?"For"homework"try"to"find"
other"examples"of"the"use"of"“Not"now"…”"and"bring"them"to"the"next"class."

9. In"your"group"look"at"the"examples"of"“Not"now"…”"which"you"have"found"and"
decide"what"each"of"them"is"used"to"mean."

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10. Use"your"discoveries"about"the"different"meanings"of"“Not"now…”"to"help"you"
to"revise"your"story"of"Not"now"Fatimah."

Also"check"that"you"are"using"direct"speech"in"the"same"way"that"it"is"used"
in"Not"now,"Bernard"(e.g."“Not"now,"Bernard,”"said"his"mother)."""

A"TextGDriven'TaskGBased&Approach"
This% approach% combines% TDL% and% TBLT% with% a% potentially% engaging% text% driving%
the$activities$and$a$task$being$used$for$the$first$and$second$development$activities.$
Here$is$an$example$of$a$unit$developed$using$this$approach:#

Time!to!Listen!
1. Please"get"into"groups"of"three."
2. One"of"you"is"a"doctor,"one"is"a"patient"and"one"is"an"observer."
3. If" you" are" the" patient," you" are" going" to" tell" the" doctor" what" is" wrong" with"
you.""
4. If"you"are"the"observer,"do"the"task"you"are"given."
(The" teacher" gives" the" observers" the" instruction," ‘Time" how" long" it" takes"
before"the"doctor"interrupts"the"patient.’)"
5. Listen"to"what"happened"when"a"doctor"decided"not"to"interrupt"a"patient.""
(The"teacher:"
• summarises"what"is"reported"in"A"time"to"listen"(Barr,"2004);"
• focuses" on" the" problems" caused" by" doctors" prematurely" interrupting"
patients" and" especially" on" the" case" of" the" old" lady" whose" cancer" was"
only"revealed"because"the"doctor"let"her"talk"for"22"minutes;"
• concludes"by"reading"aloud"a"quote"from"the"old"lady,"‘Oh,"don’t"worry"
about"all"that."I’ve"had"a"good"life."But"I"just"wanted"you"to"know"–"this"is"
the"best"doctor"visit"I’ve"ever"had."You’re"the"only"one"who"ever"listened"
to"me.’)."
6. Read" the" text" ‘Time" to" Listen’" and" as" you" read" it," try" to" think" of" a" way" of"
allowing"patients"enough"time"to"talk"about"their"problem"without"creating"
long"queues"of"patients"waiting"to"see"the"doctor."

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7. Write" a" letter" to" your" hospital" authority" telling" them" about" your" idea." You"
can"do"this"individually,"in"pairs"or"in"a"small"group."
8. Show" your" letter" to" another" individual," pair" or" group" and" ask" them" for"
suggestions"for"improvement."
9. Compare"your"letter"with"the"one"your"teacher"gives"you."
10. Revise"your"letter"by"making"use"of"the"suggestions"from"8"and"what"you’ve"
learned"from"the"letter"you"looked"at"in"9."

Tasks%"
1. One$ of$ the$ objections$ to$ the$ textEdriven' approach' is' that' making' a' potentially'
engaging& text& the& starting& point& of& a& unit& means& that& it& cannot& follow& the&
syllabus.( This( is( not( true,( as( we( demonstrated( on( a( course' book! development*
project(in(Namibia(in(1994(and(as(the(SCRELE(team(are(currently(demonstrating(
in#Shanghai.#In#Namibia#the#writers#of#the#course'book!(thirty'teachers'from'all'
over% Namibia)% were% told% to% forget% the% syllabus% and% to% select% a% potentially%
engaging$written,$spoken$or$audioEvisual'text'(from%a%library%we%had%built%up)!to#
drive& the& unit& they& were& writing.& And& yet& when& the& course' book! was$ published$
there%was%a%match%between%the%course'book!and$the$syllabus.$How$do$you$think$
we#managed#that?#

2. Can$you$think&of&any&other&objections&to&the&textEdriven'approach?'If'so,'can'you'
think&of&any&ways&of&overcoming&the&objections?#

3. Look$for$a$potentially$engaging$text$which$is$suitable$in$level,$topic$and$intention$
for$one$of$your$classes.$#

Devise&a&unit&of&materials$for$your$class$which$is$driven$by$your$selected$text$and$
which% follows% the% ten% stages% of% the% framework% outlined% above% in% the% section%
Description+of+a+TDL+Approach.#

Trial&your&unit&with&your&class.#

4. Build& up& a& library& of& potentially& engaging& texts& which& you$ can$ use$ when$
developing*materials*in*the*future.#

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Further'Reading)

Tomlinson,)B.)(2013).))Developing)principled)frameworks)for)materials)development.)
In#B.#Tomlinson#(Ed.),#Developing*materials*for*language*teaching!(2nd!ed.,%pp.%95E
118).%London:%Continuum.#

References)

Barr,%D.%A.%(2004).%A%time%to%listen.%Annals&of&Internal&Medicine,"140(2),144.#

McKee,&D.&(1980).&Not$now,$Bernard."London:"Andersen"Press.#

# #

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CONCLUSION
!

I
!hope! you$ have$ enjoyed$ this$ book$ and$ have$ found$ it$ useful.$ I$ also$ hope$ that$
you$ continue$ not$ only$ to$ have$ an$ interest$ in$ materials$ development$ but$ to$
make% use% of% the% awareness% and% skills% you% have% gained% in% order% to% help% your%
students' to' develop' communicative' competence' in' their' target' language.' To'
help% them% to% achieve% this% you% really% do% need% to% select% materials% that% are% likely% to%
connect&with&and&engage&them,&you&really&do&need&to&adapt&the&materials&you&use&to&
make%them%more%relevant%and%suitable%for%your%learners$and$you$really$do$need$to$
supplement)the)course)books)you)use)with)materials)developed)to)meet)the)specific)
needs%and%wants%of%your%learners.%#

By# evaluating,# adapting# and# developing# materials,# you# are# not# only# likely# to#
increase( the( current( motivation( and$ the$ eventual$ achievements$ of$ your$ learners,$
you$ are$ also$ contributing$ to$ your$ own$ personal$ and$ professional$ development.$ Of$
course,(it(helps(if(you(can(do(this(with(colleagues(as(you(can(then(motivate,(inspire(
and$ monitor$ each$ other.$ I$ would$ certainly$ recommend( forming( a( materials(
development*club*with*other*interested*teachers*in*your*area*and*then*meeting*on*
a" regular" basis" in" each" other’s" houses" for" coffee" or" tea" and" the" evaluation,"
adaptation(and(development(of(materials(for(your(students.(Who(knows?"One"day"
you$ might$ write$ a$ bestEselling' course' books.' This' is' what' happened' to' a' group' of'
teachers( on( the( PKG( Programme( in( Indonesia( who( met( regularly( to( develop(
materials)for)their)students)and)ended)up)writing)a)very)successful)course)book)for)
the$whole!of#Indonesia.#

To# keep# in# touch# with# what# is# happening# in# materials# development# and# to#
continue( your( own( professional( development,( you( could( also( join! MATSDA! (the%
Materials) Development) Association).) This) is# an# international# association# based# in#
the$ UK$ which" I" founded" in" 1993." MATSDA" has" been" publishing" a" journal" Folio! for$
over%twenty%years%which%is%dedicated%to%connecting%practice%to%theory%and%theory%to%
practice(and(which(welcomes(contributions(from(teachers,(writers(and(researchers(

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relating)to)materials)for#the#learning#of#any#language.#MATSDA#also#holds#materials#
development* conferences* throughout* the* world.* In* 2016* our* conference* was* in*
Liverpool)in)the)UK,)in)2017)it)was)in)Tilburg)in)the)Netherlands,)and)in)2018)it)will)
be# in# Shanghai# in# China.# For# information( about( MATSDA( go( to(
htpp://www.matsda.org/.#

Other& associations& which& publish& journals& or& newsletters& and& which& hold&
materials)development)conferences)include)the)following)organisations.#

IATEFL' (the' International' Association' of' Teachers' of' English' as' a' Foreign'
Language)( is( an( international( association( based( in( the( UK( which( has( a( Special(
Interest' Group' known' as' MaWSIG' (Materials' Writers' Special' Interest' Group).! This%
group& has& a& blog& featuring# guest# posts# by# members# on# practical# issues# related# to#
materials)development)and,)having)originally)published) Building(Materials,"a"paper"
newsletter,) in) April) 2014,) now) publishes) a) web) newsletter)
http://mawsig.iatefl.org/blog/newsletter/.! For$ information! about& MaWSIG& go& to&
http://mawsig.iatefl.org/.!#

JALT%(the%Japan%Association%of%Language%Teachers)!has$a$materials$writers’$special$
interest'group'MWSIG!which%has%a%blog%and%which%has%been%publishing%a%newsletter%
Between& the& Keys! for$ many$ years.$ For$ information$ about$ MWSIG$ go$ to$
http://materialswriters.org/.#

TESOL& (Teachers( of( English( to( Speakers( of( Other( Languages)! is# an# international#
association(based(in(the(USA(with(a(materials(writers(interest(section( (MWIS)!which%
publishes)a)newsletter)providing)practical)tips)on)materials)writing.)For)information)
about& MWIS& go& to& http://www.tesol.org/connect/interestNsections/materialsN
writers/.#

Enjoy&materials&developing&and&send&articles&about&it&for&publication&in&the&MATSDA&
journal(Folio.#

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AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY
#

Brian&Tomlinson!has$worked$as$a$teacher,$teacher$trainer,$curriculum$developer,$
film% extra,% football% coach% and% university% academic% in% Indonesia,% Italy,% Japan,%
Malaysia,( Nigeria,( Oman,( Singapore,( UK,( Vanuatu( and( Zambia,( as( well( as( giving(
presentations* in* over* seventy* countries.' He' is' Founder' and' President' of' MATSDA'
(the% international% Materials% Development% Association),% an% Honorary% Visiting%
Professor' at' the' University' of' Liverpool,' a' Chair' Professor' at' the' Shanghai'
International* Studies* University* and* a* TESOL* Professor* at* Anaheim' University.' He'
has$ over$ one$ hundred$ publications$ on$ materials$ development,$ language$ through$
literature,) the) teaching) of) reading,) language) awareness) and) teacher) development,)
including( Discover) English) (with& Rod& Bolitho),! Openings,) Materials) Development# in#
Language' Teaching,' Developing' Materials' for' Language' Teaching,' Research( for(
Materials) Development) in) Language) Learning) (with& Hitomi& Masuhara),& Applied'
Linguistics)and)Materials)Development) and!SLA$Theory$and$Materials$Development$
for$ Language$ Learning." He" has" just" coEauthored) with) Hitomi) Masuhara) The$
Complete(Guide(to(the(Theory(and(Practice(of(Materials(Development(for(Language(
Learning," which" was" published" by" Wiley" in" June" 2017" and" he" is" currently" working"
with% Hitomi% Masuhara% on% SLA$ Applied:$ The$ Application( of( Second( Language(
Acquisition*Research!(to$be$published$by$Cambridge$University$Press$in$2019).#

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