PROPHETIC RESPONSE TO THE STRUGGLES OF THE PEOPLE OF GOD

Unit I: Prophets and Prophesy

PROPHETS

1. The most common prophetic title used in the Hebrew Bible is ‘nabi’ a word usually
translated in the LXX by the Greek word ‘Prophetes’ and in the English ‘prophet’. The Hebrew
word ‘nabi’ is a common noun appearing more than 300 times in the OT.

2. Another important term employed in the Hebrew Bible to refer to the prophetic figure is
‘ro eh’ (seer'). Another term used to refer to the prophetic figure is `hozeh. This term is sometimes
translated as ‘seer’ or ‘visionary’ or prophet.

3. The title ‘Is-ha-elohim’ (Man of God) also appears in the Hebrew Bible for the designation
of the prophets and great leaders of the nation. Holstein maintains that ‘Is-h-a-elohim’ is not a
prophetic title since David, non prophets are also labeled by using this title, rather this title is used
to describe men of exceptional words, men of honorific quality.

PROPHECY: The word prophecy has come to mean ‘The power of telling what will happen in
the future’. The general notion is that the biblical prophet has direct access to God, allowing them
to see what God would do in the future. Paul L. Redditt says, “Predictions of the future often
appear in the prophetic books, anticipating God’s coming punishment and/or salvation; they do
not exhaust the preaching of the prophets of the Old Testament.” Much of the recorded
proclamations dealt with explanation of past and present events and exhortations for the people to
live righteously, priests to teach properly, and rulers and judges to administer justly.

Unit II: Growth and Development of the Study of Hebrew prophets and prophesy

Prophets and prophecy were part of the life of the Israelite community. Prophets were the servants
of God who communicated God’s message to the people of God. They played a major role in the
socio-cultural-religious life of the people of God. God encouraged, convicted, warned,
appreciated, blessed and destroyed through prophets and prophecy. In this paper an attempt has
been made to discuss in brief about the prophets, their psychology, their origin and development,
their forms and formation into books.

Ecstasy

The word ecstasy is usually understood to refer to a type of trance behaviour marked by
psychological and physiological symptoms such as reduction of sensitivity outside stimuli,
hallucinations or visions, a garbled perception of surrounding events, and an apparent loss of
conscious control over speech and actions. The intensity of ecstasy and its specific characteristics
vary depending on the individual being possessed and the group in which possession occurs.

Ecstatic Prophets

1
It is likely that some of Israel’s prophets were ecstatic. Sometimes ecstatic behavior in Israel was
incapacitating or dangerous (1. Sam 19:18-24, 1 kings 18:26-29), but at least in the case of those
prophets who wrote, ecstasy appears to have involved controlled actions and intelligible speech
(Jer. 4:19, 23:9; Ez. 1:1-3:15). The narratives about ecstatic prophets show that the ecstatics were
mostly seized by the ruah spirit of God. In pre-exilic time ruah is a power which seizes on the self,
transporting it into ecstasy, enthusiasm, frenzy, making a person capable of psychological and
physical acts which would seem inconceivable in a normal state. If a nabi is seized by the ruah,
he may be swept away by it, so that no one can follow him (I kgs 18:12). But it can also lay hold
on a whole collection of prophets. Then they shout and dance until they tear the clothes from their
bodies and lie naked all night under the stars (I Sam. 19:23ff). At the same time, the ruah does not
act in blind rage. The wind sings its song, and the person who is seized by the ruah breaks into
words, into singing, shouting yet poetical words. Out of ecstasy there finally emerges the prophecy,
which is directed to the people, bringing them a dabar, a saying of Yahweh. This phenomenon of
prophecy has different degrees.

The attitude of the people towards the phenomenon of ecstatic prophecy is a mixed one. On the
one hand, as the phenomenon of ecstatic prophesy seemed to be a strange thing in Israel, it was
held in contempt (1 Sam 10:9-12, 19:20-24). On the other hand, the Israelites revered them.

Prophets and Cult

The very foundation of Israel’s life was its covenant relationship to Yahweh which was affirmed
through certain cultic rites. As such Israel’s religion was cultic in expression from the earliest
period. The cult was from the beginning the tangible expression of the faith of Israel. Israel’s
understanding of her own divine creation in the exodus event was very early culticizied in the
Passover.

Prophets were cultically institutionalized and regularly discharged certain cultic professional
functions. The prophets were familiar with the ritual and meaning of the cultus; that they
sometimes spoke in language borrowed from it; that they even quoted directly from its rituals,
prayers, and liturgies; and that the role and meaning of the cultus was itself in turn influenced by
prophetic interpretation. But it does not at all necessarily follow that the great OT prophet was a
“cult” or “guild” prophet, a member of an “association” of cult prophets official and professionally
related to the cultic institution in manner and degree comparable to the priest. Form critical studies
have further confirmed the prophets’ cultic orientation; several shorter prophetic writings
(Habakkuk, Nahum and Joel) have been interpreted as virtually or totally or in significant part
produced out of cultic influence, in the liturgical style of the cultic ritual.

But the cult which played a very important role in the shaping of the religious life of the people,
failed to achieve its end of making known to the people the true knowledge of Yahweh. The cult
was at the whim of the king and it could not express the demands of the covenant law. The Israelites
when they settled in Canaan adopted and borrowed much from Canaanite practices of cult and the
types of sacrifice. The cult which had become concretized with the rites and practices of Canaanite
cult failed to uphold the demands of the covenant law.

2
When the prophets saw the failure of the cult in carrying out the demands of the covenant law, the
prophets of 8th and 7th centuries BCE intervened to reawaken the knowledge of the covenant really
meant and in doing so they attacked and criticized the contemporary worship of the sanctuaries.

Amos, the ‘prophet of social justice’ saw the cult was a poor substitute of practicing justice and
righteousness and that Yahweh was not pleased with all external forms of religious activities done
without sincerity.

Hosea strongly attacked the northern religious practices. The Canaanite worship with its emphasis
upon fertility and power of correctly performed rituals to achieve divine blessings were tended to
be emphasized and enforced and thus rebelling against Yahweh by making and using Idols (Hos
4:17; 13:2, 14:8) which was strictly forbidden in the covenant forms.

The prophets rejected sacrificial worship of the shrines on account of the cult’s failure to accord
with the nature and demands of the covenant. These expressions of prophetic impatience with or
even intolerance of the cultus is not of cultic practice per se, but of the cultus in its present guise-
the even enthusiastic performance and perpetuation of formalized, regularized, prescribed outward
acts of piety unsupported by the qualities of justice and righteousness revealed as at once the
character and demand of very Yahweh upon whom the whole cultus centres.

Origin and Development of Prophecy in Ancient Israel

1.1. For many years historians assumed that prophecy was a unique Israelites religious
phenomenon that had no parallels elsewhere in the AWA. However, during the past century,
several archaeological discoveries show this assumption to be false.
1.2. Several texts found in and around the land of Israel describe the activities and messages of
various types of oracle givers of the OT prophets. All these extra-biblical evidence indicates
that prophetic activity existed elsewhere in the AWA before and during the biblical period.
1.3. In addition, anthropological studies of prophetic phenomena show that prophecy can arise
spontaneously in any society where the necessary social and religious conditions are present.

Origin of Israelite Prophecy: Prophesy was deeply rooted in the culture of Ancient West Asia
and Israel’s history. Biblical writers record that in Israel the prophetic phenomenon was known
during the time of Moses, Joshua and Judges, although the need of prophets was minimal. It is
difficult to give a clear cut and definitive conclusion and scholars do not have consensus
concerning when did prophesy exactly begin in Israel.
- With regards to the question whether Israel borrowed prophecy from her neighbours after the
settlement in Canaan or they had known already before they had settled in the Promised Land?
There are three (3) important views-

1. The first view is of G von Rad, for him, ‘Israel first came into contact with prophecy among
Canaanite people after their settlement on Canaanite soil and took it over from them.
2. Contrary to this view, W. Eichrodt holds the view that prophecy was not borrowed from
anyone but originated naturally in Israel as it had done among other people.
3. The third view was made by J. Linblom, who agrees that prophecy arose in Israel
spontaneously, just as it did in many other cultures where ecstatic behaviour followed from a close
relationship between certain individual and their God. He points out that such a phenomenon as

3
ecstasy can hardly be borrowed since it is the real experience, not just an imitation of someone
else’s behavior.
- At least it is clear that in the period before monarchy prophets were well established at some of
Israel’s sanctuaries. Samuel played important religious and governmental roles at several
Israelite centres and was involved in the creation of the new central government. Therefore,
prophets were a regular part of Israel’s public life both in Judah and in Israel.

Development of Israelite Prophecy: Prophets were a common figure during the period of
monarchy with the presence of prominent court prophets such as Nathan. The prophets played an
important role in the socio-political life of the nation. They raised their voices on behalf of God
against the social injustices, which were very much rampant during the period. By the 8th century
BCE, latifundialization had reached its zenith. This caused a wide gap to emerge between the rich
and the poor. As the exploitation and oppression of the landless poor reached its climax, the
prophets raised their voices against the existing social system.

There is also a misconception that prophecy ceased to exist after the exile. But the presence of the
post-exilic prophets such as Trito- Isaiah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and others proves without
any doubt that prophecy very much existed after the exilic period also. The prophets continued to
play an important role in the life of the society as well as in the political sphere.

Forms of prophetic speech

As part of their characteristic behavior, some prophets may have used stereotypical speech
patterns and shaped their oracles in certain traditional ways. In addition to using speech patterns
that seem to be primarily prophetic, Israel’s prophets employed specialized language drawn from
various spheres of Israelite life. For example, from the courts they took legal language and formed
trial speeches that mirrored judicial proceedings (is. 1; Mi. 6; Jer.2; Is. 41:1-5, 21-29). From temple
they took priestly instruction and liturgical fragments and incorporated them into prophetic oracles.
They spoke in poetry, and some of the poetry that the prophets created is virtually unmatched in
world literature. On the other hand, some of the sayings are cryptic, or crabbed, or too tied to a
particular setting for them to offer a clear meaning today. There are abundant examples of other
borrowings from varied kinds of activities with specific speech patterns. Songs and parables were
also imitated by various prophets. Even the funeral service seems to have contributed a frequent
form used by the prophets, the “Woe” oracle. They also used the “reproach and threat” form,
“because you have done this evil, therefore, thus says the Lord, disaster will come upon you.

Formation of Prophetic books

A marked feature of the postexilic age is the growth of official or semiofficial versions of older
writings, which gradually moved in the direction of becoming “Holy Scripture.” At first perhaps
these were revered by particular groups, but in due course they became part of the shared heritage
of all Jews. It is usually thought that exile itself provided the initial impetus toward the collection
and codification of prophetic writings. The process by which the prophetic books were compiled
was almost infinitely complex, but it involved at least three separate elements. First, the authentic
utterances of the prophets were arranged in order, sometimes chronologically, sometimes
thematically. Secondly, narratives about the prophet, which might or might not be of any historical

4
value, were added. And thirdly, further oracles which had no original connection with the prophet
in question were appended or worked into the earlier collection, until the ordinary reader could no
longer discern the difference.

Unit III: Prophet Person and Practice

Prophetic Imagination as counter imagination – inducing alternative visions, imaginations,

values contrary to the dominant value system.

In the ancient world of the Old Testament, prophetic imagination countered religious absolutism,
political injustices, economic inequalities imposed by the dominant culture. It conjured a better
world that extended mercy and justice to the weak and marginalized.

Prophetic Imagination

1. Walter Brueggemann in his book The Prophetic Imagination says “The tasks of prophetic
ministry to nurture, nourish, and evoke a consciousness and perception alternative to the
consciousness and perception of the dominant culture around us”.
2. He tries to argue here that the prophets are poets and they imagine the world differently. He
also says in an interview on Prophetic imagination and the future of Old Testament Theology that
when we look at contemporary contexts of oppression, poverty and similar social pathologist, these
prophetic texts continue to be read always in new contemporary circumstances
3. Moses directed his efforts towards a whole new social reality which rejected the practices of
oppression and exploitation characterized by Pharoah. Moses led a movement not simply aimed at
the release of the captive but of a whole new social order and his tactics should be viewed as
normative for the prophet.
4. From this we can understand that the prophecies are imagining a world where, with the help
of God, there will be a society without any social pathology. This is what Walter Bruggemann
termed as Prophetic Imagination
Prophetic bands in Ancient Israel

1. Prophetic Band or prophetic guilds refers to a prophetic group or class and does not imply a
family relationship. The guilds were based on the master-disciple relationship and were intended
to pass on a tradition of prophecy.

2. There is no definite evidence that prophets of this kind were in any way involved in the moral
and religious ferment of the times. They may have been foretellers of the future.

3. The members of these groups were known as ‘sons of prophets’ and they sometimes acted
singly. The sons of the prophets functioned either as witnesses or as agents of Elisha’s ministry.

Prophetic Bands in Ancient Israel: Types of Prophetic guilds or bands of prophets

1. There were two types of prophetic guilds in ancient Israel, the cult prophets and the court
prophets. It is a fact that both the seer and the ecstatic were closely associated with the worship of
God. The former religious worship in Israel was much older institution than the monarchy thus we
may conclude that of the two major types of prophetic guilds that of the cult prophet was older.

5
Samuel and his prophetic guild were closely attached to the sanctuary at Shiloh until its decline or
destruction at the hands of the Philistines. Then Samuel seems to have transferred his activities to
the shrines at Mizpeh and Naioth, while other members of the guild moved to Nob (I Sam. 19, 21,
22). Elijah was associated with the shrine on Mount Carmel (where there was, of course, a
competing guild of Canaanite cult prophets (I Kings 18) an association Elisha continued after his
master (II Kgs 4:25).

2. The other type of prophetic guild within ancient Israel was that of the court prophets. The
evidence which would enable us to understand the origins of the guilds of court prophets is missing
from the Old Testament, but it seems likely that this group grew out of, and in some respects was
an extension of the prophetic guilds associated with the cult. With the rise of the monarchy under
David, the cult received a certain amount of royal protection and patronage. David moved the Ark
of the Covenant to Jerusalem and gave it a place of honour there, and in the next generation
Solomon built a Temple for the worship of God, a shrine which was, to a certain degree, considered
to be an extension of the royal palace and a special chapel of the king. It would not be surprising,
under those conditions, for certain of the cult prophets to be pressed into special service by the
king.

3. In summary, it may be said that the court prophets were probably derivative from the cult
prophets and at that times the two groups may have been virtually identical. Various monarchs
may often have manipulated their prophets so as to have them give a divine sanction to what the
king planned to do. But figures such as, Nathan, Gad and Maicah are evidence that on some
occasions, at least, even the court prophet courageously spoke the truth of God, although the king
and his courtiers did not want to hear it.

Unit IV: Role and Mission of the prophets during the 10th and 9th Centuries in Ancient
Israel

A. The Deuteronomistic History and Deuteronomistic Understanding of the Prophetic Role

– Samuel, Nathan, Gad and Ahijah:

1. Deuteronomistic History (DH) could be best understood as the Former Prophets. The Second
Division of the Hebrew Bible is called the Nevi’im and it is further subdivided into Former &
Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets covers the period from the conquest to the exiles including
the era of Judges, United & Divided Monarchies.
2. The section of this Former Prophets in the Jewish canon is called history by most Christians.
The word ‘history’, however, can be misleading since these books contain more than just history.
3. These books assume that obedience to the LORD brings blessing, while disobedience brings
disaster. This is a perspective shared with the book of Deuteronomy. Noting this and other shared
elements, many scholars refer to the Former Prophets and Deuteronomy jointly as the
Deuteronomistic History.
4. O’Brien notes that many of the stories in the Deuteronomistic History depicted the encounter
between prophets and kings and became integral to the story of the monarchy. Deuteronom(ist)ic
History represents an exilic understanding of prophecy.
Deuteronomistic History: The Deuteronomistic History (DH) is a modern theoretical construct
holding that behind the present forms of the books of Deuteronomy and Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
and Kings (the Former Prophets in the Hebrew canon) there was a single literary work.

6
1. In the late 19th century, some scholars conceived of the DH as a loosely edited collection of
works, written in reference to some of the standards espoused in the book of Deuteronomy.

2. The Deuteronomistic History was noted first by Martin Noth. For him Deuteronomy (except
chapters 32-34) to 2 Kings - Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings are likely to spring
from the same source.

3. Noth’s theory was so persuasive that it was widely accepted within critical scholarship until
recently. While the theory still enjoys significant support in modified forms, many of its central
tenets have been called into question.

4. The Deuteronomistic History introduces David, Saul and Solomon but depicts the monarchy
as corrupt, blasphemous and always bringing misfortune to the people. Needless to say, biblical
scholars have had many views and formulated many theories about it, most, if not all of which
accept it at its own value.

5. Most of these scholars will accept that these books have one main theme that they will not
dispute - that they express the central view of Deuteronomy, that disobedience of the law will bring
punishment by God, and particularly the withdrawal of the gift of the land.

The Deuteronomistic Understanding of the Prophetic Role – Samuel, Nathan, Gad and
Ahijah: These prophets brought good news in some occasions while they also brought God’s
judgment or warning against kings when they had misruled against the will of God.

Samuel:
1. He is a leader who functions as priest, prophet (3:20), seer (9:11, 18-19), warrior, and judge
(7:6, 15). Even as a child he hears the voice of God (3:1-18).

2. His story provides the necessary transition between the period of the judges and the monarchy.
When the Israelites developed a monarchy prophet played a very important role for Yaweh and
the people of Israel (1 Samuel 8:1-15:34).

3. He condemned the wickedness of Eli (1 Sam. 3:13) and his sons (1 Sam. 2:22-25). He
prophesied the judgment of Yaweh upon Eli’s family and God will take vengeance due their
disobedience (1 Sam. 2:27-36).

4. He anointed to be Israel’s first and Saul is finally undone by his failure to heed God’s word
given through the prophet (1 Samuel 8:1-15:34). Prophet Samuel then anointed a new king, David.
It began the rise of David and the long conflict between Saul and David (1 Samuel 15:35-2 Samuel
5:10).

Nathan:
1. During the reign of David Prophet Nathan served an important prophetic ministry at the court
of king David Nathan tells David that his descendants will rule in an unending dynasty in Jerusalem
and that his son (Solomon) will build a temple for the LORD there.

7
2. Nathan also rebuked David for his guilty upon Uriah. Nathan revealed to him his adulterous act
and proclaiming that God will punish him because of his sin (2 Sam. 11). This illustrates the unique
ability of Israel’s prophets to confront the monarch with moral crimes. David’s punishment is
threefold: violence will be a constant family companion; his wives will have public intercourse
with another (2 Sam. 16:22); and the son of the illicit union must die (2 Sam. 12:18).

Gad:
1. Gad, a seer to David prior to his becoming king. He served as a prophet-seer of David (2 Sam.
24:11). Gad and Nathan were the two most important prophets during David’s rule.

2. 1 Samuel 22:5 is the first place that of mentioning Gad in the Bible. David could have stayed
in the caves near Adullam for many years. It was a safe place. However, God told him, by means
of the prophet Gad, to go further into Judah. So David found another safe place in the forest there.
It was probably not far from Adullam because Keilah (23:1) is in the same region as Adullam.

3. Gad continued to serve as a prophet during much of David’s rule. In 2 Samuel 24:11-14, Gad
declared David’s punishment after David counted Israel’s men. David’s action had been wrong,
against God.

4. In 2 Samuel 24:18, Gad directed David to the place where the temple (God’s house) would be.
We learn from 2 Chronicles 29:25 that, with David and Nathan, Gad arranged the music for the
temple.

Ahijah:
1. Ahijah, the wandering prophet who predicted that Israel would be divided because of Solomon's
idolatry. He was from Shiloh who tore his garment into pieces in order to demonstrate visually the
coming dissolution of the United Monarchy.

2. He foretold Jeroboam’s rise to power. The Prophet Ahijah also predicted the death of
Jeroboam’s son (1 Kings 14:2-8; 15:29).

Conclusion:
1. The Deuteronomist(s) presented prophets like Samuel, Nathan, Gad and Ahijah played a very
important role in the formation of Israel’s monarchy and took part for the success of the kingdom
of Judah.
2. When rulers or kings ruled over the land with unjust and when immorality is prevailed the
prophets strongly condemned their wickedness. Sometimes they also bring judgment of God which
brought doom and severe punishment upon them.

3. The Deuteronomist(s) look at the political situation and the socio-economic life of the people.
So the Deuteronomist(s) give importance to the prophetic played by those prophets i.e. mediating
role between Yaweh and the people of Israel.

8
4. The Deuteronomist(s) reflected the situation around them by looking at the Deuteronomic
history where obedience brings blessings and disobedience to God brings punishment. The
prophets became an important mediator between God and rulers or kings or the people.

5. They stand against injustices, oppression of the poor and strongly condemned the immoral
practices of rulers and kings. This is the central theme for the Deuteronomist(s) while formulating
the books called the ‘Former Prophets’.

Role, discourse and mission of Prophet Elijah and Elisha

1. During the time of Prophet Elijah and Elisha, the kings of the Israelite were forsaking the
worship of Yahweh. They were turning into the worship of Baal, and they were making a temple
for other gods and letting the people to worship other gods than Yahweh.
2. The socio-economic condition of the people during 10-9th century Israel was that there was a
large gap between the rich and the poor. In order to counter all these problems and issues, God
used Prophet Elijah and Elisha to bring peace, justice and to let the Israelite realize that Yahweh
is the true God.
Elijah and Elisha

1. Elijah is a Tishbite, who came from the region of Gilead in Transjordan. His name appears in
the Hebrew Old Testament as eliyyahu, and his name means ‘Yahweh is God.’ Elijah was the only
prophet to be taken to heaven without dying. The prophetic ministry of Elijah was conducted in
the Northern state of Israel. Elijah is described in the historical narratives of the Old Testament;
unlike many other prophets, no book has been named after him.
2. Elisha, son of Shaphat, was a legendary wonderworker of the 9th century BCE (I Kings 19:16-
21; II Kings 2:1-10). His name appears in the Hebrew Old Testament as Elisa, and his name means
‘God is salvation.’ Elisha succeeded Elijah, and their stories in the Bible were shaped together.
The Role played by Elijah and Elisha

1. According to Von Rad, the prophecy as seen in and around 9th century BCE which is called
Classical prophecy starts from Elijah and Elisha.
2. These two prophets can be referred to as a starting point for a particular type of prophets who
were acting on their own without taking any connection with prophetic schools or royal court
prophets.
3. The prophecies during this period concern mainly of the coming doom and when the foretold
doom occurred, this type of prophecy was changed to prophecy of salvation.
4. Elijah’s activities revolve around confrontation of the king, whereas Elisha’s sphere of activity
is mainly among the common people.
5. These two prophets arose during a time of great crisis in Israel, when the worship of Baal was
first introduced into the nation on the official level. That is, the king Ahab himself now, for the
first time sanctioned and sponsored pagan idol worship within Israel. (I king 18:18-19) Elijah and
Elisha were God’s representatives in a critical time of great opposition, just as Moses had been.

Discourse and Mission of Elijah

1. The first task of Elijah was to tackle the problem of Baal worship that King Ahab has
introduced into Israel. He challenged everything that the people believed about Baal. It was the

9
announcement of doom that no rain will come upon the land until God decrees it. Baal worship
attracted many other Israelites. They found it easier to worship an idol they could see than God
whom they could not. According to the Canaanite religion, Baal had authority over rain and
fertility. Through Prophet Elijah it was re-affirmed that the true God of Israel, by contrast, is a God
who lives and can either provide or deny the rain. The purpose of this was to bring the nation
to repentance of its idolatry.
2. Elijah’s greatest public miracle involved a contest with the 450 prophets of Baal and the 400
prophets of Asherah on Mount Carmel. As the worship of Baal was brought by Jezebel, it was a
great challenged for Elijah to turn the Israelite to Yahweh from Baal worship. Elijah invited these
false prophets and all Israel to a demonstration to show that Baal had no power at all against the
God of Israel. The outcome would demonstrate who served the true God (1 Kings 18:19-40). He
boldly stood alone against those prophets. Throughout the day, the false prophets called on their
god to send down fire and consume an animal sacrifice—but there was no divine answer. At the
end of the day, Elijah prayed and the fire of the LORD fell and consumed the burnt offering. In
the presence of this miracle, the people confessed that the LORD was God and said, “The LORD
indeed is God; the LORD indeed is God.” (1 Kings 18:39).
3. Prophet Elijah boldly stood before King Ahab in order to let him know his wrong doing. As
we see in I Kings 18:17ff., when Ahab addressed him as troubler of Israel, Elijah answered him,
“I have not troubled Israel; but you have…because you have forsaken the commandments of the
LORD and followed the Baals.” Elijah courageously stood up against King Ahaziah. He
denounced Ahaziah who used to served and worshiped Baal, and provoked the God of Israel.
Discourse and Mission of Elisha

1. The ministry of Elisha the prophet was different from that of Elijah in some regards. Elijah
was commissioned to deliver fearless messages of condemnation and judgment to the king and to
the people, warning them to turn from sin.

2. Elisha’s ministry was to build on the work that Elijah had begun by teaching the people God’s
ways. He took Elijah’s mantle invoked the name of the Lord, and struck the water of Jordan, which
there upon parted before him. The sons of prophets of Gilgal, Bethel, and Jericho recognized him
as their leader and the successor of Elijah.

3. Elisha’s ministry began by healing a spring of water near Jericho. This spring possessed
certain toxic qualities, and one complained to Elisha that it was unfit for drinking and the land was
unfruitful. Elisha asked to have some salt in a new bowl brought to him. Then he went to the spring
of water and threw salt in it and said, “Thus says the LORD, I have made this water wholesome;
from now on neither death nor miscarriage shall come from it.” So the water has been healed
according to the word that Elijah spoke.
4. Elisha also did miraculous rescue to the poor widow of prophetic guild. The man had died,
leaving his wife and two children liable for debts that he had incurred. According to the law, if a
man’s debt is unpaid at his death, the creditor may seize the debtor’s property and children. The
widow has nothing in her house except a jar of oil. So Elisha miraculously provides this widow
with abundant amount of oil, and instructing her to sell it to pay off her debts.
5. Elisha also healed Naaman, commander of the army of the king of Aram, from leprosy. In
spite of all his accomplishment and greatness, Naaman has a problem: He suffers from leprosy,
one that carries with it a social stigma and is associated with death. A young girl of the Arameans

10
captive, who served Naaman’s wife, brings hope for her Aramean captor. She suggests Naaman to
see Elisha for his healing. Elisha took the advantage to let Naaman of Gentile know that there is a
prophet in Israel. So Elisha sent a messenger to Naaman, saying, “Go, wash in the Jordan seven
times, and your flesh shall be restored and you shall be clean.” (II Kings 5:10) So he went down
to Jordan and did according to the word of the man of God, and he was clean. Now on Naaman
knew the true God, and promised to Elisha that he will no longer offer burnt offering or sacrifice
to any god except the LORD.

Conclusion
1. Prophet Elijah and Elisha stand in the midway between the professional prophets and
canonical prophets. Though they functioned as individuals, they were connected with shrines of
Yahweh and with the groups of the prophets.
2. They were strongly nationalist and always try to turn the Israelite to Yahweh. They had a great
zeal for Yahweh and their fearless denunciation of injustice and apostasy, their experience of close
personal relationship with Yahweh placed them as forerunners of canonical prophets. The task of
prophets was to correct the kings and deliver message against their wrong doings.
3. As God mission was to build up Israel as a role model for others where there is equality, justice
and peace among the people; not only that, the intention of God is to lead the king rule justly. In
order to achieve, God used prophets like Elijah and Elisha to be his mouthpiece. They have courage
and boldness to condemn even the king of their times to their wrong doing and forsaking the
worship of the LORD.
4. True prophets were commissioned or called by God to speak for Him, as we see God call
Elisha through the prophet Elijah. These two prophets appear at a time when the Israelite kings
were openly pursuing the worship of Baal. Elijah and Elisha in their own period of prophecy
fearlessly condemn the king for worshipping Baal and turning the Israelite to idol worship. One of
their main tasks is to turn the people to the worship of Yahweh from foreign religion.

Unit V: Identity Discourse and response of the Prophets during the 8th Century

Socio-Economic and Political Condition: During the 8th century B.C., Israel enjoyed material
prosperity and with this increase of wealth, an oppressive social pyramid had been constructed
which divided the society into two big classes- the rich people who lived in self indulgence and
luxury on the one hand and the poor cultivators of the soil on the other. These class inequities
produced violent consequences. The wealthy did not obtain their wealth by their own hard and
honest toil, but by means of injustice, oppressing the hard working poor cultivators. The rich were
insensitive to the suffering and distress of the vast majority of the people. In fact, they continued
to enrich themselves at the expense of the poor whenever the opportunity arose. The invasion of
the ‘rights’ of the weak by the strong was the most dreadful and deadly symptom of this time.

- Into a kingdom outwardly prosperous, morally and spiritually low, to a people thus wealthy and
proud, but degenerate and callous, came the prophets Amos, Hosea, Isaiah and Micah. The main
message of the prophets during this period can be summarized in these following points.

11
1. Israel will be punished for rejecting Yahweh. The fundamental message of these prophets
was that Israel had fallen away from Yahweh and he has rejected them and they would be punished.
Amos says in God’s name, “The end has come upon my people Israel; I will never again forgive
the” (Amos 8:2). Hosea shows rejection of the people by the symbolic name given to his child
‘Lo ammi’ (not my people) who would be destroyed (Hos. 3:12; 4:9)
2. Israel has certain obligations as Chosen People. Since Israel was chosen people of God,
Yahweh had certain claims on them. They were expected to live in accordance with their position
as Yahweh’s people. They were to be holy people fulfilling Yahweh’s holy will, expressed in
justice and righteousness. They were first to remain faithful to their God and secondly they should
obey Yahweh’s moral commands expressed in law and traditions. People had failed in these
obligations and the 8th century prophets were reminding them earnestly (Mic. 6:8). If the people
return to Yahweh and do his will, they will live and Yahweh will be gracious to them (Amos. 5:4;
6:14). Election meant that Yahweh had greater expectation from them (Amos 3:2). Yahweh
revealed to them his attributes, his holy nature, his justice, his righteousness etc. Even after
knowing Yahweh’s will, they have lived a life of unjust and immoral life, so they would be judged.
3. The prophets spoke against Religious hypocrisy. People’s attitude of leaving aside
Yahweh’s moral demand and giving importance to ritual religion has been bitterly criticized “I
hate, I despise your feasts” (Amos 5:21ff; Isa. 1, Hos. 6:6, Mic. 6:8).
4. The prophets reminded Israel about the divine action in the past History. The past history
was to the prophets the field of divine action. Amos, Hosea, Micah reminded people that Yahweh
brought Israel up from Egypt, guided them through the desert and led them to a blessed land.
Amos pointed out that like Israel, Yahweh has brought out other nations, Philistines from Caphtor,
and Syrians from Kir (Amos 9:7).
5. Remnant. The prophets emphasized that their response to Yahweh will guide their future
either for ‘good’ or ‘evil.’ So they exhorted people to repentance. “Seek Yahweh, seek the good
that you may live (Amos 5:4). Even though Yahweh’s punishment might come upon the people
still a remnant will survive (Amos 3:12; Isa. 6:13, 10:20ff).
Unit VI : Role and Response of the Prophets during the 7th and early part of the 6th century

The second crucial period of classical prophesy are the decades at the end of the 7 th and the
beginning of the 6th century BCE. It is the period during which the southern kingdom of Judah
came to an end with the destruction of Jerusalem. The Prophets of this period are Zephaniah,
Nahum, Habakkuk, Jeremiah and Ezekiel

Political background: Three political powers influenced Palestine and the entire West Asia
during 7th century BC.
Assyria continued to be the super power in the international scene. Esarhaddon was the king of
Assyria from 681 to 669 BC. Ashurbanipal was the next king and he was powerful king. After
him the kingdom got weakened and finally Assyria was overpowered by the armies of Babylon
and the capital city Nineveh was destroyed in 612 BC. The Assyrians were very cruel and their
city Nineveh was very wicked city.

Egypt remained a significant political power. But the army of Pharaoh Neco was defeated by
Babylon in 605 BC at the battle of Carchemish.

Babylon rose to supremacy in the West Asia under Nebopolasser in the last quarter of 7 th century
BC. After Nebopolasser his son Nebuchadnezzar became the king and he was the most powerful

12
king of the Babylonian empire. The Babylonian army came over Judah and conquered the city.
The king Nebuchadnezzar deported the people to Babylon in three times. The temple and the city
of Jerusalem were destroyed in 586 BC.

Religious Background: The people became very wicked. There was no any known prophet after
the prophet Isaiah and after the reign of god-fearing king Hezekiah. So there was a 60 years of
prophetic silence in Judah. There was idolatry everywhere. Many like Jeremiah and Zephanaiah
eagerly waited for the end of religious apostasy of Manasseh and his son Amon. Jeremiah
describes about the idolatry of people at this time (Jer. 10:2-11). One of Manasseh’s greatest sins
was to discrete the court of the Temple by building altars to Baal, and to set up a graven image in
the holy house where God had set His name (2Kings 21.).There were many false prophets, and the
people loved to hear them (Jer. 3:31). Jeremiah is the one who had to fight against the false
prophets more than any other prophets. But Josiah, son of Amon’s was a God fearing king. He
brought many religious reforms but it was too late. The fruits of Josiah’s reforms were very
temporary.

Zephaniah was a contemporary of king Josiah who was at work in Jerusalem at about 630 BCE.
Like Amos and Isaiah, Zephaniah expected the ‘day of Yahweh’ which means doom for his people.
He argued the people to seek justice and righteousness and he gave advice to be humble.

Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, belonged to a priestly family from Anathoth north of Jerusalem.
Jeremiah was not married because he received the commission from God not to marry and not to
have any Children in order to show that soon a catastrophe will come over parents and Children in
Judah. Jeremiah was a prophet of judgement, who especially in the last decade of his ministry
urged the people to accept Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon as a tool of Yahweh’s judgement.

Nahum and Habakkuk prophesized parallel to Jeremiah. Their prophesy was message of
salvation in so far as it is directed against Assyrians and Babylonians.

Unit VII: Prophetic Response during the exilic and post-exilic context

1. the last crucial period of the Old Testament Prophecy is the late time of the exile and the
early post-exilic time with the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. This again marks a turning
point in the history of Ancient Israel.
2. the Babylonian Empire soon came to its decline and its place was taken by the Persians.
King Cyrus II (550-530 BCE) conquered Babylon in 539 BCE in the following year he allowed
the exiled to return to Jerusalem and to rebuild the temple of Yahweh.
3. during this time the anonymous prophet whom scholars called Deutero-Isaiah, Haggai and
Zachariah were prophets of salvation during this time.
4. in the post exilic prophecy of salvation the characteristic form of prophecy is the
conditional promise of salvation. The coming of salvation is linked with the obedience of the
people.
5. One noteworthy thing concerning the message of the post-exilic prophets is that all of them
were in one way or the other concerned with the cult, the rebuilding and proper maintenance of
the Temple.
Ezekiel:

13
- Ezekiel son of Buzi, was a priest who together with the people of Jerusalem, who had been
deported in 597 BCE, he came to Babylonia. While in exile Ezekiel was called in 593 BCE at the
river Kebar near Tell Abib until 571 BCE. We can discern two periods in his ministry
1. in the pre-exilic period he was a prophet of judgement
2. after the fall of Jerusalem his prophesy was that of salvation. Characteristics for his
ministry are symbolic actions and his reports about visions and ecstatic experiences.

- Prophet Ezekiel was active during the exile. He was taken in the first deportation to Babylon in
597 BCE and he saw the vision in Babylon. His prophesy is directed to two aims: to show the
evils in the religious and social life of his time and proclaim that God’s will was that Jerusalem
should be besieged and destroyed.

- He announced that God will reject Jerusalem and destroy the temple and the people will suffer
untold misery. But he saw this suffering as the purpose of God in history and that to mourn for
the disaster is wrong.

- He portrayed the destruction of Jerusalem is due to the evils of the ways of the people and
announced Judah’s doom as the righteous judgement of Yahweh before Jerusalem’s fall. He
declared that Israel’s idolatry, rebelliousness and stubbornness invited divine wrath and even the
last remnant of Israel was to be destroyed.

- He proclaimed that the destruction of the temple did not mean that God had failed, but that he
was controlling the events of history. He would restore Israel, not because Israel deserved to be
restored but because he is good.

- Ezekiel often mentions the Sabbath of God, which they were to keep it holy, even though the
temple had been lost and full worship was still possible. The people must learn from the past and
must look to the future when there would arise a more glorious temple and a land purified and
obedient to God.

Deutero-Isaiah:
- the words of Deutero Isaiah are collected in the book of Isaiah chapters 40-55.
- the message of this prophet is that Yahweh will deliver his people from exile and that he will
bring them back to Jerusalem. Like once Israel was delivered from bondage in Egypt, Israel will
be delivered from the exile in Babylonian this is called a new exodus.
- the central motif in Second Isaiah’s message is that of the new Exodus. In his thinking the Exodus
was the decisive event of Israel’s past.
- the main concern of Deutero Isaiah’s Theology is that of the nation’s future and every moment
of her history depended directly on Israel’s loyalty or disloyalty to the law of Yahweh, and
prophesized restoration on the basis of the previous act of God.
- the Persian king Cyrus is mentioned and called ‘Yahweh’s shepherd” and again in Isaiah 45:1,
Cyrus is referred to as “Yahweh’s Anointed.”

Haggai: In Haggai’s time the generation that had known of a living temple in which God’s glory
manifested effectively possible had now effectively passed away, and they found it perfectly

14
possible to survive without a temple or a properly restored temple. Haggai strongly emphasized
the rebuilding of the Temple. Just as current troubles were due to its neglect, so future blessings
could be guaranteed if rebuilding was taken seriously. A restored community would need effective
leaders, both political and religious; this supplies the context for the concern shown by Haggai to
Zerubbabel and Joshua.

Zechariah: Zechariah’s prophecy complements that of Haggai. He too was concerned with the
completion of the Temple and with the renewal of spiritual life. Zechariah urged the post-exilic
community not to repeat the mistakes of their ancestors, but instead to devote themselves to God
and to trust in God.
Zechariah prophesied that if the people humbled themselves in the sight of the Lord, God
would make them great and powerful soon. The other nations would be humbled, whereas
Jerusalem would be showered with blessings.
The visions of Zechariah portrayed the harmonious relationship between the High Priest
and the Branch, the Davidic descendant. The Branch will foster the worship of God and bring in
an era of peace and prosperity. The messiah is portrayed as both human and at the same time
glorious and powerful, able to vindicate saints and judge the unbelieving nations.

Malachi:
- Malachi is overwhelmingly concerned with religious matters, with the priesthood and the Temple
and the proper way in which God should be worshipped. The prophet also emphasized faithfulness
to God concerning sacrifice, marriage, tithes etc.
- The prophet also sees this responsibility laid on the religious leaders’, on whom he is very much
severe than on the community at large. The priests in particular are harshly condemned.
- The reference to the Mosaic Law strongly emphasized that laws are still operative despite all the
changes that have taken place in the life of the community.
- In Malachi’s time, the Jews had been home from exile in Babylon about 100 years. They were
cured of their idolatry, but had returned to their former state of indifference and spiritual lethargy.
Many had begun to have doubts concerning the promises made by God to the Israelites. Malachi
assured them that God would surely come but they must repent and render faithful obedience to
God.

Unit VIII. Study of Major themes in the Prophetic Books:

1. The Prophetic Tradition: The Israelite religion was not an essentially monotheistic religion
from the beginning. Scholars assume that monotheism evolved over a period of time. And during
this process, there were different trends of understanding God/s. It is worth noting that most of the
traditions which authored, redacted, compiled and passed on the Scripture as we have it today
represent the elites (Deuteronomist, Priestly traditions, etc), which did not represent the view of
the populace and were colored by the interests of the elite. The prophetic tradition, on the other
hand, echoes the understanding of the common people and are claimed to be written by those who
were from rural places such as Anatoth, Tekoa, etc. This understanding was not welcomed by the
rulers and the elites to whom it was a threat.They critiqued the past and present and called out for
repentance for a better future. They claimed to be the heralds of YHWH, the only God of Israel.
Their words bore authority.

15
Understanding of God:

1. The prophets do not put forth a philosophical or theological argument for the existence of
God. Given the context of Ancient West Asia, they take the existence of God for granted.
2. Scholars believe that monotheism reached its peak in the time of the prophets. The prophets
stress the existence of one God and any allegiance of Israel to any other than YHWH is seen as an
offence. Isaiah 45:14-25 is one of the passages that explicitly states that there is only one God,
YHWH.
3. God is active and alive. It is God who creates, sustains, rescues people and delivers them
from bondage. A contrast is made between God and other idols which are lifeless and are unable
to save. Even though, people think they are at work, it is God who is actually at work. Deutero-
Isaiah alone mentions 17 times that God is the creator and rescues people, precisely because God
is the creator.
4. God calls the prophets and gives them words to speak, and authority over nations. The
prophets are instruments at work.
5. The names such as Holy One of Israel, Light of Israel, Rock of Israel, Mighty One of Israel,
etc. These names reflect that the prophets understood God as Holy, and one who is a refuge, strong
helper and supporter of the people of Israel.
6. The prophets clearly see God as a God of justice and righteousness. Accuses Israel of social
injustice (e.x., Amos and Micah). Doom is decreed if there is no repentance, when there is no
repentance, God accomplishes justice by letting God’s chosen people to go into exile. Yet God
promises hope and rescues them and brings them back with promises of restoration and blessing.
7. God is understood as sovereign who is in control of the international affairs and politics.
God is not only the God of Israel but the God over all the nations.
8. God is also seen as a compassionateGod and portrayed as a mother. Hos. 11:3-4, 13:8;
Isaiah 49:15, 63:13, are examples.
9. God is also seen as the covenant partner who is sad and angry because Israel has broken
the covenant (Is 1:2-20).
10. God is also a God of ethics, who applies different standards to different people. For foreign
nations are punished for extravagant violence and behavior that all humans would find heinous.
While for Israel, the principles of Justice and righteousness was applied. To do justice, to love
kindness and to walk humbly with God (Micah 6:8) is what is expected of Israel.
2. Word of God: Word of God is very central and equally known to all prophets as the “Word of
Yahweh”. The word of Yahweh is both necessary precondition of prophetic preaching, and also it
is the fundamental basis of prophet’s existence. Their relationship was so personal and direct, that
is to say, the word was so exclusive bound up with the specific time at which it came to them and
with the specific which it gave them that for the most part they found it simply impossible to think
of the Word of Yahweh in object terms and have something very specific properties of its own.

1. Word: The prophetic understanding of Word is used for the purposes for intellectual self-
expression. This function of the word conveys an intellectual idea. Here we can see the word of
God used in many times in the life of people of Israel as well as in the life of the prophets, and
especially God used prophets as the mediator to announce the message to Israel. So that is not
directly but through the prophets.
2. Word as order:Prophets bring the word of God to people those who consider as the people of
God.It is sometimes like an order to obey the commandments of God.

16
3. Word as promise:Many times God promises to the people of Israel to bring them out from
the bondage or from the sufferings whenever Israel calls the name of God, God hears the cry
of Israel.
4. Word for judgment: We can see in prophetic books that many times God judges the people
of Israel for their sin. And also God talks to many kings whenever they commit sins or
whenever they do something apart from God’s will.
5. Word for repentance: Many times God warned people for their wickedness, and for their
sinful nature to repent for their sin and to come to God, because if people will not repent then
God will destroy them for their sin
6. Word for testing: God tested Abraham, God tested Job, and God also tested people of Israel
many times to make them more perfect, or make them stronger in their faith of God.
7. Word of satisfaction: God is sometimes satisfied with offerings and good deeds of people of
Israel that whenever they work according to God’s will.
8. Word because of love :God’s order, promise, judge, test, and ask for repentance that all
because God loves the people of Israel. And all these words God used for Israel to bring them
closer to God through the prophets. So this shows prophets had very significant role to play in
the life of people of Israel. Prophets are the bridge in between people and God.
3. History:

1. The prophetic literature do not seek to furnish a history of the past in terms of
historiography, rather it is more an analysis of the past, especially certain aspects of it, to bring
forth a message in times of national crisis and to call for a re-orientation of moral, cultic and
political values.
2. Most of it condemns the government and the populace for war atrocities, moral
indifference, injustices, and cultic hypocrisies. The tone of the analysis of the past is judgmental.
They interpret the destruction of the states of Israel and Judah as God’ punishment.
3. Assyria and Babylonia who devastated the two states are considered to be instruments in
God’s hands.
4. This reflection of the past lays a foundation for a future-oriented religious understanding
of mercy and forgiveness. Hopes for a national life where Justice and Righteousness will be
practiced and that everyone would have Shalom.
5. Unlike the other histories which look back into the past and remember the heroes and great
characters to give meaning to certain things in the present and to boast about the past, the prophetic
tradition remembers the past to create a revolutionary future to realize the purpose for which Israel
had been chosen.
4. Election and Covenant:

5. Salvation and Liberation: In the Old Testament the term Salvation refers to various forms of
deliverance both temporal and spiritual. The crossing of the Red Sea (Ex: 14.13) and deliverance
from foreign oppression of Israel through Judges are called salvation.

• Deutero-Isaiah reveals that since YHWH is behind this world the creation also proclaimed
salvation (Is: 40.26ff). The prophet Ezekiel proclaims the word of YHWH (33:11) the word live
here implies more than more physical subsistence; it must certainly also mean a life in peace with
God. Whenever Israel suffered adversity the prophets explained that they rejected God’s salvation
because of their sin (Jer. 3:22-23).

17
• By the eighth century, a transformation had occurred leading to increased social
stratification—a few wealthy, many poverty-stricken. The prophets zeroed in on this stratification
as evidence of a fundamentally unjust social order. The presence of widespread injustice among
the Hebrews contradicted the dynamics of salvation that characterized Yahweh’s original
intervention.
• The entire context for theological reflection concerning salvation must be seen in terms of
the covenant relationships God has established with God’s people. Justice is not about God’s
internal processes and impersonal holiness. Rather, justice fosters health in the community of
people seeking to live together in a way that glorifies God.
• The prophets do not portray an angry, wrathful God. Rather, they show us a loving, healing
God who out of committed love feels anger at the people’s self-destructive behavior. God
expresses this anger, but it ultimately serves the love by fostering salvation.
• Salvation included many facets, some of which involved some material things: having a
place to live, a space of one’s own, and food to eat. Salvation also meant having sufficient control
over one’s destiny to act out one’s responsibility before God and other human beings.

Liberation: The primeval history in Genesis seems to present us with the picture of an ideal
humanity where human is in full harmony with God and nature. Human was an integrated and well
ordained personality created in the image and likeness of God. In the primeval story of the fall,
human is seen as searching liberation from God, but ended up in slavery. Through Abraham, God
called humanity to a new relationship but jealousy and famine led the children of Abraham to the
land of the pharaohs where they were made slaves. The weak minority of slaves were subjected to
severe oppression. In Exodus we seem to have a God who uses might to liberate his people.

➢ Liberation from Injustice: The prophets speak against the judges who were not liberated
enough to prevail over the bribes and the external influences. Amos, Isaiah, Micah and Jeremiah
were also spoke for the liberation of the people from injustice.
➢ Liberation from the Exploitation: The exploitation of the poor is closely related to the
courts of injustice. In Amos 2:6 and 8:6 mentioned about selling the poor for sandals which seem
to refer to the symbolic pledge of transferred property.The rich have grown richer and built up
huge palaces with the expense of the poor (Amos. 5:11). In this context Amos proclaimed that God
will destroy the winter houses.
➢ Liberation from Empty Worship: People may be tempted to compensate their
wickedness with a free flattery words to their God or to cover up their injustices to some act of
charity. The prophets are unanimous in proclaiming that, Israel in a deceptive illusion in continuing
a worship that has nothing to do with concrete practical life (Am. 4: 4-5, Is. 29:13, Mic. 6: 6ff etc).
So they prophesied; if worship is to be a liberating experience of joy and thanks giving and
dependence it has to be a genuine expression of one’s life. Prophets invited the people of God to
self-reflection and self-criticism. So that being aware of their recent condition, they may convert
and liberated to real knowledge of YHWH which alone can establish them in Shalom. For the
prophets, liberation is a process of conversion to the covenant which is an authentic knowledge of
God.

6. Justice and Righteousness: Justice and righteousness is one of the most important themes in
the Old Testament. Old Testament texts understand justice as being possible in this world because
they accept that the cosmos is justly ordered under the rule of a just God the 8th Century prophets

18
give important in their message ‘the theme of Justice’ because they wanted Israel to learn that
human beings are all equally important and that they must not despise or oppress their neighbours.
The prophet teaches that justice is the top priority for brining order to society.

a) The Hebrew word mispat is more often used in a legal term with the law; it can also simply
mean justice. Mispat in the Old Testament means Yahweh’s ordinances or regulation and
commandments.
b) Justice is also understood as verdict and casting a lot-punishment to the wicked and
deliverance of the deprived.
c) The Ancient West Asian Tradition also had a very high concern over the issue of
maintaining Justice in their Society.
Prophetic Response to Justice and Righteousness

a) There are countless works devoted to the Israelites prophets. In earlier times the prophets
were regarded as the emanation of a supernatural force, the expression of the divine will. They
were in later times regarded as the social reformers, the spokesman of the aspirations of the people.
b) The prophets spoke about the principle of morality, religious values, rebuked the rich and
the oppressors and revealed the will of God for the people. They preached the Law, future
judgement, interceded for the people and prosecutors against the covenant-breakers.
c) The most striking prophetic voice against the social injustice perpetuated by the rich and
the aristocrats of the then Society can be seen in Micah, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, Isaiah and Amos.
The Prophets of the OT were champions of Social Justice.
d) Social Justice is also the dominating themes in the messages of Prophets like Nathan and
Elijah as we find in Nathan’s dealing with David in relation with the killing of Uriah, and Elijah’s
dealing with King Ahab in relation with Nabaoth’s vineyard through their message is not as
apparent and prominent as that of Amos, Isaiah and Micah’s.
e) Amos is known as the prophet of Social Justice, he denounced any religiosity which is
devoid of justice in the day to day life of the people. He accused of people who with their utmost
best and regularity practised regular observance of all forms of worship such as religious festivals
and assemblies and making music and songs that do not contain reality.
f) Isaiah similarly appeals for justice and rejects worship that does not produce good
relationship and that is devoid of reality. Rituals and ethical standards should link as such sacrifices
without justice is worthless; justice for the prophets means protection of the underprivileged
members of the Society.
g) Micah stresses the vanity of worship sacrifices done without justice, love and
righteousness. He combines the three virtues when he appraises the requirement of God to human
beings.
h) Jeremiah condemns people, both common people; priest and prophets alike who are
craving for unjust gains as everyone deals falsely (6:13-14).
i) Justice and Righteousness often occurs together they are the components of ethical and
moral standards which should characterise the religiosity of the people. Regularity in various
religious practices and worship is in vain in God’s sight, the prophet’s denounced faith and its
practices which do not contain justice and righteousness.
7. Sin and Punishment: The God of the prophets is a severe God because He cannot tolerate sin;
but this God suffers with the people, feels for them and saves them in ways that defy logic, that
puzzle human reason, that inspire awe at the greatness of this merciful God. The prophets described
sin of human nature sometimes as ingratitude (Amos), or as inner aversion and hostility (Hosea),

19
as arrogance and self-exaltation (Isaiah), or as a deep-seated falsity (Jeremiah), etc. But they all
point in the same direction, namely toward an alienation from God which, because it is a voluntary
abandonment of YHWH, breaks the bond between God and Human, and can therefore be nothing
other than a disruption of the divine order.

a) Amos: The first and the fiercest of all prophets in diatribes and invectives felt compassion
for the people and pleaded with YHWH to forgive his people (Amos 7:2, 5). His categorical
announcements of doom were with a view to bring about conversion; hence his exhortations: “seek
me and live” (5:4); “Let justice roll down like waters and righteousness like an ever flowing
stream” (5:25).

b) Hosea: The prophet of God’s tender love has also severe words of threat: “I will fall upon
them like a bear robbed of her cubs, I will tear open their breast, and there I will devour them like
a lion as a wild beast would rend them. I will destroy you O Israel; who can help you?” (Hosea
13:8ff). The sinful people will be led out once again into the wilderness; there in their punishment,
they will be having the salutary chance to come to themselves and repent; then they will be
restored. Hosea felt compassion for the people, for they were enslaved by sin, unable to shatter the
fetters of evil, (Hosea 5:4). These people will be liberated from the clutches of sin by the God of
Exodus. Through punishment and judgment YHWH will heal Israel. It is YHWH who strikes, but
the same striking hand will bind them up, will revive them and raise them up (Hosea 6:1ff), and
will betroth them to him forever in righteousness an in justice, in steadfast love and in mercy
(2:19).

c) Isaiah: For him sin meant lack of faith. In his political interventions Isaiah viewed sin as
infidelity to the unique covenant with the God of Israel. Faith denotes, for Isaiah, complete and
unreserved trust in YHWH with faith Israel stands, without it she falls (7:9). This faith, to be
genuine, had to rest exclusively in YHWH. Any pact with any foreign power meant reliance on
human diplomacy and human wisdom. The God of Isaiah was a God who could not be content
with half-measures. He is a God whose thoughts are not human’s thoughts, whose ways, not
human’s way; and this transcendent God is not bound to render an account to any one, nor bound
to give reasons to Israel for his mysterious and perplexing and often puzzling and contradictory
ways with her. Israel betrayed her God compromised her faith in Him and trusted in political
alliances; punishment would be expected, but a remnant would be saved (7:3). For Isaiah too,
punishment did not signify extermination; even in his punishing, YHWH maintains His promises
to the dynasty of David!

d) Jeremiah: He was a great prophet and who really knew the heart of God. During the early
part of his ministry, he was sent to comfort the people of the northern kingdom. But people have
sinned and there was no question of scheming at sin. The stricken people receive compassion and
sympathy, but they are told of the gravity of their and the purpose of divine punishment: “I will
chasten you in just measure and I will by no means leave you unpunished” (30:11). The
significance and ingratitude of sin, GOD’s severity with sin. GOD’s saving designs behind His
punishment, His loving care for the stricken sinner, His enthusiasm in winning the sinner back and
His joy at the reconciliation of the sinner.

e) Ezekiel: Prophet Ezekiel was puzzled by the ways of God that defy all human logic. Far
away in exile God’s glory in its full majesty confronted Ezekiel. As a priest he will knew that

20
God’s dwelling place was in Jerusalem, the chosen place of his presence and that here in Babylon
YHWH had been “a sanctuary to them only in small measure” (11:16). Ezekiel comes to such a
proclamation with his own typical “word of demonstration” that occurs so often in his book: “and
they shall know that I am Yahweh” or “and they shall know that I Yahweh have spoken in my
jealousy” (5:13) or “that I am Yahweh who smites” (7:7). God judges sin so that Israel may know
that he is a God of moral holiness who punishes sin; but punishment is not the end of all. After
judgment has been dispensed to the full, Yahweh gets inflamed with a new zeal for His people.
The vision of the valley of the dry bones (37:1-14) indicates that after the terrible punishment upon
the people for their sins, Yahweh by virtue of His absolute creative authority creates new life out
of the fragments.
8. The Day of Yahweh: The idea of the Day of the Lord was a popular belief in pre-exilic Israelite
religion. The prophets adopt the popular imagery and apply it either to the judgement of Israel or
the judgement of all humankind. Day of the Lord/ Day of the YHWH is a central feature of
prophets’ message to their contemporaries. According to the prophetic book of Amos, the Day of
the Yahweh “evil day” (Amos 6:3; 8:9; Isa. 2:11ff; 13:9-10).This phrase and such closely related
expressions as “the Day of the Anger of YHWH” or “YHWH has a day” occurs over two dozen
times in prophetic books most frequently in Isaiah, Joel and Zephaniah.

a) YHWH’s Judgement against Foreign Nations: Most of the prophetic books contain
oracle against foreign nations. Commentators generally agree that in Amos’ time “the Day of
YHWH” popularly was thought to mean the time when YHWH would vindicate Israel by defeating
its enemies. In contrast, Amos warns his Israelite hearers that “day of the YHWH” will not be what
they wanted (Amos 5:18-20).Several later prophets declared that day of YHWH would be one of
disaster for certain other nations – namely Egypt, Edom, Ethiopia, Babylon, Ammonites,
Damascus, Moab, Philistine and Tyre.

b) YHWH’s judgement against Israel, Judah, or Jewish people: Amos and Joel warned
the people about Day of YHWH – as darkness (Amos 5:18, 20; Joel 2:1-2). In general, the pre-
exilic prophets proclaimed that God would punish Israel or Judah through oppression by other
nations. After the exile, when the nations Israel and Judah had ceased to exist, prophets looked
for YHWH’s judgement against the Jewish people in one or two forms “natural disasters” such as
plagues, drought and crop failure or “supernatural” demonic hordes, as in Haggai 1:5-6; 2:14-19;
Mal. 3:9-12; Joel 2:1-11.

c) Deliverance or Blessing for Israel, Judah, Other Nations and All Creation: Some 60
occurrences of “the Day of YHWH” would re-establish the fortunes of Israel/Judah or the Jewish
people. A few passages, particularly in Isaiah and Zechariah, look for the redemption of other
nations as well. Relating few of these texts explicitly mention a future Messiah or Davidic king.
According to Isaiah, those who had been sick and disabled would restore to full health. Then all
will enjoy the supernatural abundance of milk, honey, fruit and produce, peace to all creation, all
will know that YHWH is God, exiled Jews will return, Jerusalem and the Jewish people will
experience God’s favour etc.

9. Eschatology: Eschatology refers to the study of last things, but it extends also to a broader
biblical perspective as God’s purpose and direction for history. In order to a cyclical view of
history, scripture reveals that God is moving history toward a future goal. As a result, eschatology

21
deals not only with the end of history, but also with the out working of God’s good and sovereign
purpose for his creation. Biblical Eschatology begins with God’s original purposes for His
creation. Israel, God’s people continued disobedience to God, it resulted in the destruction of
Jerusalem and exile from the land. For the Prophet, Zephaniah, it will be an era of destruction for
nonbelievers followed by the establishment of glory of the remnant of Israel. Isaiah declared that
at this time, God will be king and all nations will serve Him.
a) The prophets, however also sounded a note of hope that God would one day restore His
people under terms of a New Covenant

b) One day a Davidic king would be arising in whom the promises made to David would be
fulfilled.

c) Daniel also speaks of “one like a son of man” who would establish a universal reign at the
end of time.

d) The promise of the OT begins to be fulfilled in the NT Jesus Christ began his ministry by
announcing the arrived of the kingdom of God.

e) The New Testament reference to Rev. 21-22 ultimate destination of God’s people is a new
heaven and new earth, where God will live with them in intimate fellowship. Old Testament
prophets spoke of last day when God would destroy his enemies (Jer.23:20; 36:24), bring salvation
to his people (Isa. 48:20; 49:6; Hosea 3:5).
10. Ecology (Land, nature): The dominant role played by agriculture in ancient Israelite society
might suggest that the earth’s natural resources be regarded purely as commodity. This does not
seem to be the perspective of the prophets, who not only recognize the material and economic
value of the produce of the land, but also assign place for the wider non- human creation in
YHWH’s story which for outstrips any utilitarian ethics. The wellbeing or misery of the people is
depicted in terms of the failure or success of their agriculture and husbandry.

Land and Nature in Prophetic Tradition:

1. For Israelites, the land is presented as their inheritance from God. We can see references
of Promised Land in various parts of the Bible. In Deuteronomy 28, God summarises the terms of
Mosaic Covenant. If the Israelites obey God’s law and stay faithful to God, they will be blessed
abundantly in the land, but if they disobey, it may result in the loss of the land or destruction.
2. Unfortunately, as 1-2 Kings and the Prophetic book record, Israel and Judah do turn their
backs on God and worship other gods. Thus, as the prophets warn, the Israelites lose the land and
are exiled.
3. Judgement and the desolation of creation: The wisdom tradition has suggested a
correspondence between the moral and natural - if there is disharmony in the former, serious
consequences will follow for the latter. The prophet Isaiah emphasises an ecological catastrophe
following the judgement of the Lord (Isa. 17: 1-13). Hosea’s picture of desolation is based on
human sinfulness: “Because of this the land mourns, and all who dwells in it languish...” (Hosea
4:3).

22
Some References regarding Ecology: The inter connection between human and non-human
creation, and between God and the world is one of the significant themes of the Prophetic books
of Amos, Hosea and First Isaiah. Prophets are using certain figurative languages to portray the
natural world, human beings and God.
1. Amos: God warns and judges His people through various means on earth such as drought,
earth quake, flood and so on. The restoration of Israel’s fortune is expressed both in terms of urban
regeneration and supernatural abundance of fertility in the natural world. The texts of Amos invite
an understanding of the world that sets the cooperation of the non-human world with its creator
against the rebellion of its human inhabitants.
2. Hosea: Hosea also used various imageries of the natural world to portray both YHWH and
His people apart from marriage metaphor and parent-child metaphor such as rain fall images: rain,
spring rain, dew etc. Some other prophetical texts such as Haggai 1:10 and Zechariah 8:12, YHWH
is presented as a giver or withholder of rain and thereby of fertility. Another image used to denote
YHWH in Amos, Isaiah, Hosea and Joel as the image of a Lion.
3. First Isaiah: In Isaiah 11:6-10 gives us the very good example of harmony between
humanity and creation: The prophet’s vision is one of harmony between humanity and the rest of
the creation, not of enmity, nor of creation forced cruelly into doing human tasks. It is important
to note that these apocalyptic visions do not diminish the diversity of creation, nor speak of it as
something to be destroyed. The evil is not in the cobra, the viper, or the lion; rather, it is in the
alienation between these things and human – and between those things and each other. The theme
of disaster as a sequence of disobedience to YHWH and His order is woven throughout First Isaiah,
in prophetic oracles.

Some common concern of Ecology in Prophetical books

1. God as referred as creator and sustainer.
2. Land is considered as God’s gift to His people, So Land ultimately belongs to God.
3. Sin has direct influence upon the Land. The way in which we live on it determines whether
were stay in it or taken away from it.
4. Land as God’s gift is offered to all in bounteous and abundant equality- the poor, strangers,
and the outcaste alike all have a place within and on it.
5. God’s land as a sign of inclusivity rather than exclusivity.
6. Human disobedience and selfish interests become the causes of ecological disorder or
disharmony.

11. Prophetic ministry to gender issues examples from

Hosea 1-3

Hosea was directed by God to marry Gomer, a promiscuous woman of ill-repute, and he did so.
Marriage here is symbolic of the covenantal relationship between God and Israel. However, Israel
has been unfaithful to God by following other gods and breaking the commandments which are
the terms of the covenant, hence Israel is symbolized by a harlot who violates the obligations of
marriage to her husband. The metaphor itself remains controversial in its meaning and
interpretation in modernity. In Hosea Chapter 2, the woman in the marriage metaphor could be
Hosea’s wife Gomer, or could be referring to the nation of Israel, invoking the metaphor of Israel
as God's bride. The woman is not portrayed in a positive light.

23
Biblical scholar Ehud Ben Zvi, describes the role of the Gomer in the marriage metaphor as one of
the “central attributes of the ideological image of a human marriage that was shared by the male
authorship and the primary and intended male readership as building blocks for their imagining of
the relationship.” Tristanne J. Connolly also suggests that in context, the marriage metaphor was
necessary in that it truly exemplified the unequal interaction between Yahweh and the people
Israel. According to Coogan, Hosea falls under a unique genre called “covenant lawsuit” where
God accuses Israel of breaking their previously made agreement. God’s disappointment towards
Israel is therefore expressed through the broken marriage covenant made between husband and
wife.

Ezekiel: 16&23

In both chapters, Ezekiel describes the history of the people Israel and the abomination of the
Temple by means of using a metaphor of whores. Chapter 16, opens with a baby girl born to
Amorite and hittite parents, who was abandoned by them and adopted by God. The girl is a
metaphor for Jerusalem and she trusted in her beauty instead of God. Chapter 16 portrays the
allegory of the unfaithful wife. This chapter is very graphic and vivid portrayal of Isreal’s idolatry
under the imaginary of a Bride, beloved of her husband, who made her a queen, and lavished upon
her silks and sealskins and every beautiful things; who then made herself as prostitute to every
man that passed by, shaming even Sodom and Samaria. The abominations are repeated, with
variations in chapter 23. In this chapter the allegory of harlots is reappears with two lewd (rude)
sisters, Ohalah( Samaria- the kingdom of Isreal) and Oholibah ( Jerusalem- the kingdom of Judea),
both grown old in their Adulteries. The relation between husband and wife is used to represent,
God and His people.

Nahum 3: 5-6.

In the ancient world the term harlot was a standard insult leveled at any one who broke a promise
or violated treaties. Therefore, Nahum implies that practice in all nations, based on these verses 5
and 6 the question can be arise, why would a Holy God do such humiliating things?. Prostitutes
and adulteresses were sometimes publicly humiliated in this manner (Ezek. 16: 37-39). Nahum
refers to this practice to illustrate the degree of humiliation God would bring to those who disobey
him. This description of Assyria’s humiliation could also be a play on words since the Hebrew
term for nakedness also means ‘exile’. The picture of another embarrassed harlot nation was Israel
which also found in Hosea 2:10.

Isaiah 54: 1-6;

Prophecies of encouragement directed to the Jews living in Babylon, preparing the way for their
return to Jerusalem. This Chapter deals in the metaphor of couple, God as Husband and Isreal as
wife. The metaphor implies submission to authority on the Church’s part and for both the Lord
and the Church mutual possession and comradeship. The Lord chooses and weds his bride. Her
unfaithfulness breaks the bond but does not quench his amazing love. He abideth faithful: he
cannot deny himself” ( II Tim. 2:13). She must keep the balance between the outreach of her
mission and the depth of her life in God. The demand is not numerical growth but the areas of life
which she leavens, which God asks of her. The essence of the marital tie stressed in this passage
emphasis on “being rich toward God”. The Holy one of Israel, her maker and her husband, who

24
has chosen, educated, and is now redeeming his people. Therefore, Israel seemed unvisited of God
and left to her own lonely thoughts. A wife wooed mad won in youth holds a unique place in a
husband’s heart.

25