Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

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Materials Today Sustainability

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materials-today-sustainability

2D MoS2: structure, mechanisms, and photocatalytic applications

N. Thomas a, b, d, S. Mathew a, b, d, K.M. Nair a, b, K. O'Dowd a, b, P. Forouzandeh a, b,
A. Goswami b, c, G. McGranaghan b, c, S.C. Pillai a, b, *
a
Nanotechnology and Bio-engineering Research Group, Department of Environmental Science, Institute of Technology Sligo, Sligo, Ireland
b
Centre for Precision Engineering, Materials and Manufacturing Research (PEM), Institute of Technology Sligo, Sligo, Ireland
c
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Institute of Technology, Sligo, Ireland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Two-dimensional (2D) molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)ebased materials are of great interest because of
Received 4 February 2021 their capacity to efficiently absorb electromagnetic spectrum in the visible region. Starting from the
Received in revised form structural and electronic properties, this review discusses the synthesis strategies of 2D MoS2. The major
29 March 2021
photocatalytic applications of 2D MoS2 such as hydrogen evolution, pollutant degradation, self-cleaning,
Accepted 31 May 2021
Available online 7 June 2021
photoelectrochemical water splitting, and microbial disinfection are summarized. The mechanistic un-
derstanding of various photocatalytic applications of 2D MoS2 is summarized through schematic dia-
grams. In addition, this review outlines the methodologies for improving the 2D MoS2 photocatalysts and
Keywords:
2D MoS2 composites
recapitulates the research directions in this area of semiconductor photocatalysis.
Morphology © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
Photo-electrochemistry (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Contaminant degradation
Disinfection
Antibiotic-resistant organisms

1. Introduction absorption spectrum of 2D MoS2 falls in the visible region of the

electromagnetic spectrum, and this opens up an ocean of oppor-
Semiconductor photocatalysis is widely applied for solving a tunities for widespread applications [10]. MoS2-based materials are
number of environmental problems such as energy shortage and reported to have applications in the area such as energy storage
pollution [1]. TiO2 is reported as the most explored material for [11], hydrogen production [12], degradation of contaminants [13],
photocatalytic applications. Because the pristine TiO2 primarily disinfection [14], etc. Recently, many researchers have summarized
absorbs the electromagnetic spectrum in the ultraviolet (UV) re- the photocatalytic characteristics of MoS2 for various categories of
gion, this hinders the broad applications of pristine TiO2 materials applications [5,15e18]. Yet, there are no recent reviews available in
[2]. Recent decades have witnessed a surge in the number of studies the literature that briefly summarize the recent advances in the
reported on photocatalytic applications of semiconductor materials photocatalytic strategies and applications of 2D MoS2-based ma-
such as g-C3N4, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), and ZnO [3,4]. terials. In this review, the authors outline the state-of-the-art
Among them, MoS2 semiconductor material is of significant inter- research directions in 2D MoS2 photocatalysis and the possible
est because of its excellent optical absorption property and fast future trends that the researchers should adopt for the practical
charge carrier dynamics [5]. applications of MoS2 photocatalysis.
The crystal structure of bulk MoS2 consists of a vertical
arrangement of MoS2 layers connected by weak van der Waals in- 2. Structural understanding: crystal structure, electronic and
teractions [6e8]. The bulk MoS2 material is reported to have an optical properties
indirect bandgap of 1.2 eV, whereas two-dimensional (2D) single-
layer MoS2 nanosheets have a direct bandgap of 1.8 eV [9,10]. The MoS2 is a class of layered 2D transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDCs), with the chemical formula of MX2. M denotes the tran-
sition metal element, and X denotes S, Se, or Te [8,20]. The bulk
* Corresponding author.
TMDCs are formed by stacking of X-M-X layers and can exist in
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.C. Pillai). different structural phases depending on the transitional metal
d
Both authors contributed equally to this manuscript. atoms [7]. In single-layered MoS2 films, the Mo (þ4) and S (2) are

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2589-2347/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

arranged in SeMoeS orientation, and in each layer, 6 S atoms in the conduction band (CB). In the figure, the CB and VB edges are
surround one Mo atom. MoS2 generally exists in two structural denoted by red and blue lines, respectively. The molybdenum d-
phases: either trigonal prismatic (2H/3R) or octahedral (1T). orbitals attribute to the K value, and no change will occur in this
Structural phases depend on the stacking arrangement of layers in value as the size decreases because it is not affected by the number
MoS2 with respect to Mo coordination (Fig. 1). The 2H structure is of layers. 2p orbitals of sulfur form the VB. Thus, the bandgap be-
the dominant stable phase observed in nature with the ABA layer tween K and г fluctuates, as it is formed by hybridized orbitals of pz
stacking and has two layers per unit cell oriented in hexagonal and d orbitals of S and Mo, respectively. As the number of layers
symmetry [21]. Here, the sulfur atoms from different atomic decreases, the VB maximum (VBM) point г decreases below zero, to
planes occupy the same positions perpendicular to each other. The form a new VBM point. The lowest energy transition is vertical, i.e.
MoeS bond is predominantly covalent, whereas the S layers are direct for the monolayer, and the energy needed for the indirect
coupled by van der Waals interactions and slide effortlessly against transition in the monolayer is larger than the direct band edge
each layer [22]. This structural property helps to cleave crystals transition. The newly formed bandgap between the steady K point
along with the surface layers (Z direction) by breaking weak van der and new г will have an increased gap of 1.9 eV.
Waals forces, and this property is exploited in the synthesis of Apart from the number of layers, the crystal structure also has a
single-layered MoS2 [23,24]. significant influence on the band structure of MoS2. The 2H phase
Synthetically prepared MoS2 commonly shows a 3R structure, displays semiconductor properties because of the presence of filled
where it has a rhombohedral symmetry with three layers per unit dZ 2 and empty dXY and dX 2 Y 2 orbitals. In contrast, the 1T phase
cell and is highly unstable. This structure can rearrange the orien- shows metallic behavior as its 4 d2 orbitals split into eg orbitals
tation into 2H type under heating. In the 2H and 3R MoS2 structures, other than t2g orbitals. The two electrons filled in t2g states give rise
Mo hexagonal arrays are sandwiched between the sulfur layers [25]. to the metallic character of 1T. The charge mobility of the material is
The 1T crystal structure has an ABC layering order and is formed by also drastically increased by the thinness of the material and a
the disorientation of one of the sulfur layers in MoS2 [26]. It has a direct bandgap introduction, as bulk MoS2 requires higher energy
symmetrical MoeMo bond and has a trigonal symmetry, also known to move electrons from the VB to the CB. Because of the dependence
as the metallic 1T phase (Fig. 1). The electrical conductivity of MoS2 of the number of layers on optical properties, MoS2 can be engi-
differs with respect to the phase and crystal structure. 1T phases have neered for different applications by intercalation, reducing di-
more exposed active sites; thus, the presence of 1T enhances the mensions, or forming various heterostructures [15].
electrical conductivity of the MoS2 [21]. The changes in the structural parameters while progressing
The band structure of material changes, while varying from the from 3D to 2D structure can be analyzed by Raman spectroscopy.
three-dimensional (3D) bulk counterpart to 2D sheets of MoS2. The Under infrared scattering, MoS2 has four Raman active modes, E1g,
number of layers in the MoS2 determines the physical and chemical E12g, A1g, and E22g, where the prominent peaks are E12g and A1g
properties of the material. The bulk MoS2 shows a direct bandgap of (Fig. 3a). From the characteristic wavelength of the Raman spectra,
1.3 eV [27], whereas the monolayer MoS2 exhibits an indirect the structure of the MoS2 can be analyzed. For the bulk MoS2 (3D),
bandgap of 1.9 eV [8]. This phenomenon can depend on quantum the E12g has a value of 383 cm1 and A1g has a value of 408 cm1.
confinement, interlayer interactions, and long-range Coulomb ef- The 2D monolayer MoS2 shows the E12g and A1g peaks at the value
fects [28,29]. of 385 cm1 and 404 cm1, respectively. E12g denotes the in-plane
Several density functional theory (DFT) studies have been per- opposite vibration of S atoms, and the out-of-plane vibrations of S
formed to understand the electronic characteristics in MoS2 are denoted by A1g. When the number of layers increases from
[30e33]. As shown in Fig. 2, for the bulk counterpart, an indirect mono to bulk, a shift in both vibrations is observed. E12g undergoes
bandgap is presented between the г, valence band (VB) maximum the redshift, whereas A1g inversely undergoes a blue shift. The
point, and the K (Brillouin zone point), which is the minimum point shift in the value of E12g shows that a change in the thickness/

Fig. 1. 1T, 2H, and 3R phases of MoS2. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [19], Copyright (2017), The Royal Society of Chemistry.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Fig. 2. Energy dispersion observed in bulk, 4-layer, 2-layer, and 1-layer MoS2. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [22], Copyright (2013), Macmillan Publishers Limited.

number of layers of MoS2 induces a change in the bonding be- 3. Synthesis protocols of 2D MoS2
tween adjacent layers [34]. The frequency difference between
these two modes can be used as a convenient method to analyze The selection of an effective fabrication technique is necessary
the layer thickness of prepared MoS2 samples. to enhance the desired properties of the synthesized MoS2. The
The change in the type of bandgap helps in displaying an synthesis techniques can be divided into two main approaches,
enhanced luminescence behavior in MoS2. The photoluminescence namely, top-down and bottom-up approaches. The top-down
(PL) of MoS2 is inversely proportional to the thickness of the ma- approach involves exfoliation techniques such as mechanical
terial, a characterization that is used in calculating the number of exfoliation, liquid-phase exfoliation, chemical intercalations, etc.,
layers. Fig. 3 B shows that the intensity of two peaks at 670 nm and whereas the bottom-up approach includes chemical vapor depo-
627 nm is reduced while increasing the thickness from 1.3 nm to sition (CVD) and chemical synthesis.
7.6 nm [35]. These peaks are denoted as A1 and B1 excitons. The
prominence of excitons shows the direct excitonic transition at 3.1. Exfoliation methods
point K, owing to the direct bandgap formed at lower thickness.
The low PL intensity showed by bulk MoS2 is due to the weak With the advent of graphene synthesis using the ‘scotch tape’
phonon interaction and strong excitonic absorption, which is bigger method, mechanical exfoliation has been considered as one of the
than its indirect bandgap [9]. This unusual behavior can be attrib- simplest methods for 2D material synthesis [36]. Bulk MoS2 is
uted to the quantum confinement of the electrons in d orbitals. peeled off using a tape and is rubbed against a substrate, which is
Raman and PL showed similar trends in the behavior while moving mostly Si/SiO2. A number of flakes of the bulk get attached to the
from bulk to monolayer MoS2. substrate, whereas the van der Waals force between the layers

Fig. 3. (a) Raman spectra for ‘n’ layer (n ¼ 1e6) and bulk MoS2. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [34], Copyright (2010), American chemical society. (b) Photo-
luminescence spectra of layered and bulk MoS2. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [35], Copyright (2011), American Chemical Society.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

would further prevent few flakes from attaching to the substrate n-Butyl lithium is the most common agent used for Liþ inter-
[37e39]. Hence, high-quality 2D MoS2 sheets were obtained using calation, hence exfoliating and producing 2D MoS2 [50]. Electro-
the mechanical cleavage method, maintaining any intrinsic prop- chemical intercalation on the other hand occurs when an anode is
erties of MoS2. However, low yield and uncontrolled sheet size, discharged in a metal ion battery [51,52]. Bulk MoS2 is used as the
shape, and layer numbers prevent the practical application of this cathode, and the amount of lithium ions intercalated can be
method [40]. controlled by adjusting the discharge rate [15]. High yields of
An alternative class of exfoliation technique, the chemical metallic 1T-MoS2 can be fabricated through this technique which
exfoliation, namely, solvent based and ion intercalation based, has opens wide doors for exploiting novel applications.
been reported [41]. Chemical exfoliation can be used for several
structural modifications, doping different species, and the mass 3.2. Bottom-up approach
production of high-quality and uniform sized MoS2 [42]. The
choice of solvent and solute concentration play an important role 3.2.1. Thermal synthesis
in determining the thickness of the nanosheets generated. Organic Hydrothermal or solvothermal synthesis is one of the simplest
solvents, such as N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), dimethylforma- and easily controllable techniques to develop 2D nanomaterials. In
mide, ethanol, isopropanol, etc., have been used to generate a high this, the sample is directly precipitated from the solution under
yield of MoS2 nanosheets [43]. The selection of solvents depends high temperature and pressure, allowing the formation of different
on several parameters such as surface tension and Hildebrand and phases of MoS2. Controlled morphology, aging, size of the particles,
Hansen solubility parameters, where the Hildebrand parameter and uniformity are the main advantages of this synthesis route.
refers to a numerical estimate of the degree of interaction be- MoS2 nanosheets of varied sheet thickness and defects were syn-
tween the materials indicating the miscibility [41,44]. Exfoliation thesized via a controlled hydrothermal technique, producing MoS2
was found to be highly effective when the surface tension of the with different morphologies, sulfur concentration, and surface area
solvent matches well with that of MoS2. Furthermore, controlling [53]. MoO3, (NH4)6Mo7O24, and Na2MoO4 are the commonly used
sonication time could result in an optimized flake size and con- precursors for Mo, whereas elemental sulfur, KSCN, NH2CSNH2,
centration [45]. The effect of operating conditions on the Na2S2O3, and thioacetamide are the common sulfur precursors
synthesis of MoS2 has been effectively studied using NMP as the used. Depending on the temperature used in the synthesis,
solvent and a high-speed dispersive homogenizer as the shear different phases of MoS2 such as 2H or 3R could be fabricated
device [46]. A yield of 4.3% of MoS2 with a lateral size of depending on the applications required [54].
50e200 nm was obtained, which was found to be higher than The hydrothermal synthesis of flower-like MoS2 was reported
most other shear exfoliation methods reported. However, pro- using hexaammonium heptamolybdate tetrahydrate ((NH4)6Mo7
longed sonication might cause defects in lattice structures which O24$4H2O) and thiourea as precursors [55]. The reaction was per-
would reduce its efficiency in industrial applications, especially in formed in an autoclave for 12 h at 200  C. The thiourea was
circuits and other electronic devices [47]. responsible for reducing molybdenum from Mo6þ to Mo4þ, and
Atomic intercalation is one of the top exfoliation methods to thiourea acted as a stabilizer for the nanosheet morphology. X-ray
synthesize MoS2 nanosheets. Intercalation involves the insertion of diffraction (XRD) pattern and the morphology of the synthesized
guest ion species into the host layered TMDCs, which weakens the flower-like MoS2 and the comparison with the commercial MoS2
van der Waals force of interaction between the two adjacent layers sample are given in Fig. 5.
[48,49]. Alkali metal ions, such as Liþ, Kþ, Naþ, etc., are the commonly
used species for intercalating in the host layers of MoS2. Chemical 3.2.2. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
intercalation and electrochemical intercalation are the two main CVD has emerged as one of the best techniques to fabricate
categories of intercalation in fabricating TMDs [41]. Fig. 4 represents TMDs with sufficient crystal quality, tuneable size, thickness, and
the schematics of both chemical and electrochemical intercalation. excellent electronic properties [56]. In a typical CVD technique, the

Fig. 4. Schematic of (a) electrochemical intercalation using metal ions (Liþ) and (b) chemical intercalation followed by sonication or heating. This was reproduced with permission
from Ref. [41], Copyright (2020), The Royal Society of Chemistry.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Fig. 5. (a) XRD pattern and (b&c) SEM images of the flower-like MoS2 and commercial MoS2 samples. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [55], Copyright (2017),
American Chemical Society.

solid precursors are heated under high temperature, which further heterophase bilayers [63]. This selective formation of 1T0 phase
forms a film on the substrate, mostly Si/SiO2 wafers [47]. MoO3 MoS2 was attributed to the lowering of the formation energy
powder, S powder, vaporized S, or H2S have been used as the most assisted by potassium. Fig. 7 represents the synthesis strategy
common precursors of Mo and S [57]. However, it was observed adopted for tuning the relative stability of 2H and 1T0 phases. As the
that using MoCl5 as the solid precursor on different substrates potassium concentration exceeds 44%, the formation of the 1T0
produced MoS2 with high surface area and offered an increased phase becomes feasible than the 2H phase. Studies revealed that
density of active sites, and reduced the electrical loss contact be- the obtained MoS2 acts as an ultrathin conductor, which further
tween the substrate and MoS2 [58,59]. The normal heating tem- opens the door toward selectively designing high-quality 1T0 MoS2
perature for CVD lies in the range of 700e1000  C, which can be for exploring wider applications.
reduced to 150e300  C under plasma-enhanced conditions [60].
Fig. 6a represents the cross section of a three-zone CVD growth 4. Photoelectrochemical studies on MoS2
chamber reported for the fabrication of monolayer MoS2 [61]. As
the vaporization of sulfur increases, it reacts with MoO3 and results Photoelectrochemical (PEC) studies using various photoanodes,
in the formation of MoO3-x. The nitrogen carrier gas carries the such as TiO2, TMDCs, etc., have drawn immense attention in the
MoO3-x forward and reacts with the sulfur to form the MoS2 mol- fields of energy, environment as well as health-related applications
ecules (Fig. 6c). [64e68]. In a PEC cell, the solar energy is converted to hydrogen
The impact of substrate types on the properties of CVD-grown energy via an external bias applied to a photovoltaic material
MoS2 has been studied by Strupinski et al. [62]. Three different immersed in an electrolyte solution [69e71]. The semiconductor
substrates (SiO2, graphene, and sapphire) were used to fabricate photoelectrodes can absorb the photons when exposed to light,
MoS2. The graphene substrate showed only the formation of acting as a photocatalyst. The fermi level (Ef) of the semiconductor
triangular domains as well as negligible change in the growth is equilibrated with the redox potential of the solution via electron
pattern of MoS2 even under different growth conditions. SiO2 transfer. In case of an n-type semiconductor, the excited electrons
yielded different morphologies, and the difference between the will migrate toward the counter electrode, where the hydrogen
MoS2 on both could be attributed to the variations in surface generation takes place by the reduction of the electron acceptor
diffusion mechanisms on SiO2 and graphene. It was concluded that generated by the photoanode [72]. The holes generated in the
graphene produces more uniform MoS2 and hence is favorable for photoanode then undergo oxidative reactions, generating oxygen
industrial-scale applications. [73]. On the other hand, the p-type semiconductors act as photo-
Recently, a potassium-assisted CVD technique was used for the cathodes in water splitting reactions. The external bias applied
phase selective synthesis of 1T0 MoS2 monolayers and 1T0 /2H helps in overcoming the additional voltage and slow kinetics of the

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Fig. 6. (a) A diagrammatic representation of the three-zone CVD growth chamber. (b) Temperature program used for the synthesis of monolayer MoS2. (c) Schematic illustration
showing the growth of MoS2 over the sapphire substrate. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [61], Copyright (2017), Elsevier.

determine the efficiency of PEC water splitting is solar-to-hydrogen

(STH) [53] conversion efficiency, which is given by:

Output energy as H2 rH2  DG

STH ¼ ¼
Energy of incident solar light Psun  S0

where DG is the gain in Gibbs energy, rH2 is the rate of hydrogen

production, Psun is the energy flux of the sunlight, and S0 is the area
of the reactor [70].
MoS2 is one of the commonly used TMDs for PEC water splitting
reactions owing to its high PL quantum yield, availability of cata-
lytic active edges, and stable hydrogen evolution reaction (HER)
activity even under low pH conditions [74,75]. Investigations on the
influence of the number of MoS2 layers demonstrated that the
chemically exfoliated monolayer MoS2 produced the highest
photocurrent [76]. This can be attributed to the reduced charge
carrier mobility in multiple layers which further prevents the
transport of charges effectively. However, fabricating single-layer
MoS2 is limited by the high temperature conditions, long reaction
time, and limited control over the reaction conditions. Hence,
several strategies, including doping, compositing, etc., have been
used to improve the photocatalytic activity, conductivity, and thus
the overall efficiency of PEC water splitting [77].
Constructing heterojunctions with other TMDCs, CdS, TiO2, ZnO,
Fig. 7. Schematic illustration showing the phase-selective synthesis strategy of MoS2
under reductive and inert atmospheres. The difference in the formation energy of both graphene oxide (GO), g-C3N4, etc. has gained much attention in
the phases of MoS2 as a function of potassium concentration is shown at the bottom of improving the efficiency of PEC activity of MoS2 [79,80]. Mattevi
the figure. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [63], Copyright (2018), et al. fabricated a MoS2/WS2 type II heterojunction via the
Nature Publishing Group.
CVD technique, demonstrating that the large flake size (100 mm)
could reduce the charge carrier recombination rate compared with
water splitting reaction. The basic reactions involved in PEC water
liquid phase exfoliated samples [81]. The MoS2-coated Si nanowire
splitting are described as follows [72]:
(NW) hybrid was fabricated, wherein MoS2 acted as a protection for
SiNWs as well as improved the number of active sites for HER. The
Photoanode : 2hv þ semiconductor/2hþ þ 2e 1
heterostructure exhibited a solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency of
1.05% and a high durability of over 5 h [82]. Recently, a triple het-
1
Working electrode : 2hþ þ H2 OðlÞ/ O2 ðgÞ þ 2Hþ 2 erojunction of TiO2/CdS/MoS2 has been fabricated, and the influ-
2 ence of MoS2 nanosheets on the heterojunction has been
systematically investigated [78]. In this heterojunction, MoS2 acts
Counter electrode : 2Hþ þ 2e /H2 ðgÞ 3 as a hole capturer, improving the hole transfer into the electrolyte
solution, whereas CdS and TiO2 help in harvesting a wide range of
Total reaction : H2 O ðlÞ / H2 ðgÞ þ O2 ðgÞ 4 spectrum and improving the electrical conductivity, respectively.
An increased photocurrent density of 3.25 mA/cm2 at 0.9 V vs. Ag/
where h and v represent Planck's constant and the frequency of AgCl was observed and was attributed to the accelerated charge
illuminated light, respectively. The major parameter used to transfer between the electrolyte and photoelectrode, caused by the
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Fig. 8. Schematic representation of the charge transport mechanism in the TiO2/CdS/MoS2 photoanode. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [78], Copyright (2019),
Elsevier.

presence of MoS2 nanosheets. Fig. 8 represents the schematic cocatalyst during the reaction. The MoS2 sheets were uniformly grown
illustration of the charge transport mechanism in a TiO2/CdS/MoS2 on the TiO2 rods and were controlled by varying reaction times. The
photoanode. Ultrathin layer nature, improved chemical and phys- incorporation of MoS2 sheets increased the hydrogen production rate
ical stability, surface area, and accelerated electron mobility of by providing active edges for H2 evolution. MoS2@TiO2 NRs exhibited
MoS2 aided in an improved PEC performance. However, additional an evolution rate of 8.43 mmol/cm2/h, which is 13 times higher than the
research is required to improve the PEC activity of 2D TMDCs. TiO2 parent sample. The photocurrent studies observed that the mixed-
phase 1T/2H MoS2 showed prominently metallic character, as the
electrons readily transferred from TiO2 to MoS2 and then transferred to
5. Photocatalytic hydrogen production using MoS2
the electrolyte. This characteristic behavior is explained by the inter-
calation of energy bands of 2H and 1T in the MoS2 layer, which gives rise
Hydrogen generation from water splitting using light is a sus-
to a continuous energy band across the Fermi level as in metals.
tainable way to address the rising demands of the hydrogen
A novel photocatalyst that can be used without a sacrificial
economy [84e87]. Nevertheless, splitting of water to produce
agent was reported by Li et al. (Fig. 10a). They developed a 2D
hydrogen requires a higher enthalpy of 237 kJ/mol; it is an uphill
composite structure of Ru-doped single-layer MoS2 supported by
reaction [88e90]. By using a suitable catalyst in the reaction, the
polar cerium nanocrystals (Ru: SL-MoS2/CeO2 NCs) [28]. Polar
energy expenditure can be decreased. In the photocatalytic
surface material (CeO2 (100)) has a net dipole moment acting
hydrogen generation, the oxidation and reduction reactions
perpendicular to the surface [101]. The catalyst showed stable ox-
simultaneously undergo on the catalyst surface as can be seen in
ygen and hydrogen production until 10 h of irradiation (Fig. 10b).
Fig. 9. The photocatalytic water splitting reaction mechanism is
The quantum efficiency (QE) of the system was tested by varying
well known [91e94]. During the photocatalytic process, when the
the wavelengths from the UV region to the visible region (Fig. 10c).
potential of the electron-hole pairs formed in the conduction band
The highest QE was obtained at the UV region (385 nm), and as the
minimum (CBM) and valence band maximum (VBM) is more
wavelength increased, QE was observed to decrease, which was
negative and positive than the redox potential of Hþ/H2, they
likely due to the sudden decrease in photon absorption [102]. CeO2
migrate to the surface of the photocatalyst to react with water in
(100) nanocubeesupported Ru: SL-MoS2 showed three times
the surface-active sites. The electrons will reduce the water to
enhanced hydrogen activity (2977 mmol/h/g) than the parent
hydrogen, while the holes get oxidized to form oxygen simulta-
sample Ru: SL-MoS2 (821 mmol/h/g). The high QE of 2D MoS2 with
neously. For enhancing the photocatalytic efficiency of the system,
the polar-faceted cerium support is due to the strong charge sep-
a promoter like cocatalysts is added in the reaction as shown in
aration due to polarization induced by CeO2 NCs. Thus, it extends
Fig. 9b.
the exciton lifetime of 2D MoS2.
The cocatalyst acts as a support catalyst to accelerate the reac-
In a recent study, lamellar flower-like MoS2 was reported as a
tion by capturing the excited electrons to diminish the photo-
cocatalyst to improve the hydrogen evolution efficiency of CdS [103].
generated charge recombination. Noble metals such as Pt, Pd, Au,
The heterojunction formation between the CdS nanoparticles and
and Ag are used as cocatalysts for photocatalytic water splitting
lamellar MoS2 accelerated the photoinduced electron transfer. The
reactions [95e99]. However, availability and cost restrict its use in
MoS2/CdS system achieved 36 times hydrogen evolution activity
high scalable hydrogen production applications. Therefore, 2D
compared with the pure CdS. The maximum hydrogen evolution
materials such as MoS2 have been used to substitute these noble
(54.1 mmol/h/g) was observed for the 30% MoS2-incorporated MoS2/
metals in photocatalysis because of their high conductivity and
CdS composite (Fig. 11a). The UV-diffuse reflectance spectroscopy
enhanced hydrogen production activity. The 2D layers in MoS2 in-
(UV-DRS) (Fig. 11b) shed insights on the enhanced hydrogen evolu-
crease the electron conductivity and act as an activation site for the
tion performance of the 30% MoS2/CdS catalyst. The incorporation of
reduction reaction.
MoS2 in CdS decreased the bandgap from 2.25 eV (pure CdS) to
Recently, Liu et al. demonstrated the hydrothermal synthesis of
2.08 eV (30% MoS2/CdS). The narrow bandgap represents the broader
mixed-phase MoS2 layers coated on TiO2 nanorod arrays (MoS2@TiO2
light absorption range and that in turn leads to the higher photo-
NRs) [100]. The rationale behind the design was to use the synergetic
catalytic activity.
effect of two polymorphs of MoS2 (2H and 1T) to enhance the charge
Different techniques such as doping, nanostructuring, and het-
separation. In MoS2@TiO2 NRs, the 2H (semiconducting phase) formed
erojunction formation with other semiconductors have been used
a heterojunction with TiO2, whereas the 1T (metallic phase) acts as the

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of photocatalytic water splitting. (a) Full photocatalytic reaction, (b) with the addition of the cocatalyst. This was reproduced with permission from Ref.
[83], Copyright (2017), Elsevier.

to tune the properties of MoS2 to improve photocatalytic hydrogen process in 2D MoS2-based material leading to the degradation of
production. Recent studies on MoS2 composites for photocatalytic contaminants is summarized in Fig.12. To better understand the role of
hydrogen production are summarized in Table 1. specific reactive species in the reaction, several scavengers are used.
Isopropanol is used as a scavenger for hydroxyl radicals, and benzo-
6. Treatment of organic pollutants quinone and ammonium oxalate scavenge the O þ
2 and h , respectively
[11]. Calculating the VB and CB potentials of the synthesized catalyst is
6.1. Mechanism of photocatalytic degradation of contaminants by crucial in elucidating the mechanism of electron transfer processes in a
MoS2 photocatalytic reaction [116].

MoS2 with a bandgap in the visible range has been applied for the 6.2. MoS2 material as a catalyst for degradation of contaminants
photocatalytic degradation of several dyes, antibiotics, and other
contaminants of emerging concern [13,113e115]. The crystal struc- In its natural form, MoS2 is found in the 2H (hexagonal) form
ture, surface chemical modification, and number and thickness of [117]. However, because a high electron carrier concentration is
MoS2 layers are the key parameters determining the photocatalytic found in 1T MoS2 [118], the transformation from 2H to 1T MoS2 is
activity of MoS2 [114]. Generally, the photocatalytic degradation re- beneficial for photocatalytic applications. Xia et al. obtained 1T MoS2
action utilizes the electron transfer from the highly reactive radical from the hydrothermally synthesized 2H phase by Li intercalation. In
species to the contaminant molecules and chops down the hazardous the study, 1T MoS2 with Au nanoparticles showed up to 90.4%
contaminants into small molecules. The key reactive species involves decomposition for methylene blue in 20 min, which was only 25.2%
the holes (hþ), hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide radicals (O
2 ) [13]. A for the case of 2HeMoS2 [118]. Saha et al. [119] studied the MoS2-
schematic representation of the photocatalytic electron transfer polyaniline (PANI) nanocomposite fabricated by in situ

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic diagram of Ru: SL-MoS2/CeO2 NCs. (b) Evolution of O2 and H2 by photocatalytic water splitting and (c) the quantum efficiency of Ru: SL-MoS2/CeO2 NCs and
Ru: SL-MoS2. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [28], Copyright (2020), Elsevier.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Fig. 11. (a) Comparison of hydrogen evolution activity of the MoS2/CdS catalyst by varying the mol% of MoS2. (b)UV-DRS spectra of the various MoS2/CdS composites. This was
reproduced with permission from Ref. [103], Copyright (2021), The Royal Society of Chemistry.

polymerization for the degradation of methylene blue and 4- study of Zhou et al. [104] was based on MoS2 nanosheets coated on
chlorophenol (4-CP). The intercalation of PANI into MoS2 reduced a TiO2 nanobelt. The TiO2 nanobelt inhibited the growth of MoS2
the agglomeration between the nanosheets and enhanced the elec- crystals along the c-axis, resulting in a nanobelt with a coating of
tronic conductivity. The composite showed 30% methylene blue only a few layers. This structure resulted in complete degradation of
degradation in less than 3 h and 75% degradation for 4-CP in 1 h. In rhodamine-B in 20 min, whereas the degradation by pure TiO2 and
another study by Quinn et al. [120], MoS2 suspension in Milli-Q MoS2 was 35.3% and 86.9%, respectively, under the same conditions.
filtered water was used to degrade methylene blue (MB) and resul- Another TiO2/g-C3N4/MoS2 composite obtained by the liquid exfo-
ted in degradation of 90% of the original concentration after 2 h. Li liation and solvothermal process was developed by Zhang et al.
et al. [121] adopted a hydrothermal method to synthesize flower-like [122]. In the photocatalytic degradation experiment of methyl or-
MoS2, and nanoparticles with varying sheet thickness were obtained ange, the synthesized composite showed better photocatalytic ac-
by adding polyethylene glycol (PEG) with varying molecular weights tivity than TiO2, pure g-C3N4, and TiO2/g-C3N4. The enhanced
as additives. Observations showed that increasing molecular weight activity was attributed to the efficient utilization of photons and
of PEG led to a decrement in sheet thickness which adversely enlarged spectral response owing to the heterostructure between
affected the photocatalytic performance. The degradation rate for MB the g-C3N4/MoS2 hybrid and TiO2 nanostructure.
was observed to decrease from 64.2% to 11.2% when the sheet
thickness varied from 23 nm to 13 nm for PEG200 and PEG8000.
6.4. Self-cleaning properties of MoS2

6.3. MoS2/TiO2 composites for contaminant degradation Similar to surfaces based on TiO2, MoS2 shows excellent self-
cleaning properties [125]. However, unlike TiO2, the antifouling
Instead of a single photocatalyst like MoS2 or TiO2, composite and self-cleaning properties of MoS2 have not yet been widely
photocatalysts show higher photocatalytic activity [122]. Hu et al. studied. Many organic dyes, industrial chemicals, and agricultural
[123] adopted a two-step hydrothermal method to synthesize a wastes impose risks to the environment, and their elimination by
3D double-heterostructured photocatalyst with MoS2eTiO2 core- various means becomes necessary [113,126,127]. At the same time,
shell nanosheets assembled on a graphite fiber. The structure the continuous operation of the photocatalytic system requires a
showed highly efficient electron-hole generation and enhanced clean surface for further adsorption of contaminants to ensure their
carrier separation. For methyl orange dye, the structure showed photocatalytic degradation.
88% and 90% degradation under exposure of UV and visible light, Owing to its high photocatalytic capability, strong absorption of
respectively, for 30 min, which was significantly higher than visible light, and low cost, MoS2 has emerged as an excellent
GF@TiO2 (55% for UV irradiation). Liu et al. [124] created a sand- candidate as a photocatalyst or co-photocatalyst for decontamina-
wich-like 3D mesoporous composite TiO2/MoS2/TiO2 nanosheet tion of various organic pollutants [113]. MoS2 shows extremely low
structure which showed up to 89.86% degradation of methylene friction surface and low roughness which are suitable in preventing
blue within 120 min of irradiation by visible light. Another 3D hi- the development of fouling [128]. The phenomenon of self-cleaning
erarchical configuration formed by the hydrothermal method in the on a surface generally refers to contaminant removal by either

Table 1
Hydrogen evolution studies of different MoS2-based systems in photocatalytic water splitting.

Photocatalyst used Light source Sacrificial agent used Activity Ref.

TiO2 @MoS2 300 W Xe arc lamp 0.35 M Na2S and 0.25 M Na2SO3 6 mmol/h/g [104]
2D MoS2/CdS pen nanohybrids 300 W Xe lamp 10 vol% lactic acid 137 mmol/h [105]
CdSeAu/MoS2 Xe lamp 10 vol% lactic acid 7 mmol/h/g [106]
CeO2@MoS2/g-C3N4 3 W UV-LEDs 0.5 M Na2S and 0.5 M Na2SO3 65.4 mmol/h [107]
Phosphated-MoS2/NiTiO3 5 W LED incandescent lamp 15 vol% triethanolamine 67.6 mmol/h [108]
1T-MoS2/g-C3N4 300 W Xe lamp 20 vol% triethanolamine 4426 mmol/h/g [109]
8%[email protected] 300 W Xe lamp Amoxicillin solution 630 mmmol/h [110]
P-doped MoS2 300 W Xe lamp 0.2 M Na2SO3 and 0.2 M Na2S 975.7 mmol/h/g [111]
Ru: MoS2/CeO2 NCs 70 W tungsten light No sacrificial agent 2977 mmol/h/g [28]
Lamellar porous MoS2/CdS 300 W Xe lamp 10 vol% lactic acid 54.1 mmol/h/g [103]
S-doped g-C3N4/N-doped MoS2 300 W Xe lamp 10 vol% triethanolamine 658.5 mmol/h/g [112]

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

2D MoS2 layers when aligned vertically depict more chemical

activity than horizontal 2D MoS2 owing to multiple 2D edge sites due
to their enriched dangling bonds. Furthermore, a thin coating with
the Pt noble metal on pristine MoS2 was proven to be effective in the
degradation of harmful compounds like microcystin-LR produced by
algal blooms under visible light [127]. The use of noble metals results
in surface plasmon resonance, which significantly enhances the op-
tical absorption. Where MoS2 by itself shows high photocatalytic
activity toward contaminant degradation, its use to form various
composite structures has numerous additional benefits. For instance,
hybridized composite photocatalysts show reduced bandgap and
reduced recombination of electron-hole pairs, further enhancing the
photocatalytic activity toward various organic and bio pollutants
[127,134e136]. In addition, MoS2 hybridization with graphene has
shown to result in faster separation of charge carriers, ultimately
leading to higher degradation rates of methylene blue [134,135].
Fig. 12. Illustration of the various steps involved in the electron transfer processes in The contaminant sweeping action for dust particles has been
the 2D MoS2, leading to the degradation of contaminant molecules. demonstrated on hydrophobic TiO2/polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
@MoS2 core-shell heterostructured composite fibers which can
highly mobile droplets on a hydrophobic surface (contact angle considerably reduce maintenance costs [137]. MoS2 nanoparticles
>90 ) or by a sweeping action by spreading liquid on a hydrophilic with cauliflower-like morphology were grown on TiO2/PVDF flexible
surface (contact angle <90 ) [129]. A higher mobility of liquid fibers by a single-step hydrothermal method. The surface showed
droplets is obtained on surfaces with increasing contact angles, and contact angles high as 128.28 , 120.30 , and 129.27 for water,
it is generally achieved by creating a surface roughness component rhodamine-B, and methyl orange, respectively. Under visible illu-
on a hydrophobic surface [130,131]. mination for 150 min, both the dyes lost their colors completely,
The photocatalytic action of MoS2 can assist the self-cleaning showing an excellent degradation capability and self-cleaning
activity by decomposing the contaminants into harmless species against these two dyes. Similarly, hydrothermally developed MoS2
which can be subsequently removed because of its hydrophobic ternary composite Pt/vertically aligned MoS2/TiO2 is found to be
nature. In conclusion, in the photocatalytic decontamination process, more effective than pristine TiO2 nanotube array in degrading
the electron transfer from highly active radical species breaks down rhodamine 6G under visible light irradiation [125]. In many appli-
the contaminant particles on the surface into harmless compounds cations, crude oil spills impose limitations on the choice of absorbent
under light illumination. Carbon-based materials such as GOs and materials owing to the high viscosity of crude oil. However, under
reduced GOs (rGOs) are well known for their remarkable antifouling simulated sunlight illumination, a MoS2 sponge showed a rise in its
properties. However, MoS2 nanosheets have been proven even better temperature (from room temperature to 76  C in 70 s) which led to
than GO and rGO in preventing the accumulation and growth of the significant reduction in crude oil viscosity, ultimately increasing
natural organic matter and Escherichia coli bacteria [132]. In various its absorption on the MoS2 rubber sponge [138].
applications like removal of pharmaceutical wastes, MoS2 has also
been adopted as an adsorbent owing to p-p stacking, its hydrophobic
behavior, and electrostatic interactions [133]. This way, the high 7. Photocatalytic disinfection
adsorbent capacity of MoS2 also assists the subsequent photo-
catalytic removal of contaminants. In summary, a synergistic com- 7.1. Mechanism of disinfection
bination between the three phenomena (adsorption, degradation,
and removal) imparts MoS2 excellent self-cleaning properties under Semiconducting photocatalysts create reactive oxygen species
light irradiation. [48] to allow for the disinfection of water. To do this, their bandgap
energy is excited by a photon that has higher energy than the

Fig. 13. Vertically layered MoS2: (a) Depiction of the ROS-formation potential. (b) Inactivation of bacteria using MoS2 due to the formation of ROS from visible light photocatalysis.
This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [141], Copyright (2016), Macmillan Publishers Limited.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

are held together by weak van der Waals forces [147]. When
chemically exfoliated 2D MoS2 sheets were compared with bulk
MoS2 powder in the elimination of E. coli, viability loss of 91.8% and
38.9%, respectively, was found. MoS2 has been reported to be
capable of rapid disinfection of water when several layers of MoS2
are vertically aligned [148]. It was found that when positively
charged MoS2 had its hydrophobicity altered, the mechanism of
disinfection could be changed to the membrane of the bacteria
being depolarized rather than oxidative stress because of ROS
generation.
By vertically aligning MoS2 into films, it was possible to make
use of the complete visible light spectrum and increase the
bandgap from 1.3 to 1.55 eV. This method showed an increase of 15
times log efficiency of inactivation of bacteria in water [141]. MoS2
can be modified to create a few layers of nanosheets or a single
layer with ease. Its bandgap is 1.2 eV in bulk form, and this can be
increased when formed into a monolayer structure [149]. This
initial low bandgap and lack of active sites make bulk MoS2 limited
as a photocatalyst; however, this can be overcome when used as a
Fig. 14. Mechanisms of toxicity of MoS2 against bacteria. This was reproduced with
permission from Ref. [142], Copyright (2012), Elsevier.
cocatalyst. The use of MoS2 and Fe3O4 to form a Fenton-like catalyst
was capable of inactivating bacteria in a pH range between 3.5 and
9.5. This composite was capable of complete degradation of E. coli
bandgap. This causes electrons to be excited and to move from the within 6 min when 5 mM H2O2 was added with a starting bacterial
VB to the CB. The holes left behind by the electrons and the newly concentration of 1.2  106 CFU/ml [150]. The exposure of E. coli to
excited electrons can react with the water and dissolved oxygen to 20 and 40 mg/ml of MoS2 reduced bacteria presence by 70% and 84%,
form the reactive oxygen species (ROS) [126,139,140]. Fig. 13 illus- respectively. This decrease was also seen in Staphylococcus aureus
trates the formation of these ROS and the potential (eV) for their with a decrease of 63% and 97% in 40 and 80 mg/ml, respectively
formation. [151]. The MoS2/Ag2CO3 composite was capable of complete inac-
These ROS cause oxidative stress to occur on the microorgan- tivation of E. coli using a 5% concentration within 80 min [152]. One
isms, resulting in disinfection [142] (Fig. 14). The cell membrane of study created a pyramid-like MoS2 layered structure; this incor-
the microorganism breaks down allowing the photocatalyst to act porated decreasing sized MoS2 sheets going up the layers to form
internally, resulting in cell death [17,143,144]. Several theories have this pyramid-like shape (Fig. 15). This was capable of eliminating
been proposed for the degradation of the bacteria such as the 99.99% of E. coli using simulated visible light after 40 min [153].
leakage of Kþ and Caþ ions from the cell membrane [145]. The main
method of photocatalytic disinfection is believed to be from lipid
peroxidation [146]; this results in the inhibition of normal activities 7.4. Inactivation of antibiotic-resistant organisms
of the cell such as respiration [145].
2D-MoS2 sheets were found to be capable of binding to the
enzyme b-lactamase, inhibiting its functions. This inhibition was
7.2. Water treatment found to help prevent the growth of antibiotic-resistant organisms
such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus [154]. By tuning the surface
MoS2 consists of molybdenum atoms in a hexagonal plane chemistry of the 2D-MoS2, it is believed that enhanced inhibition
linked to sulfur atoms that are hexagonally arranged. These layers could be developed. The MoS2/a-NiMoO4 composite was used for

Fig. 15. Photocatalytic disinfection of E. coli using pyramid-shaped MoS2 layers and visible light. This was reproduced with permission from Ref. [153], Copyright (2018), American
Chemical Society.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

the elimination of multidrug-resistant S. aureus, with complete electronic properties and band structure. Among the various pro-
inactivation obtained after 150 min using visible light. The inacti- tocols used to synthesize 2D MoS2, the solvothermal synthesis
vation was evident with the organism undergoing protein and DNA method helps to arrive at uniform particles with controlled
degradation, and damage was visible on the cell membrane [155]. morphology. The PEC water splitting reaction using MoS2 is one of
rGOeMoS2eAg was used to disinfect antibiotic-resistant S. aureus the emerging areas of research. The low cost of MoS2 compared
and E. coli, where to inhibit their growth, concentrations of with the noble metals makes it the cheapest alternate to be
100e200 mg/ml and 50e100 mg/ml were needed, respectively. This explored for photocatalytic hydrogen production applications. The
inhibition was believed to be a result of excellent ROS generation composite material of MoS2 with TiO2, g-C3N4, and the graphene
[156]. A Fe2O3@MoS2 composite was found to be capable of pre- family of materials has demonstrated excellent potential for
venting the conjugative transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes. A contaminant degradation. Reactive oxygen species generated on
study showed that the composite could greatly inhibit the conju- light irradiation on MoS2 create oxidative stress on microorgan-
gation of the interference of RP4-7 plasmid [157]. A separate study isms, and this property is utilized for water disinfection.
using a Fe2O4@MoS2 composite found it to be capable of preventing Difficulties in recycling the catalyst and the limited number of
horizontal gene transfer, one of the main contributions to antibiotic available active edge sites delimit the practical applications of MoS2
resistance [158]. photocatalysis. Hence, there is a lot of room for development in this
research area, and intense research is required to utilize the 2D
8. Challenges, strategies for improvement, and future MoS2-based materials for industrial-scale applications.
directions
Declaration of competing interest
The limited number of active edge sites available for the photo-
catalytic reaction and the rapid recombination of electrons and holes
The authors declare that they have no known competing
are the major challenges associated with the practical application of
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
2D MoS2 photocatalysts. The fast recombination of electron-hole
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
pairs leads to lower QE and decreases the photocatalytic degrada-
tion capability of these materials. Doping MoS2 with transition metal
elements can generate defect positions and alter the crystallinity of Acknowledgements
MoS2. Transition metal element doping of MoS2 also improves the
visible light absorption range of MoS2. A zerovalent ironedoped g- PF and AG would like to acknowledge the support of the IT Sligo
C3N4eMoS2 composite accelerated the electron-hole pair separation Presidents Bursary Scheme in this research.
and resulted in efficient contaminant degradation [159]. The number
of catalytic active sites could be enhanced by strategies such as References
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Nishanth Thomas is a Ph.D. candidate in the Nanotech-
A highly efficient Au-MoS2 nanocatalyst for tunable piezocatalytic and
nology and Bio-Engineering Research Group at the Insti-
photocatalytic water disinfection, Nano Energy 57 (2019) 14e21.
tute of Technology Sligo, Ireland. He completed his BSMS
[140] F. Alimohammadi, G.M. Sharifian, N.H. Attanayake, A.C. Thenuwara,
dual degree in Chemistry (major) with Biology minor
Y. Gogotsi, B. Anasori, D.R. Strongin, Antimicrobial properties of 2D MnO2
from Indian Institute of Science Education and Research
and MoS2 nanomaterials vertically aligned on graphene materials and Ti3C2
(IISER) Bhopal. During his master's thesis, he investigated
MXene, Langmuir 34 (2018) 7192e7200.
the shape-selective synthesis of silver nanostructures by
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a modified polyol method. Currently, he is working in
D. Lin, P.A. Maraccini, K.M. Parker, A.B. Boehm, Y. Cui, Rapid water disin-
the EU-Horizon 2020 PANI Water Project for developing
fection using vertically aligned MoS2 nanofilms and visible light, Nat.
Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) for the removal of
Nanotechnol. 11 (2016) 1098e1104.
antimicrobial-resistant organisms from water. His research
[142] M.J. Hajipour, K.M. Fromm, A. Akbar Ashkarran, D. Jimenez de Aberasturi,
interest involves the design of unique nanomaterials for
I.R.d. Larramendi, T. Rojo, V. Serpooshan, W.J. Parak, M. Mahmoudi, Anti-
the sustainable environment and energy applications.
bacterial properties of nanoparticles, Trends Biotechnol. 30 (2012) 499e511.
[143] J. Jeong, J.Y. Kim, J. Yoon, The role of reactive oxygen species in the elec-
trochemical inactivation of microorganisms, Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (2006)
6117e6122.
[144] R. Canaparo, F. Foglietta, T. Limongi, L. Serpe, Biomedical applications of Snehamol Mathew received her bachelor's degree in
reactive oxygen species generation by metal nanoparticles, Materials 14 chemistry and master's degree in Nanoscience and Nano-
(2021) 53. technology from Mahatma Gandhi University, India. For
[145] V. Krishna, S. Pumprueg, S.H. Lee, J. Zhao, W. Sigmund, B. Koopman, her master's project, she worked on developing a
B.M. Moudgil, Photocatalytic disinfection with titanium dioxide coated polyglycerol-based macromolecular iron chelator at the
multi-wall carbon nanotubes, Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 83 (2005) University of British Columbia, Canada. She is currently
393e397. working as a Renewable engine PhD candidate funded by
[146] H. Yan, L. Liu, R. Wang, W. Zhu, X. Ren, L. Luo, X. Zhang, S. Luo, X. Ai, J. Wang, the EU INTERREG VA Programme on investigating the
Binary composite MoS2/TiO2 nanotube arrays as a recyclable and efficient fabrication of modified TiO2 nanomaterials for photocata-
photocatalyst for solar water disinfection, Chem. Eng. J. 401 (2020) 126052. lytic hydrogen production and antimicrobial coatings.
[147] X. Yang, J. Li, T. Liang, C. Ma, Y. Zhang, H. Chen, N. Hanagata, H. Su, M. Xu, Her research focuses on the synthesis, modification, and
Antibacterial activity of two-dimensional MoS2 sheets, Nanoscale 6 (2014) characterization of nanomaterials for energy and environ-
10126e10133. mental applications.

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N. Thomas, S. Mathew, K.M. Nair et al. Materials Today Sustainability 13 (2021) 100073

Keerthi M. Nair graduated with a dual degree of Bachelor (France), the Wroclaw University of Science and Technology
of Science and Master of science in Chemistry from Indian (Poland), and the University of Rome Tor Vergata (Italy).
Institute of Science Education and Research, Thir-
uvananthapuram (IISER Tvm). Currently, she is a Graduate
student under EU-funded EU-Horizon 2020 PANI Water Amit Goswami is a doctoral candidate in the ‘Department of
project, under the supervision of Prof. Suresh C. Pillai, at Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering’ at the Institute
the Institute of Technology, Sligo. Her Ph. D work is on of technology, Sligo, Ireland. He completed his graduation
the development of novel electrode materials for electro and post-graduation from Indian Institute of Information
Fenton reactions and electrochemical oxidation mecha- Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Kancheepuram, In-
nisms in wastewater, along with the development of novel dia, in ‘Mechanical Engineering’ as his major. During his
routes for the photo- and electro-generation of oxidizing specialization in ‘Advanced Manufacturing’ in his Master's,
species. he investigated the heat transfer aspects of a freeze casting
porous ceramic manufacturing method. Currently, he is
working on a project titled ‘Use of surface coatings in
phase-change enhancement’. His area of interest lies in
Kris O'Dowd joined I.T. Sligo as a postgraduate working on the modification of surfaces for enhanced heat transfer,
the optimization of the photo-Fenton process for the antifouling, and self-cleaning behavior.
removal of antimicrobial-resistant organisms from water.
This research is part of the Horizon 2020 PANI-Water proj-
ect that is focused on the photo-irradiation and novel- Gerard McGranaghan is a Lecturer in Mechanical and
based innovations for water treatment. The project aims Manufacturing Engineering at IT Sligo, Ireland. He received
to develop and validate prototypes for the removal of con- his PhD from Trinity College Dublin in 2013. His areas of
taminants from wastewater and drinking water in peri- interest include convective flow boiling, two-phase heat
urban and rural areas in India. The photo-Fenton process transfer, enhanced surfaces, additive manufacturing, and
is an advanced oxidation process that uses hydrogen energy.
peroxide, iron, and light to create a hydroxyl radical. This
nonselective radical has been used extensively in the
breakdown of organic chemicals and is now being investi-
gated for its use in the elimination of microorganisms. The
research will focus on optimizing a process that is tradi-
tionally used at an acidic pH, at a neutral pH to allow
ease of use in rural communities.

Suresh C. Pillai obtained his Ph.D. from Trinity College

Parnia Forouzandeh is a PhD candidate in the Department Dublin and completed his postdoctoral research at Cali-
of Environmental Science at the Institute of Technology fornia Institute of Technology (Caltech, USA). Upon
Sligo (IT Sligo), in the Nanotechnology and Bio-engineering completion of this appointment, he returned to Trinity
Research Division, recipient of the 2019 president bursary College Dublin as a Research Fellow before joining CREST-
fellowship. Her research entitled "2D Nanomaterials for TU Dublin as a Senior Scientist in April 2004. He has joined
efficient asymmetric supercapacitors.", which focuses on at IT Sligo in 2013 as a Senior Lecturer and currently leads
synthesis, modification, and characterization of novel two- the Nanotechnology and Bio-Engineering Research Group.
dimensional materials and utilizing these nanostructures His research interests include the synthesis of nanomateri-
for energy applications beyond supercapacitor devices. Par- als for energy and environmental applications. He is the
nia obtained a B.Sc. in the "chemical engineering-inorganic recipient of a number of awards including the Boyle-
chemical industry" and the M.sc degree in "chemical nano- Higgins Award 2019. He is an associate editor for the
engineering" (2019), under the European Erasmus Mundus Chemical Engineering Journal and editorial board member
Joint program in universities of Aix-Marseille University for Applied Catalysis B.

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