CVL203: Principles and

Practice of Geomatics
Lecture 15:
Mapping Surveys

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 Content

▪ Introduction to Mapping Surveys

▪ Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys
▪ Map Scale
▪ Map Scale Size
▪ Contours
▪ Characteristics of Contours
▪ Errors in Mapping Surveys
▪ Mistakes in Mapping Surveys

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 Introduction to Mapping Surveys
Mapping surveys are made to determine the locations of natural and cultural features on the Earth’s
surface and to define the configuration (relief) of that surface. Once located, these features can be
represented on maps.

Natural features normally shown on maps include vegetation, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc.

Cultural (artificial) features are the products of people and include roads, railroads, buildings,
bridges, canals, boundary lines, etc.

The relief of the Earth includes its hills, valleys, plains, and other surface irregularities.

Lines and symbols are used to depict features shown on maps. Names and legends are added to
identify the different objects shown.

Conducting the surveys necessary for preparing maps and the production of the maps from the survey
data are the mainstay of many surveying businesses.

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 Introduction to Mapping Surveys

Depicts natural and cultural

features in the plan (X-Y) views
only.
Planimetric maps
Objects shown are called
Two different planimetric features.
types of maps are
prepared as a
result of mapping
surveys
They also include planimetric
Topographic maps features, but in addition they
show the configuration of the
Earth’s surface.

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 Introduction to Mapping Surveys

To determine the most desirable and economical locations of

Engineers and
highways, railroads, canals, pipelines, transmission lines,
planners
reservoirs, and other facilities.

Geologists To investigate mineral, oil, water, and other resources.

To locate access- or haul-roads, fire-control routes, and

Foresters
Both types observation towers.
are used
by:
Architects Housing and landscape design.

Agriculturists Soil conservation work.

Archaeologists,
geographers, and A variety of fields
scientists
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 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys
▪ Mapping surveys are conducted by one of two basic methods:
▪ aerial (photogrammetric) techniques
▪ ground (field) techniques
▪ or a combination of both

▪ Refined equipment and procedures available today have made photogrammetry very
accurate and economical. Hence, almost all mapping projects covering large areas now
employ this method.

▪ Ground surveys are still commonly used in preparing large-scale maps of smaller areas.
Even when photogrammetry mapping is utilized, ground surveys are necessary to
establish control and to field-check mapped features for accuracy.

▪ This chapter concentrates on ground methods, while photogrammetry and airborne laser
mapping are discussed in the next chapter.

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 Map Scale
Map scale is the ratio of the length of an object or feature on a map to the true length of
the object or feature.
Map scales are given in three ways:
1. by ratio or representative fraction, such as 1:2000 or 1/2000
In giving scale by ratio or representative fraction, the same units are used for the map
distance and the corresponding object distance, and thus 1:1200 could mean 1 in. on the
map is equivalent to 1200 in. on the object, but any other units would also apply.
2. by an equivalence, for example, 1 in = 100 ft
An equivalence scale of 1 in./100 ft indicates that 1 in. on the map is equivalent to 100
ft on the object.
3. by graphically using either a bar scale or labelled grid lines spaced throughout the
map at uniform distances apart.
Graphic scales permit accurate measurements to be made on
maps, even though the paper upon which the map is printed may
change dimensions.

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 Map Scale
▪ It is possible to convert from an equivalence scale to a ratio, and vice versa. As an
example, is converted to a ratio by multiplying 100 ft by 12, which converts it to inches
and gives a ratio of 1:1200.

▪ Those engaged in surveying (geomatics) and engineering generally prefer an equivalence

scale and grid lines on their maps, while geographers often utilize a representative
fraction and bar scale.

▪ Choice of scale depends on:

1) Purpose
2) Size
3) Required precision of the map
4) Dimensions of a standard map sheet
5) Type and number of topographic symbols used
6) Accuracy requirements for scaling distances from the map

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 Map Scale

▪ Maps produced using the English system of units usually have their scales selected to be
compatible with one of the standard graduations on engineer’s scales. These standard
graduations have 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60 units per inch.

o Scales of 1 in. = 100 ft. and 1 in. = 1000 ft. are compatible with the 10 scale.
o Scales of 1 in. = 200 ft. and 1 in. = 2000 ft. are compatible with the 20 scale.

▪ In the metric system, ratios or representative fractions such as 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000,
and so on are usually employed.

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 Map Scale – Scale Size
▪ Map scales may be classified as large, medium, and small:

▪ Large-scale maps are applied where relatively high accuracy is needed over limited areas:
subdivision design and the design of engineering projects like roads, dams, airports, and water and
sewage systems.
▪ Medium scales are often used for applications such as general preliminary planning where
larger areas are covered but only moderate accuracy is needed.
mapping the general layout of potential construction sites, proposed transportation systems,
and existing facilities.
▪ Small-scale maps are commonly used for mapping large areas where a lower order of accuracy
will suffice.
general topographic coverage, applications in site-suitability analysis, preliminary layout of expansive
proposed construction projects, and for special applications in forestry, geology, environmental impact
and management, etc.

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 Map Scale – Scale Size

▪ The scale at which a map will be plotted directly affects the choice of instruments and
procedures used in performing the mapping survey.

▪ The accuracy with which the position of an object is depicted on a map is related to the
map’s scale, which in turn dictates the accuracy with which features must be surveyed.

▪ Example: a map plotted at a scale of 1 in. = 20 ft. If distances and locations can be scaled
from the map to within say 1/50th in., this represents a scaling error of (1/50)20 = ±0.4 ft. To
ensure that the accuracy of the surveyed data does not limit the accuracy with which
information can be scaled from a map, features must be located on the map to an accuracy
better than ±0.4 ft.
▪ As a safety factor, many surveying and mapping agencies apply a rule of thumb in which
they require features to be located in the field to at least twice the scaling accuracy, which in
this instance would require accuracy to within ±0.2 ft. or better.

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 Map Scale – Scale Size

▪ Another consideration regarding map scale that affects surveying accuracy is the thicknesses
of lines used to plot features.

▪ Example: Assume that line widths on a map with a scale of 1:2000 are 0.3 mm. This means
that each line represents 0.3(2000) = 600 mm = 0.6 m. on the object. Therefore, to accurately
depict an object on a map with this line width, the survey needs to be accurate to at least half
the line width, or ±0.3 m. Obviously, the equipment and procedures used for the mapping
work must be selected so that these accuracies are met.

▪ Even though the first map produced for a particular project may be a small-scale
reconnaissance map:
▪ It is possible that as the project progresses, medium-scale planning maps and largescale
design maps will be needed, and that some or all of the data collected could also be used
for these maps.
▪ Thus, even though relaxed accuracies may suffice for the reconnaissance map, for
efficiency, the data should be collected to accuracy suitable for other maps that may
follow.
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 Contours
A contour is a line connecting points of equal elevation.
▪ Since water assumes a level surface, the shoreline of a lake is a visible contour, but in general, contours
cannot be seen in nature.
▪ On maps, contours represent the planimetric locations of the traces of level surfaces for different
elevations.

Plan View

Profile View

Profile View

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 Contours

▪ Contours are drawn on maps by interpolating between points whose positions and elevations
have been observed and plotted.

▪ Computerized mapping and contouring systems are replacing manual plotting methods, but
the principles of plotting terrain points and of interpolating contours are still basically the
same in either method.

▪ The vertical distance between consecutive level surfaces forming the contours on a map (the
elevation difference represented between adjacent contours) is called the contour interval.

▪ In the metric system, a contour interval of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, or 10 m is generally selected.

▪ The contour interval selected depends on a map’s purpose and scale, and upon the diversity
of relief in the area.

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 Contours

▪ Smaller contour interval will normally be necessary to adequately depict gently rolling
terrain with only moderate elevation differences,

▪ Rugged areas with large elevation differences normally require a larger contour interval so
that the contours do not become too congested on the map.

▪ In general, reducing the contour interval requires more costly and precise fieldwork.

▪ In regions where both flat coastal areas and mountainous terrain are included in a map,
supplementary contours, at one half or one fourth the basic contour interval, are often drawn
(and shown with dashed lines).

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 Contours

▪ Topographic mapping convention calls for drawing only those contours that are evenly divisible by
the contour interval:
▪ for the 10-ft contour interval on the map in this figure (next slide), contours such as the 1100,
1110, 1120, and 1130 are shown.

▪ Elevations are shown in breaks in the contour lines, and to avoid confusion, at least every fifth
contour is labeled.

▪ To aid in reading topographic maps, every fifth contour (each that is evenly divisible by five times
the contour interval) is drawn using a heavier line:
▪ In the figure shown in the next slide the 1100, 1150, 1200, and so on contours are drawn more
heavily.

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 Contours

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 Characteristics of Contours

1) Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map. They cannot dead end.

2) Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.

3) The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus, it is necessary
that breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic surveys.)

4) The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope. Wide separation denotes
gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and parallel spacing, uniform slope.

5) Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more uniformly
rolling terrain.

6) Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent hills. A contour forming a
closed loop around lower ground is called a depression contour (Spot elevations and
hachures inside the lowest contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no
outlet make map reading easier.)

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 Characteristics of Contours

7) Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical surface such as a wall, cliff,
or natural bridge. They cross only in the rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf. Knife-
edge conditions are never found in natural formations.

8) A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.

9) Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they point down the ridge and
form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.

10) Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.

11) A single contour of a given elevation cannot exist between two equal-height contours of
higher or lower elevation. For example, an 820-ft contour cannot exist alone between two
810- or two 830-ft contours.

12) Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc., produce straight or
geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or uniformly graduated spacing. Contours
cross sloping or crowned streets in typical V- or U-shaped lines.

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 Errors in Mapping Surveys

Some sources of error in planimetric and topographic surveys are:

1) Instrumental errors, especially an index error that affects vertical and zenith angles.

2) Errors in reading instruments.

3) Control not established, checked, and adjusted before beginning to collect details.

4) Control points too far apart and poorly selected for proper coverage of an area.

5) Sights taken on detail points which are too far away.

6) Poor selection of points for contour delineation.

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 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys

Some typical mistakes in planimetric and topographic surveys are:

1) Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for particular survey and terrain conditions.

2) Mistakes in instrument reading and data recording.

3) Failure to periodically check azimuth orientation when many detail points are located from
one instrument station.

4) Too few (or too many) contour points taken.

5) Failure to collect some mapping details.

6) Mistakes in entering point identifiers, drawing designators, and symbols when using field-
to-finish surveying and mapping systems.

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 End of Lecture 15: Mapping Surveys

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