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BT1-Review - building technology lesson summary

Building Technology 3 (Technological Institute of the Philippines)

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The History of Building Materials Summarized: The First Industrial Age

at around 18th century, the Industrial Revolution
Stone Age emerged wherein mass production of Iron was
During this time, primitive people live thru the done to contribute to the development of machinery
principle of hunter-gatherers, they moved from a which then lead to the “puddling process” or the
place to another in search for food. The earliest process of production wrought iron in 1769.
documented materials used for a “house” was Because of this advancement, machines were
excavated in Europe which dated around 12,000 created, and the simple sun-dried bricks were
BCE used wooden poles that are assumed to be upgraded into “pressed” bricks which were mass
frames for animal skins used as walls for a tent. produced by a mechanical extrusion process.
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures The Second Industrial Age
This can be recalled as the time when Middle This was the time when steel and electricity were
eastern civilizations existed along great river first used for advancement. Steel were mass
valleys like the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the produced to build railroads and soon building
Indus, and the Huang Ho. Given this geographical frames which lead to construction of early
advantage, people during this time (around 3000 skyscrapers. Concrete was then also reformulated
BCE) people were able to develop a building adding powdered brick and pebbles (which soon
material made from mud and formed using straw evolved into the aggregates we use today) to the
with four sides, this materials is what we call original mixture of lime, sand and water. After that,
“bricks”, these bricks were made from sun-drying the use of reinforced concrete was evident all over
the mud found along the aforementioned bodies of the houses in Paris which started when a French
water. “ceramic” where also developed during this gardener named Joseph Monier uses the concrete
time wherein more intricate decors were added, mixture for his pots with cage iron wires as
thus giving Architecture more vibrance. reinforcement. More technologies emerged during
Egyptian Civilization- this time such as lighting, heating and cooling
Everybody knows the building material used during systems, more use of glass, and use of other
this era-stones. Massive blocks of stones such as metals as building material.
limestone, sandstone, and granite that are strong Modern Era
and durable were mined and cut by early Egyptians The modern era implies more change in building
to construct monumental structures like Pyramids, technology, most of them aims to reduce the
mortuaries, and mastabas. building construction’s cost. More research
Greek and Hellenestic cultures nowadays are being done to upgrade the building
Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and technology with the common aim which is to make
Hellenestic people also used stones for their construction faster and economical.
buildings, they used more from local marble and
limestones, since stones available in their place are
not as massive as those in Egypt, they pursued
new stone technology like corbelling and
construction of arches staggering pieces of stones
precisely to form radial segments.
Roman Civilization
Romans contributed the use of concrete as building
material which was derived from the basic mortar
mixture made by sand, lime and water until
2nd century B.C.E. when pozzolana was discovered
and the new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural
cement was then formed with this material.
Romanesque and Gothic Era
During around the 5th century, the Iron Age started
wherein new building technology was applied in
construction, this is thru using log construction,
packed clay walls, mud brick and wattle and daub-
which is the method of constructing walls in which
vertical wooden stakes, or wattles, are woven with
horizontal twigs and branches, and then daubed
with clay or mud.
Renaissance Period
Construction of domes is a significant contribution
of builders in this era, moreover, the use of timber
trusses with king posts is a major Roman building
technique revived in this period. The use of clear
glass was also manifested in many Romanesque
buildings which is also called as the “crown glass
method” which is a process handmaking glass out
of soda-lime composition.

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Fundamentals of Indigenous Building Materials

Material properties can be defined in many ways as long as science is concerned. Oftentimes, building
materials are characterized according to its use or application, initially, it is classified according to its
properties-in most cases, these classifications will tell the materials' strength, durability, toughness, efficiency
and ductility. Generally, building materials are classified into two -that may be natural or synthetic. Different
classifications of building materials are further discussed in the following illustration:

Building Materials Classifications

Illustration Material Classification Description Use

Unprocessed or minimally For structural, filler

Natural Materials Natural processed materials like and effective heat
mud, stone, or wood. insulators.

Tents of nomadic
Can be either made from
people around the
Fabric Natural animal skin or weaved and
world use this
dried plants.
material.

Commonly used in
Kind of soil with more homes to make them
Mud and Clay Natural amount of water with good naturally cool in the
thermal mass. summer and warm in
cold weather.

A very dense material with

Used both as
very wide kinds such as
Rock Natural structural and
granite, marble, quarts
architectural material.
and others.

Used for roof and

Thatch Natural Dried grass.
walls of houses.

Plant with very large Used in wickiups, and

Brush Natural
leaves. lean-tos.

Used for igloos and

Water solidified in freezing some ice hotels for
Ice Natural
temperature. tourists in northern
areas.

Used for both

Tree product pressed into
Wood Natural structural and
lumber or planks .
architectural purposes.

Block made of kiln-fired Used for walls, flooring

Bricks Natural
material like clay or shale. and roofing.

Made of combination of Widely used for

Concrete Natural
aggregates and cement. construction.

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Used for structural

Natural occurring material
frameworks or
Metal Natural like aluminum, steel,
external surface
titanium and chrome.
covering.

Used for curtain walls,

Generally made from
space frames and
Glass Natural mixture of sand and
commonly for doors
silicates.
and windows.

Used for ceramic

A form of clay-pottery
floors, walls, counter-
Ceramics Natural firing in kilns like tiles and
tops and even
fixtures.
ceilings.

Formed by synthetic or
Commonly used for
semi-synthetic organic
Plastics Synthetic pipes for building
condensation or
utilities.
polymerization products.

Used as backing for

Foamed Polystyrene or
Foam Synthetic firestop and other
polyurethane materials.
insulation materials.

Made of hydrated cement Used to bind wood or

Cement Composite Synthetic paste that binds wood or fibers to make precast
alike particles building components

Divisions of Construction Materials Reference Standards

(Construction Specifications International’s Master
Format) • ACI - American Concrete Institute

• Div 00 Requirements of Bidding and • 211.01-85 - Standard Practice for Selecting

Construction Proportions for Normal and Heavyweight
Concrete
• Div 01 General Requirements
• 301-84(R88) - Concrete, Structural for
• Div 02 Siteworks Building
• Div 03 Concrete • 309R-87 - Standard Practice for
Consolidation of Concrete
• Div 04 Masonry
• 318-86 - Building Code Requirements for
• Div 05 Metals Reinforced Concrete
• Div 06 Woods and Plastics • AASHTO - American Association of State
• Div 07 Moisture and Thermal Protection Highway and Transport Official

• Div 08 Doors and Windows • M173-84 - Concrete Joint Sealer, Hot Pured
Elastic Type Performed Expansion Joint
• Div 09 Finishes Filler for Concrete
• Div 10 Specialties • ANSI - American National Standards
Institute
• Div 11 Equipment
• ASTM - American Society for Testing and
• Div 12 Furnishings
Materials
• Div 13 Special Construction
• DPWH - Department of Public Works and
• Div 14 Conveying Systems Highways (Philippine Government)

• Div 15 Mechanical and Plumbing • USCS - Unified Soil Classificatory System

• Div 16 Electrical

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CEMENT AND CONCRETE 6. Alumina cement - Utilizes bauxite, the ore

from which aluminium is made, as the major
Cementing Materials raw material and is also known as a quick-
Lime setting cement.
Lime is one of the oldest manufactured 7. Masonry cements - these are prepared
building materials which is used both as a mixtures of Portland cement with hydrated
mortar and plaster by early civilizations. The lime, granulated slag, silica, etc. Small
Greeks used it extensively for mortars and additions of calcium stereate, petroleum,
plasters in their structures and colloidal clays and other admixtures with the
sculptures. However, the Romans were the ingredients and proportions varying widely
first to develop the first real cement and usually patented.
by mixing lime putty and volcanic ash.
8. Natural cements - these are cements
Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime made of natural raw materials found mixed
which will set under water. in the correct proportions, needing only
Stalking or Hydration grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a
The process of mixing quicklime with cement. Their use today has largely been
water during which water is replaced by Portland cement. Natural
absorbed and heat is energetically cements sets more rapidly than Portland
evolved, driving off much of the cement and are slower in developing
excess water in the form of steam. strength.

Cement 9. Pozzolanic cement - is the type of cement

Cement was first developed by the made of lime mortar and pozzolanic
Romans by mixing slaked lime with material. Various natural materials contain
pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened active silica, among them pozzolan
under the water, but the art was lost with the (volcanic ash), granulated slag and
fall of the Roman Empire. In 1756, pumice. Slag cement is a pozzolanic
Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered cement.
hydraulic cement, but it was not until 1824 Warehouse set occurs from the tendency of
that Aspdin, an English bricklayer and cement at bottom layers to harden due to the
mason, invented and patented Portland pressure above when cement is stored in high piles
cement. for long periods.
Portland Cement Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:
Portland Cement is made from materials
which must contain the proper proportions Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder,
of lime, silica, alumina and iron crushed furnace slag, burned clay, expanded
components. vermaculite, and perlite.
Blended Cement Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and must
In the Philippines, this is the type of bagged be washed.
cement sold commercially in hardwares,
and is not pure portland cement because Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter stones.
pure portland cement is distributed in Coarse aggregate – bigger than ¼” diameter
bulk. stones.
Special Cements: Concrete
1. White Portland cement – same materials Concrete – the resulting product when a large
as normal Portland except in color (also aggregate of more than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added
called stainless cement because it is free of to cement, water and fine aggregate.
iron impurities which stain porous marbles,
some granites and limestone and other Reinforced Concrete - concrete strengthened by
light-colored stones). having steel embedded in it.
2. Masonry Cement – designed to produce Plain or Mass Concrete - Concrete without
better mortar than that made with normal reinforcement.
Portland cement or with a lime-cement
combination.
3. Air-entraining Portland Cement – small
amounts of this is added to the clinker and
ground with it to produce air-entraining
cements, effective use for resistance to
severe frost.
4. Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement
used for sealing oil wells.
5. Waterproofed Portland Cement –
normally produced by adding a small
amount of stearate, usually calcium or
aluminum to the cement clinker during the
final grinding.

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CONCRETE MIXES AND ADDITIVES evenly over the surface of freshly floated
concrete, and worked into the surface by
Concrete Mixes: floating.
Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under 3. Water Reducing Admixtures – material
water, retaining walls used to reduce the amount of water
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, necessary to produce a concrete of given
RC slabs consistency or to increase the slump for a
given water content.
Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing
walls 4. Damproofers – materials used to reduce or
stop the penetration of moisture through
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc. the concrete. Reduces permeability.
Control of Concrete Mixes: Bonding Agents:
Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old
is checked to ensure that the specified surface immediately prior to pouring new
slump is being attained consistently. A concrete to increase the amount of paste.
standard slump cone is 12 inches high
(0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the Two Types of Bonding Agents:
bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is 1. Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are
open on both ends. larger, but with same materials as the
Compressive Strength Test – common permeability reducer. Bonding takes place
quality-control test of concrete, based on 7 through the oxidation and subsequent
and 28 day curing periods. expansion of the iron particles.

Concrete Additives – materials often 2. Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of

added to the concrete or applied to the highly polymerized synthetic liquid resin
surface of freshly placed concrete to dispersed in water.
produce some special result. 3. Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the
Accelerators – an admixture which is used cement paste from bonding to the surface
to speed up the initial set of concrete. Such aggregate but will not interfere with the set
a material maybe added to the mix to throughout the remainder of the pour.
increase the rate of early-strength 4. Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials
development for several reasons. sometimes used in structures where it s
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting desirable to avoid high temperature or in
time of the cement paste in concrete. structures exposed to seawater or water
containing sulfates. Pozzolans maybe
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained added to concrete mixes-rather than
concrete contains microscopic bubbles of substituting for part of the cement to
air formed with the aid of a group of improve workability, impermeability, and
chemical called surface active agents, resistance to chemical attack.
materials that have the property ofreducing
the surface tension of water intended for Water-Cement-Ratio
use when better resistance to frost action is The water-cement ratio - the amount of
concerned. water used per bag of cement.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete Traditional materials used for form
surface to increase hardiness and construction are Lumber, Plywood, and
toughness. Steel.
Waterproofing (permeability- Metal Reinforcements
reducing) compounds – these reduce the
capillary attraction of the voids in the 1. Steel Bars or Rods
concrete or mortar. Reinforcement for concrete construction is
mostly in the form of steel bars and rods of
Colored pigments - are mainly used to round or square cross section. The bars
give color to concrete floors. Two types, may be plain or deformed (with lugs or
the Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for projections for better bonding to the
surface coloring and Integral colors used concrete). They are called billet-steel bars
for body coloring and are incorporated in or rail-steel bars
the mortar topping.
2. Wire Fabric
Two Types of Concrete hardeners and Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is
admixtures: widely used for the reinforcement of
1. Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing concrete slabs and floors, as well as for
silicofluorides or fluosilicates and a wetting stuccoed work.
agent which reduces the surface tension of 3. Welded Wire Fabric
the liquid and allows it to penetrate the Fabric consists of a series wires welded
pores of the concrete more easily. together to form a grid pattern. It comes in
2. Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially various sizes and spacings and gauges,
processed and graded iron particles which e.g. 4”x4” – 6/6, 6” x 6: - 8/8 etc. Welded
are dry-mixed with Portland cement, spread

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wire fabric is available in rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 4. Haydite

150, 200, and 300 ft. long This is processed concrete added with
lightweight aggregate.
4. Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric
This is built up of either single or stranded Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four
longitudinal wires with cross wires or bond general classifications :
wires running diagonally across the fabric.
The longitudinal wires are spaced at 1. Aggregates of volcanic origin
4inches on centers and the cross wires 4” or o Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60
8” apart. lbs.per cu. ft. is well qualified as a
5. Expanded Mesh lightweight aggregate when dry and
This is manufactured from solid steel well graded. Undesirable feature,
sheets, where the sheet is first cut or however, is its water absorption.
pierced in staggered slots or patterns; then This can be mitigated by wetting the
the sheet is held by the two sides parallel to aggregate before it is mixed with
the slots and stretched by pressure until the cement .
desired openings of forms are obtained. o Perlite is composed of stable
Expanded mesh is therefore free from silicates, and is inert and thus
mechanical and welded joints. e.g. durable for use as a lightweight
"Steelcrete" aggregate or for insulation and is
6. Laths use in precast slabs and blocks and
Permanent centering or self-centering laths in floor fill, fireproofing and plaster.
are produced in many forms. These laths 2. Micaceous minerals
are furnished either in flat or segmental
sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs, o Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral
between which the metal is stamped, which expands on application of
perforated or deformed into an open mesh- heat to as much as 30 times its
work. These laths are furnished painted or original volume. It is used as an
galvanized, and in open-hearth mild steel or aggregate in concrete fireproofing
in special copper-bearing or alloy steels, steel, for floor and roof fill, and for
e.g. “RIBPLEX” , “HYRIB”. acoustic and fireproof plaster.
3. Expanded shales and clays
Types of Processed Concrete o Lightweight aggregates from shales
and clays require heating the
1. Aerocrete material in a kiln to a temperature
This is a light–weight, expanded structural near its fusion point. The material
concrete produced by adding a small softens and coalesces to a sticky
amount of metallic aluminum powder to the mass; escaping gases are trapped,
mixture of Portland cement and sand of forming cellular structures and
cinders. On the addition of water, a gas is expanding the volume of the
generated which expands the wet mix and material about 50%. Examples of
forms small air cells throughout the material. clay, shale aggregates are “AIROX”,
It is used for structural floor and roof slabs, “ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.
partition blocks for sound proofing, wall
insulation, in rooms of refrigerator plants, 4. By-product Aggregates
lightweight fill on top of structural floor and
o Expanded Slag. Expanded Slag
roof slabs. In addition to its light weight, it
or “foamed” slags are made by
has excellent fire-resistive qualities.
treating molten blast furnace slag
2. Gunite with controlled quantities of water or
This is the mixture of sand and cement steam.
deposited under high pneumatic pressure
o Foamed slag has been used for
with a machine manufactured under the
precast blocks, cast-in-place walls of
trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the
houses and for panel filling of steel-
required supply of water is added just
framed buildings.
before the dry constituents emerge from
nozzle. GUNITE is used for encasing 5. Cinders are composed of the ash
structural steel, when reinforced, for floor components of the coal along with the
and roof slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for various quantities of unburned or
swimming pool construction. partially burned combustible matter.
3. Porete
A Portland cement concrete to which a
chemical foam is added to generate gases
in the process of deposition, resulting in
light weight precast or shop-made unit in
both hollow and solid forms. It is
manufactured in solid slabs for short spans
roofs and siding of industrial buildings.

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CONCRETE PRODUCTS oxide. These clays burn buff, red or

salmon depending on the iron oxide
Concrete Products content which vary from 2 to 10 percent.
These are made of lightweight and heavyweight Standard Clay Brick Size is 2 ¼ x 3 ¾
materials for use in exterior and interior load- x 8 inches
bearing walls, firewalls, curtain and panel walls,
partitions etc. • Structural Clay Tiles – are hollow units as
opposed to brick which is sold. Tiles are
• Concrete Block: made from the same material as brick, but
all clay tiles are formed by extrusion in the
1. Hollow load-bearing concrete stiff-mud process.
block – an 8” x 8” x 16” will Types of Tiles:
approximately weigh 40 to 50 lb.
Made with heavyweight aggregate 1. Load bearing wall tile – used for
and 25 to 35 lb. when made with bearing walls of light buildings, the
height usually restricted to four
lightweight aggregate.
stories. Structural load bearing wall
2. Solid load bearing block – defines tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12
as one having a core area of not inches thickness.
more than 25 percent of the gross 2. Partition tile – non-load bearing
cross-sectional area.
3. Back-up tile – intended for use in
3. Hollow; non-load bearing both bearing and non-bearing walls
concrete block – one in which the which will be faced with brick or
core area exceeds 25 percent of the facing tile.
cross-sectional area. 4. Furring tile – used on the inside of
4. Concrete building tile exterior walls to provide air spaces
for insulation to prevent the passage
5. Concrete brick of moisture and to provide a suitable
plastering surface. Classified as
Common Sizes: non-load bearing.

• 4” x 8” x 16” – for non- 5. Fireproofing tile – structural steel

load bearing partitions must be insulated in fireproof
• 6” x 8” x 16” – for load construction. One method of doing
this is to cover it with fire-proofing
bearing walls
tile.
Quality: 6. Floor tile – manufactured in both
1. Hand made – backyard load-bearing and non-load bearing
grades in standard thickness raging
industry
from 3 to 12 inches in standard
2. Machine made – commonly length and widths of 12 inches.
sold 7. Structural Clay Facing tile –
unglazed tile and may have either a
3. Steam cured –
smooth or a rough textured finish.
manufactured by big and They are designed to used as
nationally known factories for exposed facing material on either
load bearing walls. They are exterior or interior walls and
usually specified for partitions.
government and multi-storey
buildings. 8. Structural Glazed Facing tile –
produced from high-grade light
• Cellular Concrete Blocks – lightweight burning clay which is suitable for the
block which is outstanding in thermal and application of ceramic or salt glaze.
sound insulation qualities. Basic ingredients • Terra Cotta – means “fired earth” is a clay
are cement-made from silica-rich sand and product which has been used for
lime-water, and aluminum powder. architectural decorative purposes, since
ancient Greece and Rome. Modern
• Brick – basic ingredient is clay. terracotta is machine-extruded and molded
Three Principal Forms: or pressed. The machine-made product is
usually referred to as ceramic veneer, and
a. Surface Clay – found near the surface is a unit with flat face and flat or ribbed
of the earth back.
b. Shales – clay which have been
subjected to high pressure until they Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:
have become relatively hard.
c. Fire Clay – found at deeper levels and 1. Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the
usually have more uniform physical and bond of the mortar to the ceramic
chemical qualities. veneer back and to the backing wall.

Two Classes of Clay: 2. Anchor type – are held by mortar and

by wire tiles between the terracotta and
• Calcareous Clays – contains about 15 the wall behind.
percent calcium carbonate and burn to a
yellowish color.
• Non-calcareous Clays – composed of
silicate of alumina, with feldspar and iron

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MASONRY Three general categories:

Masonry 1. Igneous – formed as a result of the
cooling of molten matter.
Is a common building material which is a built-up
construction or combination of building materials as 2. Sedimentary – formed by the action of
clay, concrete, or stone set in mortar; or plain water either by depositing materials at the
concrete. bottom of a water body or depositing them
on the earth’s surface.
The following terms are commonly used in
masonry work: 3. Metamorphic – rocks changed from their
original structure by the action of extreme
1. Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the pressure, heat, or various combinations of
stones or bricks of walls lie in the courses. these factors.
2. Course – A continuous layer of bricks, Classified according to form:
stones, or other masonry units
1. Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which
3. Wythe or Tier – A continuous, vertical may merely have been broken into suitable
section of the wall, one masonry unit thick. sizes, or it may include irregular pieces of
4. Bond – That connection between bricks, stone that have been roughly cut to size,
stones or other masonry units formed by usually used for and filling material.
lapping them one upon another carrying up (escombro and lastillas)
the work, so as to form an inseparable 2. Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of
mass of building, by preventing the vertical pieces that have been cut or finished
joints falling over each other (also called a according to a set or drawing. (for facing
breaking joint). walls)
5. Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid 3. Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin
lengthwise of a wall pieces (1/2 in. and up which may or may
6. Header – A brick or block masonry not have had their face dimensions cut to
extending over the thickness of the wall. some particular size. (for walks and floors)

7. Heading course – A course in which the 4. Crushed rock – consisting of pieces

bricks or other masonry units are all varying I size from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used
headers. to a large extent in concreting.

8. Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face Types according to origin:
perpendicular to the face of the wall. 1. Argilite – one formed d\from clay,
9. Quoins – The corner stones at the angles commonly dark-blue with faint shades of
of buildings, usually rusticated so as to green, used for floor tile, stair treads,
project from the normal surface of the wall. coping stones, interior wall base, interior
window stools of exterior window sills.
10. Bond Stones – Stones running through the
thickness of the wall at right angles to its 2. Granite – igneous origin and composed of
face, in order to bind it together. quartz, feldspar, hornblende and mica. Its
generally very hard, strong durable and
11. Blocking or Blocking Course – A course of capable of taking a high polish.
stones placed on top of cornice crowning
the walls. 3. Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is
either oolitic, or calcite cemented
MASONRY WALLS calcareous stone formed of shells
fragments, particularly non-crystalline in
Walls that consist of modular building blocks or
nature, it has no cleavage lines and uniform
units bonded with mortar to form walls that are fire-
in structure and composition.
resistant, durable and structurally efficient in
compressive action. They can be constructed 4. Travertine – a sedimentary rock,
as solid walls, cavity walls or veneered walls. composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It
has been formed at the earth’s surface
Masonry walls are classified according to the
through the evaporation of water from hot
following:
springs.
▪ Unreinforced masonry walls (also known
5. Marble – metamorphic rock, one that has
as plain masonry walls) – incorporate
been changed from its original structure in
horizontal joint reinforcement and metal
this case, limestone and dolomite have
wall ties to bond the wythes of a solid or
been recrystallized to form marble.
cavity walls.
6. Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral
▪ Reinforced Masonry Walls – are walls
serpentine. The mineral is olive green to
that utilize steel reinforcing bars embedded
greenish black, but impurities may give the
in grout filled joints and cavities to aid the
rock other colors.
masonry in resisting stresses.
7. Sandstone – a class of rock composed of
cemented silica grains. Colors include gray,
BUILDING STONES buff, light brown and red.

These materials are usually of blocks or pieces of 8. Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of
the basic material which is rock. clays and shales deposited in layers. A

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unique characteristic of the rock is the METALS

relative ease with which it may be
separated into thin tough sheets, called Types of Metals
slates, ¼” or more thick. o Ferrous – metal in which iron is the
9. Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a principal element
hydrated calcium sulfate from which o Nonferrous – containing no, or very little
gypsum plaster is made (by heating); iron.
colorless when pure used as a retarder in
Portland cement. Ferrous Metal:
Stone Construction: 1. Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon
produced by melting and refining pig iron
1. Paneling – consists of using slabs of stone and/or scrap steel, graded according to the
cut to dimension and thickness to cover carbon content.
backup walls and provide a finished
exterior. 2. Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is
high in compressive strength but low in
2. Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone tensile strength, and has little use for
and includes broken ashlar, irregular construction
coursed ashlar, regular coursed ashlar.
3. Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is
3. Rubblework – used as random when no melted in such a way as to remove nearly
attempt is made to produce either horizontal all of the carbon and other impurities.
or vertical course lines. Small spaces are
filled with spalls, small stones and used as 4. Alloy Steels – made by containing other
course rubble work, horizontal course lines elements with the molten steel. Nickel,
are maintained but no vertical course lines chromium copper and manganese are
used. used.
4. Trim – involves use of stones cut for a 5. Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel
specific purpose and include Quoin – stones and is used to make structural members for
laid at the intersection of two walls. building chromium steel is very hard and
corrosion-resistant.
5. As jambs – stones which form the sides of
window and door openings. 6. Stainless Steels – made with chromium or
a combination of nickel and chromium used
6. As sills – stones which form the bottom of in buildings for exterior wall panels, frames
window and door openings for doors, expansion joints, flashings,
7. As belts – special stone courses which are copings, fascia and gravel stops.
built into a wall for a particular purpose. One 7. Copper – bearing steel has high resistance
reason is to provide architectural relief to a to corrosion and is used for making sheet
large wall of one material or to provide a steel and metal lath.
break I the vertical plane of the wall, another
reason is to hide a change in the wall 8. Manganese Steel – offers great resistance
thickness. to abrasion and finds important use in the
cutting edges of heavy digging tools.
8. As copings – one which is cut fit on the top
of a masonry wall. It prevents the passage 9. Weathering Steel – recently developed
of water into the wall, sheds water to either grade of steel. It forms its protection
inside or outside, and gives a finished against atmospheric corrosion and thus
appearance to the wall. requires no painting.
9. As cornices – specially cut stones which Nonferrous Metal:
are built into and project from a masonry
1. Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white
wall near the top to provide the appearance
nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is
of a cave.
very malleable; has good thermal and
10. As lintels – stones which bridge the top of electrical conductivity; a good reflector of
door and window openings. both heat and light.
11. As stone steps – made to fit over an 2. Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier
inclined concrete slab or to cap steps cast in on walls and ceilings and as reflective
concrete. insulation.
12. As an arch stone – cut to form some 3. Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly
particular type of arch over a door or ductile and malleable; has high tensile
window opening. strength; is an excellent electrical and
thermal conductor; is available in a wide
13. As stone flooring – walks and patios, variety of shapes; widely used for
made by covering a base of stone concrete downspout, electrical conductors, flashings,
brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed gutter, roofing, etc.
flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.
4. Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has
low melting point and a high coefficient of
thermal expansion. Very easy to cut and
work, enabling it to be fitted over uneven

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surfaces, used for roofing, flashing and 2. Alloy Steels:

spandrel wall panels.
These are steels to which various elements such as
5. Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and
metal having a low melting point; relatively molybdenum have been added in sufficient quantity
unaffected by exposure to air; used for to produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels
making alloys and solder and in coating in cast, rolled or heat-treated form.
sheet metal.
▪ High-strength low-alloy steels are a
STEEL group of trade name steels with
improved mechanical properties and
Steel refers usually to plain carbon steels, which is resistance to atmospheric corrosion,
defined as alloys of iron and carbon which do not They are being increasingly used as
contain more than 2% carbon and which are made reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete,
in malleable or ingot form. In the plain or straight high strength bolts, special structural
carbon steels, the iron is always in excess of 95%. steels and cables for elevators, etc.
Phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are
present, the last three as impurities. Manganese, ▪ Stainless steels generally used in
silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be architecture are highly alloyed steels
present either as residual impurities or as elements that contain more than 10% chromium.
deliberately added in small quantities to control the They are characterized by their
properties of the steel. Carbon steel can be resistance to heat, oxidation and
wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded. corrosion. They are used where
corrosion resistance, durability, and
1. Wrought Carbon Steels: minimum of maintenance is necessary
▪ Structural steel - This is a medium principally for exterior and interior wall
carbon steel with its carbon content finishes, doors, windows, trims, railings,
controlled to give both the strength signs and letters, appliances, etc.
and ductility necessary for its use. Methods of Joining Metals
Structural steel is available in angles,
channels, I-beams, H columns, T The four methods of joining metals are:
shapes, Z shapes, plates, round pipe
columns, sheet piling, open web 1. Soldering - Soldering is a method to join
joists, and light steel framing shapes metals, to make electrical connections, to
seal joints hermetically with another lower
▪ Reinforcing Bars - These are melting metal or alloy called the solder.
usually used for reinforcing concrete
and are available in commercial ▪ Metal Bath Dip Metal Bath Dip
sizes. defined as a metal-joining process
where the workpieces to be joined
▪ Sheet and Strip - Steel sheet is are immersed in a pot of molten
made from low carbon steels solder and because of the relatively
generally containing about 0.15% low melting temperature of the solder
carbon and not exceeding 0.25% (between 350 and 600 degrees F),
carbon. Strip by definition is sheet only adhesion between the solder
material that is 12” or less wide. It is and the workpieces
used in fabricated form as decking results. Typically, dip soldering is an
galvanized sheet, expanded metal, automated process used extensively
panels and sandwich panels, and as in the electronics assembly industry.
a base metal for porcelain enamel.
▪ Soldering Iron In this method the
▪ Corrugated steel - This is rigidized iron piece is preheated and applied to
sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold the joint along with the solder and the
or hot-rolled steel sheets which are flux (the flux is a substance used in
either galvanized or covered with soldering to clean the surfaces of the
some type of bituminous coating. If metals to be joined and to aid fluidity);
galvanized, corrugated steel is silvery the heat from the iron forms the
in color and has a glittering frosted soldered joint.
surface. It is generally available in 18,
20, 22. 24, and 26 gauge sheet and ▪ Torch The parts to be soldered are
strip. heated by the torch flame and then
the solder and flux are applied. This
▪ Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth They are method is limited to metals which can
used for concrete reinforcement, lath be heated without altering their
for plaster, stucco, and cement, characteristics.
fence, insect screens.
2. Sweat Method
▪ Steel Windows and Doors They are
used for windows and doors for The heating of the metals to be joined causes the
residential, commercial, industrial, solder to run into the joint. This is the method used
institutional and other types such as for joining copper tubing and fittings. Fluxes for
for fire-rated materials. soldering are generally of three types: corrosive,
neutral and non-corrosive.
▪ Hardware They are used for finish
hardware and other miscellaneous ▪ Corrosive fluxes are known as acid
accessories such as nails, screws, type and salt type fluxes and include
rivets, etc. chlorides of zinc, ammonium,

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calcium, magnesium, aluminum and ▪ Organic Finishes

other metal. Care should always be
taken with the corrosive fluxes. The
residue must be quickly removed, as FASTENING MATERIALS
it is not only corrosive to the metal
being joined, but it is also electrically Nails
conductive as a rule and therefore
Nails are slender and straight pieces of metal
cannot be used for most electrical
fasteners with one end pointed and the other end
work.
flared, enlarged or flattened for hammering into
▪ Neutral fluxes are mild in type and wood or other materials. They are usually made of
are used for easily soldered metals mild steel but can also be of aluminum, copper,
such as copper, brass, lead, and tin zinc, brass or stainless steel. For greater strength
plate. Stearic acid is a typical neutral specially in masonry construction, tempered high
flux. carbon steel are used.
▪ Non-corrosive fluxes leaves KINDS OF NAILS
residues which are noncorrosive and
Based on the process of manufacture, there are
nonconductive and therefore need
three kinds of nails in common use. They are
not be removed. Rosin is the principal
the cut nails, wire nails, and clinch nails.
flux of this type. Noncorrosive fluxes
are weak with their fluxing action and 1. Cut Nails - These are made from a strip of
their use are limited to the easily rolled iron or steel of the same thickness as
soldered base metals. the finished nail and a little wider than its
length. Machinery cuts the nails in alternate
3. Brazing
wedge-shaped slices and the heads are then
Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating stamped on them. Cut nails have greater
temperatures are higher (but lower than in welding) holding power than wire nails.
and in which stronger and higher-melting alloys are
2. Wire Nails – These are stronger for driving
used to fill the joints, which consequently are
than cut nails but not so pliable to bend or
stronger than ordinary soldered joints. The bond is
break characteristics, specially when driven
obtained by alloying between the brazing material
to hardwoods and less likely to split the
and the surface of the joined metals. Brazing is
woods, thus are generally preferred by the
generally used where the shape and position of the
carpenters. Wire nails are made from the
joint or the composition of the metal or metals are
same section-diameteras the shank of the
not adaptable to welding. In brazing the type of
nail by a machine which cuts the wire in even
metal to be joined, the brazing material, and their
lengths, heads and points them and when
color are equally important because galvanic
desired, barbs them.
action, strength of the joint, matching of colors play
a significant part in the finished product. 3. Clinch Nails – Nails made from open-hearth
or Bessemer steel wire and are used only in
4. Welding
place where it is desired to turn over the
Welding is the process by which two metals are so ends of the nails to form a clinch, as in the
joined that there is an actual union of the case of battens and cleats.
interatomic bonds. This may be brought about by
VARIOUS TYPES OF NAILS
close contact, heating, pressure, adding molten
metal, or combinations of these methods. The 1. Common Wire Nail (CWN) – a cut made of
resulting joints are as strong or stronger than the a low-carbon steel wire with a slender plain
metals joined. Welding may be divided into two shank and medium diamond point usually
general types: pressure welding in which pressure used for framing where finish is not
and heat make the weld; and fusion welding, in important. Use for general construction work
which the heat and added metal make the weld. In and are usually availble from 6d to 20d sizes
fusion welding the methods of heating are gas (d is the symbol of penny).
flame and electric arc. The gas flame now generally
used is acetylene mixed with oxygen. It will deliver 2. Finishing Nail – made from a finer wire than
about 5500˚F of heat which is sufficient to melt the the common wire nail, more slender with a
welding rod and the surrounding metal and then brad-type head that allows it to be set below
fuse them together. In electric-arc method, when the surface of the wood, usually used in
the welding rod (or electrode) is brought near the finishing work. Its head leaves a small hole
joint of the metals to be welded, an electric arc is that can be easily covered with putty.
formed which melts and fuses the metal and the 3. Brad Nail – has a head that projects slightly
welding rod. to one side almost flushed with the sides with
Aluminum Finishes the same thickness. These are very light
finishing nails and are used for light, finished
Aluminum products can and are often given a wide construction and to hold mouldings. While
range of finishes for both decorative and/or most nails are rated by their d-sizes and are
protective purposes. Aluminum can be surface sold by the kilos, wire brads are measured
finished in four types: by their lengths (which varies from 5
millimeters [3/16”] to 7.5 millimeters [3”]) and
▪ Mechanical Finishes
are usually sold by the box.
▪ Chemical Finishes
4. Box Nail – a thinner version of the common
▪ Electrolytic Oxide Finishes wire nail with a long shank usually barbed or
smoothed.

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5. Casing Nail – a slender nail with a slightly 3. Socket

flared head for finishing work. These have
finishing head and are use for flooring, 4. Combination
matched ceiling, interior trim.
6. Ring-Shank Nail – a nail consisting of a Head Shapes
series of ring-like grooves around the shank 1. Countersunk Heads – can be concealed
for increased holding power. below the wood surface.
7. Roofing Nail – short nail with barbed or 2. Raised Heads – countersunk screws with a
ringed shank and diamond point with a large slight domed head protruding from the
flat head provided with neoprene, lead or wood surface.
plastic washer for securing roofing felt or
shingles to a roof deck or roof boards. It is 3. Round/Domed Heads - heads rest on the
either galvanized or bright (metal finish using wood surface.
a dip, usually a mixture of hydrocloric, nitric,
Head Types
sulfuric acids and water.
1. Flat (FH) – a countersunk head with a flat
8. Metal Lath Nail – designed for securing
top
metal lath (a base fabricated either by slitting
metal and strenching it to form a diamond- 2. Oval (OH) or (OV) – a countersunk head
shaped mesh or by punching or forming with a rounded top
sheet metal classified as rib lath, diamond-
mesh lath sheet lath or wire lath). 3. Pan (PN) – a slightly rounded head with
short vertical sides
9. Staple Nail – also known as Electrician’s
Staple Nail, it is a U-shaped piece of metal or 4. Round (RH) – a domed head, the most
heavy wire with pointed ends driven into a universally used design in the past
surface to hold a hasp or sheet of metal. 5. Truss – an extra wide, low, large diameter
10. Concrete Nail/Masonry Nail – used for head with a rounded top. Also known as
nailing to concrete or masonry made of oven head, stove head, and oval binding
hardened steel with a flat countersunk head head
and diamond point with knurled or fluted 6. Hexagon [Trimmed] (HH) or (HX) – a
shank. standard type of wrench-applied hexagonal
11. Coated Nails – these are usually common or head characterized by clean, sharp corners
box nails which have been given a coating trimmed to closed tolerances,
for a particular purpose. Usually the purpose recommended for general commercial
is to keep them from rusting. Common applications
examples of these are the galvanized nails, 7. Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with built-
cement-coated nails and the blued nails. in washer
NAIL CONSTRUCTION METHODS 8. Slotted Hex Washer – a hexagonal head
1. Toe-Nailing – also known as tusk or skew with built-in washer and a slot
nailing where one hammers the nail 9. Socket Cap – a small cylindrical head
obliquely to the surfaces being joined. using a socket drive
2. Face-Nailing – the nails are driven or 10. Button – a low profile rounded head using
hammered perpendicular to the face of the socket drive
material.
11. Fillister – has a smaller diameter than the
3. Blind-Nailing – also known as secret or round head but is higher with a deeper slot
concealed nailing where the nail heads are
not seen on the face of the work. The use 12. Binding Head (Straight Side) – generally
of nails that are not exposed to the weather used in electrical and radio work with the
when use in finished roofing. identifying undercut beneath the head
which binds and eliminates fraying of
Screws stranded wire.
Metal fasteners that have tapered, externally 13. Hex Flange – similar to hex washer with
helically-threaded shanks with slotted heads, use the exception that the top of the washer
for driving into wood and other materials by turning flange shall be conical or slightly rounded.
with the use of a screwdriver. They have greater
holding strength and can be easily removed than 14. Square Shoulder – a truss head on a
nails. The more number of threads per inch in a square shank which resist rotation when
screw, the greater is its gripping strength. It can be located or driven into place
made of aluminum, brass, bronze, stainless steel or
steel. Its length varies from 1.3 mm (1/2”) to 15 mm Thread Types
(6”) with diameters of up to 24 gauge. 1. Coarse Threads – more commonly
Types of Drive available and have fewer threads per
inch. They are more tolerant to slight
These are the basic drive design: damage or corrosion. It is usually
specified as UNC or Unified Coarse.
1. Slotted
2. Fine Threads – slightly stronger because
2. Crosshead the smaller fine threads take up less of

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the available area. They provide finer square, button, countersunk or hexagonal.
adjustments since they advance less per They are used for heavy assemblies such
rotation than coarse threads. It is as anchoring to a post.
specified as UNF or Unified Fine.
2. Carriage Bolts – a bolt having a circular
These thread types are available in the American head, an oval or flat bearing surface with a
inch-based United Thread Standards designation or square collar and tightened with a nut only.
the ISO metric thread designation. The collar prevents the bolt from turning. It
is also known as a coach bolt.
KINDS OF SCREWS
3. Stove Bolt – small bolt with slotted heads,
1. Wood Screws – are usually used for either round or flat, which is countersunk
millwork and finishing rather than for into the work piece with the entire length of
structural framing. They are used in shank threaded. It is used for light
fastening millwork where resistance to assemblies.
withdrawal is a requirement. Screws are
designed to be much better at resisting 4. Eye Bolt – a bolt with a looped head.
withdrawal than nails. Wood screws
have coarser pitch (few threads per 5. Plow Bolt – is a bolt similar to a carriage
inch) and often have an unthreaded bolt except the head is flat or concave, and
shank. the underside is a cone designed to fit in a
countersunk recess.
2. Metal Screws – usually threaded all the
way to their head and are self-tapping in 6. Set Bolt – a bolt that is threaded all the way
that they only require a pre-drilled hole to the head. Also known as tap bolt.
or come with self-drilling or self-tapping 7. Tension Control Bolt – is a heavy duty bolt
tips. used in steel frame constructions. The
3. Drywall Screws – use to secure drywall head is usually domed and is not designed
to wood (the coarse thread version) or to be driven. The end of the shank has a
metal studs (the fine thread version). spline on which it is engaged by a special
The head-to-shaft junction is more power wrench which prevents the bolt from
curved to prevent tearing of the drywall. turning while the nut is tightened. The
They also come with self-drilling tips. spline shears off once the appropriate
torque is reached.
4. Lag Screw, Lag Bolt, Coach Screw – a
bolt with thin, coarse-pitched thread and 8. Toggle Bolt – a bolt having a nut with
a square head. pivoted flanged wings that close against a
spring when it is pushed through a hole and
5. Screw Anchors – an anchor having a open after emerging from the hole. It is
metal shell with a screw along its central used to fasten objects to a hollow wall
axis (similar to an expansion bolt), which is assessible only from one side. It is
where a shell is placed in a hole and a used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum
screw is driven into it thereby expanding boards and other thin wall materials.
it and securing tightly the anchor into the
hole. It is locally called as tux 9. Expansion Bolts – an anchoring device
screw usually provided with a plastic having an expandable socket (called
shell. expansion shields) that swells as the bolt is
tightened into it usually used for attaching
6. Tekscrew – a kind of screw that is used timber in masonry or concrete walls.
to fasten metal roofing sheets to the roof
purlins. Types of Nuts

Bolts Nuts are short metal block having a central hole

which is threaded to receive a bolt or other
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods with one end threaded part or material.
having the head and with the external thread on the
other end that accepts a mating nut (a metal block 1. Hex – a six-sided nut and also referred to
with a central threaded hole to receive a bolt or as a finished hex nut.
other threaded material) and is used for holding 2. Nylon Insert Lock - a nut with a nylon insert
together or securing different members or materials to prevent backing off and also referred to
after being inserted through holes. The two (2) as a Nylock.
categories of bolts used in steel frame construction
are the carbon steel bolts and the high-strength 3. Jam – a hex nut with a reduced height.
bolts. The former are known as common bolts
4. Nylon Insert Jam Lock – a nylock nut with a
made of carbon steel with minimum copper content
reduced height.
not mor than 0.40% similar to ordinary machine
bolts. While the latter is made either of high- 5. Wing – a nut with “wings” for hand
strength carbon steel or tempered alloy steel tightening.
meaning heat treated during manufacture in order
to attain the necessary strength. Pneumatic or 6. Cap – a nut with a domed top over the end
Electric Impact wrench are used in tightening these of the fastener.
bolts. 7. Acorn – a nut with a high crown used for
Types of Bolts appearance.

1. Machine Bolts – a bolt having a straight 8. Flange – a nut with a built-in washer like a
shank and a conventional head such as a flange.

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9. Tee – a nut designed to be driven into Types of Rivet Heads:

wood to create a threaded hole.
1. Countersunk, raised
10. Squre – a four sided nut.
2. Countersunk, flat
11. Prevailing Torque Lock – a non-reversible
lock nut used for high temperature 3. Button, coned neck
applications. 4. Button, straight neck
12. K-Lock or Kep – a nut with an attached 5. Pan, coned neck
free-spinning external tooth lockwasher.
6. Pan, straight neck
13. Coupling – long nut used to connect pieces
of threaded rod or other male threade Hinges
fasteners.
Hinges are those finish hardware elements on
14. Slotted – are used in conjunction with a which doors and windows, cabinets, etc. turn,
cotter pin on drilled shank fasteners to swing or slide, and open or close. They are
prevent loosening. movable joints used to attach, support and turn a
door about a pivot consisting of two plates joined
15. Castle – similar to slotted nut but with the together by a pin which support the door and
slots in arounded section above the main connect it to the frame.
nut.
Classification of Hinges:
TYPES OF WASHERS
1. Full Mortise Hinges – hinges that are
Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or countersunk into both the door and jamb.
plastic, used under the head of a nut or bolt or at a Hinges that are used for most doors
joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve
friction or insulate incompatible materials. 2. Half Mortise Hinges – hinges that have one
joint countersunk into the door and the
1. Flat – a washer used to distribute load. other attach to the jamb.
2. Fender – an oversize flat washer to further 3. Full Surface Hinges – hinges that are
distribute load specially on soft materials. applied to both door and jamb surfaces
3. Finishing – a washer used to obtain a without mortise or being countersunk.
“finished look” and usually used with an 4. Half Surface Hinges – applied to the
oval head screw. surface of the door without being mortise
4. Split Lock – the most common style of but are countersunk or mortise into the
washer used to prevent nuts and bolts from jamb. These are used for lightweight doors
backing out. such as screen and storm doors.

5. External Tooth Lock – another type of Types of Hinges:

washer with external “teeth” to prevent 1. Butt Hinge – the most commonly used
bolts and nuts from backing out. type. They are referred to as butts because
6. Internal Tooth Lock - another type of they are attached to the butt edge of the
washer with internal “teeth” to prevent bolts door. They consist of two (2) leaves with an
and nuts from backing out. odd number of knuckles on one leaf and
even numbers of knuckles on the other
7. Square – a square shaped washer. leaf. These knuckles are attached with a
pin. Both the knuckles and the pin form the
8. Dock – washer that has a large outside barrel of the hinge which is finished with a
diameter and thicker than the standard. tip. The pins are made in several styles: flat
9. Ogee – thick, large diameter, cast iron button tip, ball tip, oval head, cone tip,
washer with a curved or sculpted steeple tip, bullet tip, hospital.
appearance used in dock and wood Varieties of Butt Hinge:
construction.
1. Loose Pin Hinge- also known as
removable pin hinge which allows its
Rivets two parts to be separated.

Rivets are are short pins made of malleable metal 2. Loose Joint Pin – hinge having two
such as steel, copper or iron, having a head at one knuckles, with one of which has a
end. They are metal pins that are used for vertical pin that fits into the
permanently joining two or more structural steel corresponding hole in the other. The
members by passing a headed shank through a door may be removed by unscrewing
hole in each piece and hammering down the plain the hinge or lifting the door off the
end to form a second head. vertical pin.

When a joint is accessible only from one 3. Fast Pin Hinge – a hinge in which the
side, explosive rivets are used where the pin is permanently fastened in place,
explosive-filled shank is hammered to detonate and either riveted, driven in, or welded at
expand the shank on the other end. However, their both ends. The use of these variety
use has been largely superseded nowadays by makes hanging of doors difficult.
bolting or welding which are less labor-intensive 4. Olive-Knuckle Hinge – also known as
methods. Paumelle Hinge in which the knuckles

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form an oval shape. A type of loose pin Cabinet Cathes

hinge equipped with a ball bearing.
Only the knuckles are visible when the 1. Friction Catch – A catch in which when it
door is closed. engages a strike is held by friction.

5. Invisible Hinge – Also known as Soss 2. Magnetic Pressure Catch – hinge held in
Hinge (a famous brand name) that is place by magnetic pressure.
so constructed that no parts are 3. Ball Catch – also known as bullet catch
exposed when the door is closed. which holds a door in place by means of
6. Spring Hinge – Used for swing doors projecting spring-actuated steel ball which
containing one or more spring in which is depressed when the door is closed.
the hinge returns to its closed position Cabinet Knobs
automatically after the door is opened.
It may act on one or both directions. 1. Screw-in Knob
Three (3) Types: 2. Bolt-on Knob
1. Spring Tension Hinge 3. Flush Knob
▪ Adjustable Tension 4. Flush Ring
▪ Half Surface Adjustable 5. Pull
Tension
Lid Stays
▪ Full Surface Adjustable
Drawer Runners
Tension
1. E-Single Extension – the withdrawal
▪ Non-Adjustable Tension
distance is designed to be less than the
▪ Full Surface Non- installation length.
Adjustable Tension
2. V-Full Extension – has a pull-out
2. Spring Butt Hinge distance equal or greater than the
installation length.
▪ Double Acting Spring
3. T-Telescopic Extension – full extending
▪ Single Acting Spring runners.
3. Spring Pivot Hinge Cabinet Locks
▪ Top Pivot 1. Rim Locks
▪ Bottom Pivot (horizontal, 2. Mortise Locks
vertical type)
3. In-Laid Flap Locks
FURNITURE HINGES
4. Lever Locks
Types:
5. Locker Locks
1. Standard Butt – usually made of brass for
general use. 6. Glass Door Locks
2. Back Flap Hinge – hinge with wide plates Shelf Support
for table leaves and rabbeted full flaps.
1. Pin Mounted
3. Strap Hinge – hinge use for narrow
2. Plug-In
sections.
3. Screw-In
4. Lift-off Butt – hinge used on cabinet doors
for easy removal without disturbing the 4. Screw-Mounted
settings.
5. Surface Mounted
5. Loose Pin Hinge – also known as ball-
tipped hinge. 6. Glass Shelf Supports

6. Stopped Hinge – usually used for box lids,

opens at 90 degrees only.
7. Piano Hinge – also known as continuous
hinge, having the same length as the
moving parts to which it is attached.
8. Clock Case Hinge – hinge where one
plate is wider to allow a projecting door.
9. Concealed Hinges
10. Pivot Hinge
11. Tee Hinge, T-Hinge
12. Glass Door Hinge

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WOOD as wood will not move, such as furniture.

Flooring and general interior use.
It is a traditional building material, it is easily
worked, has durability and beauty. It has great Pressure treated lumber is when lumber is
ability to absorb shocks from sudden load. In subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals
addition, wood has freedom from rust and or salts to insure it from rots.
corrosion, is comparatively light in weight, and is
adaptable to countless variety of purposes. Specification when buying lumber:

Classification of Trees: Indicate no. of pieces, thickness, width, length, total

bd. Ft. kind of lumber and finish.
1. Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have
broad leaves which are normally shed in Example: 6-2” x 8” x 14’-0” = 112 bd. Ft. tanguile
the winter time. S4S

2. Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have Glue laminated timber – term used to describe a
needles rather than leaves and that bear wooden member built up of several layers of wood
their seeds in cones. whose grain directions are all substantially parallel,
and held together with glue as fastening commonly
Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as a used for beams, girders, posts, columns, arches,
percentage of the oven-dry weight and can be arches, bowstring truss chords, usually softwoods
determined by the oven-dry method or by an are commonly used because of their low cost,
electric-moisture meter method. lightness and strength.
Three categories of Lumber: Glue use in laminating:
1. Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light 1. Casein glue – satisfactory for use in dry
construction and finishing work and locations not exposed to rain or water.
consists of 1 and 2 inches material
manufactured into common boards, 2. Urea-formaldehyde-resin – cheap and
shiplap, shelving dimension lumber, center well cure at from 70 degrees Fahrenheit up.
match, flooring, roof plank, siding, v-joint, Will withstand soaking in cool water.
trim and molding of all kinds. These are 3. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues – not
usually found in retail lumberyards. usually recommended because of the high
2. Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2 temperature needed to cure them. Useful
inches rough thickness often containing for combining timber and plywood and are
knots or defects not ordinarily permissible very water-resistant.
in other categories. It is intended for use in 4. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde – resin
shops or mills making sash, doors and glues are expensive but have excellent
cabinets where it will be cut into relatively qualities of durability and water resistance.
short pieces and the defective material
discarded. Recycled Waste Products, Building Boards and
Papers
3. Structural Lumber – in intended for use in
heavy construction for load-bearing Building Boards – a group of sheets of building
purposes and is cut into timbers of large materials often faced with paper or vinyl, suitable
size than yard lumber, 3 inches or more for use as a finished surface on walls, ceiling, etc.
thick and 4 inches or more wide. It is made
Kinds of Building Boards:
from the heartwood of the log.
1. Plywood – made by bonding together thin
Finishes of Wood:
layers of wood in a way that the grain of
▪ S1S – surfacing or planning of one side each layer is at right angles to the grain of
each adjacent layer.
▪ S2S – two sides planed
▪ Veneer - each layer of plywood
▪ S4S – four sides planed
▪ Rotary Cutting – a method of
▪ Rough – as sawn and not planed cutting wood veneer in which a log
Wood Grain: is fixed in a lathe and rotated
against a knife so that the veneer is
1. Edge Grain – annual rings run peeled from the log in a continuous
approximately at right angle to the face. sheet.
2. Flat Grain – when the annual rings run 2. Hardboard – made from processed wood
more or less parallel to the surface. chips.
3. Angle Grain – when the annual rings are Three grades of board:
at about 45 degrees to the face.
▪ Standard – flexible to be quite easily bent
Seasoning of Lumber:
▪ Tempered hardboard – made by
1. Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope impregnated standard board with a
on a solid foundation. This allows air to tempering compound of oils and resin and
circulate around every piece while the baking it to polymerize the tempering
sloping allows water to run off quickly. material.
2. Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber ▪ Low-density hardboard – not as strong
which is required for more refined uses so and durable as standard hardboard.

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3. Insulating Fiberboard – made from three then mechanically disintegrated in rotating

types of fiber – wood, sugar cane, and disk refiners.
asbestos, and binder, formed into a board.
Types of Paper:
4. Chipboard – a large class of building board
made from wood and particles and a binder, 1. Sheathing Paper – used to provide an
often faced with veneer. airtight barrier over walls, floors, etc.

5. Particle Board – a hardboard made from 2. Roofing Paper

relatively small particles. ▪ Roofing felts - used in making a
6. Gypsum Board – a wall board having a built-up roof and are usually
gypsum core. produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in
various weights from 3 to 20
7. Straw Board – a hardboard made of lb/square.
compressed wheat straw, processed at 350
to 400 degrees Fahrenheit and covered with ▪ Rolledroofing – a heavy, mineral
a tough kraft paper. surfaced paper used as a final roof
covering, made 18 and 36 in.
8. Asbestos-cement Board – a dense, rigid wide, in various weights from 45 to
board containing a high proportion of 120 lb/square.
asbestos fibers bonded with Portland
cement, resistant to fire, flame, and 3. Insulating Paper – used to secure bulk
weathering, has low resistance to heat flow. and entrapped air with as much strength
as possible. Insulating papers are made
9. Corkboard – from the outer bark of the cork from both wood-fiber insulating p aper
oak tree, cork granules is mixed with and asbestos fibers.
synthetic resin, compressed and formed into
sheet from 1 to 6 inches thick and 4. Cushioning Paper – similar to wood-fiber
baked under pressure into rigid boards. insulating paper, but less attention is paid
to strength. Its chief use is for cushioning
10. Paperboard – made into two different types: under linoleum, carpets, or slate roofing.
a paper pulp pressed into boards 3/16, or
¼in. thick, 4 ft. wide, and 6, 7 or 8 ft. long. 5. Vapor Barrier Paper- intended to prevent
Usually one surface is primed for easier the passage of moisture vapor through
finishing. The other is a layer of stiff paper walls, ceilings and floors.
folded into corrugated from and faced on 6. Laminating Paper – a special, high
both sides with a thick paper backing, strength kraft paper made for use in the
cemented to the core. production of plastic laminates. The thin,
11. Mineral Fiberground – thick mats of mineral strong paper is impregnated with liquid
fibers, usually glass or rock wool are covered plastic resin and several sheet are
with a backing of stiff paper on one or both laminated together under heat and
sides to form rigid boards, ranging in pressure to form the base for the plastic
thickness from ½ to 2 in. The usual board sheet.
size is 24 x 48 inches. 7. Concrete Form Paper – made from
12. Plastic Foamboards – polystrene and strong kraft paper in the form of a spiral
polyurethane plastics are formed by a tube and boxlike from made from
patented process to about 40 times their corrugated container paper.
original volume. Used for perimeter 8. Wallpaper – paper from which decorative
insulation for concrete floor slabs, for wall wallpaper is made.
and roof deck insulation, and for roof decks
when properly supported. 9. Envelope Paper – used as an outer
covering or envelope for a number of
Building Papers building materials. One of these is
In building construction, paper is used for gypsum board, composed of a layer of
sheathing, roofing and insulation, in making asphalt calcined gypsum covered in both sides by
shingles, laminated and corrugated building a sheet of kraft paper.
products, and concrete form materials, as a 10. Fire Proofing Paper – made from
moisture and vapor barrier; as cushioning material; asbestos fibers, since this is an
as wallpaper; as an envelope or sheath for other incombustible material. This material
materials; and as a fireproofing material. maybe in the form of matted paper,
Type of Wood Pulp: similar to asbestos insulating or roofing
paper, or it may be in the form of a cloth
1. Mechanical Pulp – or groundwood, is woven from thread spun from asbestos
produced by grinding blocks of wood fibers.
against a revolving abrasive stone or by
grinding steamed wood chips in a grinding
mill.
2. Chemical Pulp – produced by digesting
wood chips in various chemicals to free the
cellulose fibers from the liquid binding.
3. Semi-chemical Pulp – wood chips are first
subjected to a mild chemical treatment and

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GLASS AND GLAZING MATERIALS because of its low reflecting and absorption
index, transmits 90 to 93 percent of light rays
Glass and Glazings striking it.
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance, 3. Cathedral and Figured Glass –
ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by manufacturing is similar to rolled and rough-
melting a mixture of silica, a flux and a stabilizer. cast glasses. However, they contain a
Glazing - in architectural specifications is the term pattern or texture impressed usually on one
used for the installation of glass. It is the setting of surface by a patterned roller.
glass in an opening. 4. Wired Glass – simply a rolled glass into
Glazing Materials - The materials used for making which diamond-shaped wire mesh is inserted
a weathertight joint between the glass and the during the proces of manufacture.
frame into which the glass sets. 5. Heat –Absorbing Plate Glass – made by
Major types of Glass are: adding ingredients to the mix used in making
regular slate glass so that the finished
1. Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime product is pale bluish-green or gray.
type of glass used for general glazing,
mirrors, insulating and laminated glass. 6. Tempered Plate Glass – three to five times
as strong as regular plate of the same
Classification of Sheet Glass: thickness – and area in resisting
compressive forces and fracture due to strain
▪ Window Glass – used for glazing
or thermal shock.
windows doors and storm sash in
residential buildings where good light 7. Vitreous Colored Plate – polished plate
and vision are required at moderate glass can be heat-strengthened and coated
cost. on one side with vitreous color which is fire-
fused to the surface.
▪ Heavy Sheet Glass – used for
glazing windows and doors where 8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet
greater strength is required but where Proofing) – widely used in the automotive
slight distortion is not objectionable. industry and transportation, but now finding
some uses in the building industry, like glass
▪ Picture Glass – used for covering
that can withstand firearm attack and
pictures, photographs, maps, charts
explosions.
projector slides and instrument dials.
9. Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets of
2. Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature of
plate or sheet glass, separated by an air
this glass is its surface rather than the
space, and joined around the edges to
composition and thickness. It is formed by
produce a hermitically sealed unit.
rolling molten glass into a plate that is
subsequently ground and polished on both 10. Annealed Glass – type of glass that is
sides to a perfectly flat plane after cooling. It cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
provides a virtually clear and indistorted
vision. 11. Heat Strengthened Glass – is annealed
There are two kinds glass that is partially tempered by the
process of reheating and sudden cooling.
▪ one with thickness up to 8 This has the about twice the strength of
millimeters (5/16”) annealed glass with the same thickness.
▪ the heavy plate glass from 16 12. Heat Absorbing and Glare-Reducing
millimeters (5/16”) to 32 millimeters Glass (Tinted Glass) – Any type of glass
(1-1/4”) that absorbs percentages of the total radiant
energy of the sun and includes glass that
3. Float Glass – is produced by pouring molten
has been made translucent by surface
glass into a surface of molten tin and
treatment.
allowing it to cool slowly and the resulting flat
and parallel surface minimize distortion and 13. Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent glass
eliminate the use of grinding and polishing. with distinctive geometric or linear designs
Float glass is manufactured for majority of that was formed during the rolling process
flat glass production. that diffuse light and obscure vision.
Other Types of Glass: 14. Structural Glass – is a specially ground and
polished, opaque colored glass obtained
1. Reflective Glass – used to control glare and
bythe addition of metallic oxides. It is used
reduce solar heat. It the product of a
for facing material for vertical and horizontal
glasscoating process which is carried out in
surfaces of walls, partitions and narrow flat
a large, rectangular vacuum chamber.
surfaces.
Manufactured in two types, silver and gold,
the glass can be specified in any one of 15. Tempered Glass – annealed glass that has
three nominal light transmittance of 8, 14, or been reheated to just below the softening
20 percent. point and then suddenly cooled by subjecting
both surfaces to jets of air. This process
2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass – used
induce compressive stresses in the outside
where clear vision is not required, such as by
surfaces and edges of the glass (which cools
factory roofs and walls, windows for halls
faster) with the inner portion to be under the
and staircases, skylights, and partitions in
state of tensile stresses, the two
offices. Cast glass diffuses light, and

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forces/stresses being balanced. This glass and is also used as a continuous bed
cannot be drilled or cut, that is why all material with polysulfide sealing compound.
dimensions, holes, hardwares must be
designed before its manufacture. When 5. Polysulfide Elastomer Sealing
fractured, the glass breaks up into relatively Compound – is a compound composed of
harmless, pebble-sized pieces. two-part synthetic rubber. The activator and
the base compound are generally mixed at
16. Obscure Glass – has one or both sides the job site and applied with a caulking gun
acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure or spatula. The use of this material requires
vision. Both process, however weaken the that the surrounding areas be protected by
glass and makes it difficult to clean. masking with tape and any spillage shall be
removed immediately because once the
17. Spandrel Glass – opaque finish use for mixture sets, it will be almost impossible to
concealing the structural elements in a remove.
curtainwall construction. It is produced by
fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface of 6. Compression Materials – are extruded or
tempered or heat-strengthened glass. molded shapes made of rubber, neoprene,
vinyl, or other plastics. In order to achieve a
18. Low-Emissivity Glass – or Low-E glass is weathertight joint, the shape must be
produced by depositing a low emission compressed not less that 15%.
coating either on the glass itself or over the
transparent plastic film suspended in the 7. Gaskets – are used between the glass and
sealed air space of the insulating glass. This extruded aluminum and wood-framed
glass selectively reflect the longer windows. They are made of non-hardening
wavelengths of the radiant heat while materials such as vinyl, rubber.
transmitting visible light.
8. Stabilizers and Metal Joining Units – are
Glass products: used between two large glass panels, as
used in glass curtainwalls wher wind
1. Glass Blocks – comparable in many ways velocities are normally higher than the glass
to unit masonry but have the added feature can withstand without this protection.
of transmitting light.
Glazing Systems
2. Solid Glass Brick – also made to admit light
into a building, because of its solid 1. Face Glazing – refers to the setting of small
construction, it offers greater protection glass panels or panes in a rabetted frame,
against vandalism than conventional window held in place with glazier’s points and sealed
glass or glass blocks. The ability of the brick with beveled head of putty glazing
is to allow soft passage of light. compound.
▪ Glazier’s points – these are metal
points that hold a glass pane in a
Glazing materials in general use are as follows: sash until the face putty has
1. Wood Sash Putty – is the cement hardened.
composed of fine powdered chalk (whiting) ▪ Putty – is a mixture or compound of
or lead oxide (white lead) mixed with boiled whiting and linseed oil, of dough-like
or raw linseed oil. It may contain other drying consistency when fresh, used in
oils such as soybean and perilla. As the oil securing window panes or patching
oxidizes, the putty hardens; and if rapid of woodwork defects.
hardening is desired, litcharge or special
dryers may be added. Putty is also used to ▪ Face Putty – is the putty or glazing
fill up holes and cracks in woodwork. The compound formed on the exterior
wood should be treated with boiled linseed side of a glass pane.
oil or a priming paint before putty is applied.
Putty should never be painted unless it is ▪ Glazing compound – is an
thoroughly dry. adhesive compound used as putty,
formulated so as not to become
2. Metal Sash Putty – is made of materials that brittle with age.
adhere to non-porous surfaces. It should
always be applied as per recommendation of 2. Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a
the manufacturer. In general, it should be window frame with glazing tape or a liquid
painted two (2) weeks after application. sealant.
Metal sash putty is made in two types: a.) ▪ Glazing tape – is a preformed
exterior glazing and b.) interior glazing. ribbon of synthetic rubber such as
3. Elastic Glazing Compound - is made from butyl or polyisobutylene, having
selected processed oils and color pigments adhesive properties used in glazing
compounded so that iot will remain plastic to form watertight seal between
and resilient over a long period of time. They glass and frame.
are generally used where vibration and ▪ Cap bead or sealant – an adhesive
twisting occurs. liquid of synthetic rubber injected
4. Polybutane Tape – a non-drying mastic into the joint between a glass pane
made in extruded ribbon shapes of various or unit and a window frame, forming
widths and thicknesses and must be applied a watertight seal upon curing.
with pressure for proper adhesion. It remains ▪ Glazing bead or stop – is the wood
plastic over extremely long periods of time molding or metal section secured

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against the edge of a glass pane or water before using. Both solutions should
unit to hold it in place. be applied with a soft, flat brush (one for
each solution), the soap boiling hot and the
▪ Heel Bead – is an adhesive liquid of alum solution of 60 to 70°F. The soap
synthetic rubber injected between a solution is applied first and allowed to dry -
glass pane or unit and a glazing usually for 24 hours. Then the alum is
bead that forms an airtight seal applied and allowed to dry for the same
upon curing. length of time. This constitutes one
3. Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass pane in treatment, as many treatments may be
a window frame with a compression gasket applied as necessary. The solutions should
instead of glazing tape or liquid sealant. be well rubbed in, but care should be taken
to avoid frothing when applying the soap
▪ Compression gasket – a pre- wash.
formed strip of synthetic rubber or
plastic compressed between a glass o Alum, lye and cement washes.
pane or unit and a window frame to o Cement grout, with or without the addition
form a watertight seal and cushion of water – repellants.
for the glass pane.
o Paraffin and other mineral bases, applied
4. Structural Gasket Glazing – are pre-formed cold in solution or prepared in melted.
synthetic rubber or other elstomeric materials
to secure a glass pane or unit in a window o Miscellaneous materials of unknown
frame or opening. The gaskets are held in composition sold under various trade
compression by forcing a keyed locking strip names.
into a groove in the gasket. The glass pane
must be supported on at least two sides by o Specially prepared bituminous
the frame or a support gasket. products, e.g., “FLINT-KOTE”, “JOHN-
MANSVILLE”, etc.
▪ Setting blocks – made of lead or
synthetic rubber placed under the o Asphalt emulsions. Minute asphalt
lower edge of a glass pane or unit to particles dispersed in water and maintained
support it within the frame. in suspension (until applied) by a mineral
colloid emulsifying agent. The product is
generally called Asphalt Base Clay
Emulsions. When the water vehicle
WATERPROOFING evaporates, resilient reinforced
Types of Waterproofing: weatherproof film remains. Such coatings
resist passage of free water but allow
o Torch Applied, Integral and Membrane movement of water vapor through the film
and are classed as breathing films.
o Cementitious
o Cutback Asphalts. These are composed
o Sprayed Polyurethane Foam
of a wide variety of products from thin
o Elastomeric liquids to heavy paste. Often one or more
asphalts dissolved in solvent are filled with
Types of Damp-proofing: minerals and fibers to meet requirements of
o Damp-roof Membrane different coating uses. Cutback asphalts
provide tough, durable films resistant to the
o Asphalt & Bitumens passage of water vapor.
o Plastic sheets Types of Waterproofing according to
application:
Sound Insulation
1. Integral Waterproofing Compounds
o Types of Sound Insulation Applications &
Materials: These are waterproofing compounds that are
manufactured and sold under various trade names
o SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam) and are available in either powder or liquid form,
o Plaster Type e.g.,

o Fiberglass Type ▪ “SAHARA”

Waterproofing Coatings and Washes ▪ “POZOLITH”

The materials employed as surface coatings may ▪ Truscon “ZILICON”

be classified as follows: ▪ “AQUELLA”
o Alum and soap mixtures applied in ▪ “ANTI-HYDRO”
alternate mixtures (known as the Sylvester
process), which penetrates the pores of the 2. Membrane Waterproofing
concentrate forming insoluble compounds
due to chemical action between the alum The layers of waterproofing materials used in this
and soap solutions, and these compounds method range from the ordinary tar paper laid with
prevents percolation. The proportions used coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt laid in
about ¾ gal. of soap to 1 gal. of water, and asphalt. In this method, all concrete surfaces to be
2oz. of alum to 1 gal. of water both waterproofed should be as smooth as possible and
substances to be perfectly dissolved in should be cleaned and dry. The concrete should be
allowed to set thoroughly and all uneven surfaces

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should be leveled up with a coat of cement mortar. o Strawboard – made from carefully
All sharp projections on the concrete or masonry selected straw, fused under heat
should be removed or they will puncture the and pressure into a panel 2 inches
waterproofing. thick and 4 ft. wide.
o Corkboard – made from granulated
cork mixed with resin and pressed
THERMAL INSULATION into sheets of several thickness,
Three ways of heat transfer: depending on the use to which they
will be put.
1. Conduction – the inside of a concrete wall
which has one side exposed to outside 5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type of
winter temperatures feels cold to the touch. insulation is so called because the units are
Heat is being conducted from the side of relatively stiff and inelastic. In most cases
higher temperature to that lower inorganic materials are used in their
temperature. manufactures.

2. Radiation – from this point, it is transferred 6. Reflective Insulation – made from such
to the outside air by radiation. materials as aluminum or copper foil or
sheet metal, with bright surfaces that reflect
3. Convection – when air is heated, it heat rather than absorbing it.
expands and begins to circulate, during the
circulation it comes in contact with cooler 7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is
surface, some of its heat is given up to polyurethane product made by combining a
them. It is therefore important to try to polyisocyanate and a polyester resin.
prevent air currents from being set up in the 8. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials used
walls and ceiling of our buildings. are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mixed
Kinds of Thermal Insulation: with inorganic binders, vermiculite
aggregate with a binder such as Portland
1. Loose Fill: cement or gypsum and perlite aggregate
using gypsum as binders.
o Fibrous type – made from mineral
woolrock wool, glass wool, or slag wool 9. Corrugated Insulation – usually made
– or vegetable fiber – usually wood from paper foamed into shapes that
fiber. produce enclosed air pockets. One type is
produced by shaping heavy paper into a
o Granular insulation – made from
series of small regular semicircular
expanded minerals such as
corrugations and covering a both sides with
vermaculite and perlite or from ground
a sheet of flat paper to give strength and
vegetable matter such as granulated
produce the air pockets.
coork.
o Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate
walls of buildings built without
insulation.
o Granules – are graded into four sizes,
1, (3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve) and sizes 2
(no. 4 to no. 30 sieve) used as loose-fill
insulation for sidewalls and ceilings
over suspended ceilings, between
wood sleepers over a concrete floor
slab, as fill for the cores of concrete
blocks, and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100
sieve) size 4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve).
2. Blanket Insulation – made from some
fibrous materials such as mineral wool,
wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or
24 in. width, in 8 ft. lengths or put up in rolls
of from 40 to 100 linear feet, with controlled
thickness of 1, ½, 2, 3 and 4 inches.
3. Batts – similar to blankets but they are
restricted to 48 inches long more or less
they are always covered with paper, and
made especially for installation between
stud spacings.
4. Structural Insulation Board – made from
organic fiber-wood, cane, straw or cork. The
wood and cane raw material is first pulped,
after which it is treated with water proofing
chemicals.

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PAINT FINISHES evaporation of the alcohol. The chief

resins used in varnishes are copal
Transparent Finishing Materials or African fossil gums; dammar or
1. Wood Stains Wood stains are composed of resins from Singapore and the East
pigments (coloring ingredients) and liquid Indies; rosin, the residue left under
solvents of water, oil or alcohol. When the extraction of turpentine from
applied, the coloring matter penetrates the pine resins and rosin esters, obtain
surface, remaining transparent to display by treating rosin with glycerine to
the beautiful grain effect to advantage. make it waterproof when dry. In
general, oil varnishes are more
Three types of wood stains: durable than spirit varnishes. Spirit
varnishes are either dammar
▪ Oil Stains – the pigments are
varnish, made by treating dammar
obtained from various earth clays.
resins with turpentine or shellac
After they are dissolved in linseed
varnish, made by dissolving white or
oil, the coloring particles remain
orange shellac in grain alcohol.
suspended between the oil
They dry by evaporation of the
molecules. For spreading the color
solvent. Drying time is from 4 to 24
particles over large surfaces, the
hours. Varnish should never be
ground oil color is thinned with
applied when the weather is moist
turpentine.
or humid.
▪ Water Stains – made from anilyne
▪ Lacquer – is made synthetically
dyes and mineral extracts which
and is closely related to rayon or
have been dissolved in hot water.
nylon fabrics. It requires a special
▪ Spirit (Alcohol) Stains – Stains thinner sold by each manufacturer
that are mixed with alcohol-solution for his own brand. Average drying
anilyne powders and warm alcohol. time is 1-1/2 hours. For fine lacquer
finishes, a special undercoat of
2. Wood Fillers lacquer sealer is applied over a
wash coat of shellac. After the
▪ Paste Fillers – composed of silex
(stone dust), japan-drier, linseed oil, sealer has dried, it is sanded or
turpentine and sometimes colors steel-wooled to give the lacquer a
ground in oil by adding color to a gripping surface.
filler (both wood filling and staining Opaque Finishing Materials
is done simultaneously). Filler is
applied with the grain and allowed 1. Paint Paint is the dry film formed from a
to dry “flat” for about ten (10) mixture of a pigment (solids) and
minutes. It is then wiped off across a vehicle (liquids or fluids) spread on a
the grain with burlap or some other surface as a decorative or protective
coarse material. Paste fillers coating.
requires about 24 hours for drying
o Pigment – is that solid, finely ground
before it can be sanded.
portion which gives to paint the
▪ Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty, power to obscure, hide or color the
stick shellac, etc. They are used for surface. Pigments may be divided
filling nail holes, cracks and into white and colored The white
dents. pigments can in turn be divided
into active (hiding)
▪ Shellac – made by refining seed lac pigments and extender
and its natural color is orange; white pigments.
shellac is obtained by bleaching.
Lac is a resin exuded by certain o Active (hiding) pigments are those
insects in India in the twigs of trees. that when mixed with the drying oil
These twigs with the resin attached produces an opaque finishing
are called sticklac and are crushed material. The most widely used
and washed to produce seed lac. active pigment is the white
Shellac is an under or a preparatory lead which when used alone with
coat for varnish and wax finishes, linseed oil, will produce an excellent,
but is not satisfactory as an durable paint. Other active white
independent finish because it is not pigments include zinc oxide (used
durable and turns white from with white lead to give increased
contact with water. It is also used to hardness, greater durability, reduced
cover wood knots before a priming caulking, greater color retention and
lead and oil coat is applied because elasticity), lithopone, titanium
it kills the resin in the knot and dioxide.
prevents discoloration.
o Extender pigments are inert
▪ Varnish – is a resolution of resin in pigments which when mixed with the
drying oil (oil varnish) or in a volatile drying oils possess very little hiding
solvent such as alcohol or power. They are often referred to as
turpentine (spirit varnish). It contains fillers, extenders or suspenders.
no pigment and hardens into a They serve to prevent the primary
smooth, hard and glossy coat by the ingredient from setting in a hard
oxidation of the oil or by the mass at the bottom of the paint can.

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The extender pigments include ability. Latex paint is the preferred

calcium carbonate, silica and mica. paint for plaster, cement, concrete
All paints other than white paints and masonry.
also contain color pigments in
addition to white pigments. A good o Portland Cement-Base Paints – is a
exterior paint shoul contain not less water-based paint (where the solvent
than 65% pigment by weight. High is water) used for painting concrete
quality exterior paints contain not and masonry surfaces.
more than 10% of extender o Enamel Paints – are generally paints
pigments. Example of extender which use varnish as a vehicle. They
pigment is have the ability of levelling brush
talc. marks, are more resistant to washing
o Vehicle – is the liquid or fluid portion and rough usage and have a harder
of the paint which carries the and tougher film. They can have
particles of the pigment in either a glossy, semi-glossy or matt
suspension and by the oxidation finish.
deposits and hardening binds them o Rust-Inhibiting Paints – are
to the painted surface or by protective paints for ferrous metal and
evaporation, deposits them thereon. are of two types:
A good paints vehicle will contain
from 85% to 95% drying oil and the o Priming Paint: e.g. red lead, litharge,
rest thinners and driers. The vehicle lead chromate
or liquid portion of the paint consists
o Finish Paint: e.g. lead sulfate, zinc
of the following:
dust
o Binder – forms the film.
o Driers – to speed up formulation of
2. Paint Behavior and Defects
the film. Driers may be classified into
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over
two types:
a properly prepared surface wears by
(a) oil driers are used in powdered or crystalline gradual “chalking” and maintains a smooth,
form such as litharge (monoxide of lead), tough and durable film that constitutes a
manganese dioxide, borate and; satisfactory surface for repainting. Such a
paint film will remain an effective protective
(b) liquid driers are inorganic compounds of lead, coating for a period of three to five years
manganese and cobalt, which are dissolved in depending upon the locality and the
turpentine or benzene and which mix readily with characteristics of the original surface. It
the oil at ordinary temperatures. requires little treatment beyond surface
o Volatile Solvent – known technically dusting in preparation for repainting.
as the thinner. The volatile solvent Defective paint behavior and surface
facilitates application and failures are traceable to three main causes:
contributes, through its eveporation,
the drying of the paint, but is not a ▪ Improper paint formulation.
permanent part of the film.
▪ Inadequate surface preparation
Types of Paints and careless application of paints.
o Oil Paint – is the principal paint for ▪ Faulty construction or building
exterior wood surfaces. It contains materials.
white lead as the white paint pigment,
The following are the various paint defects,
together with color pigments and
their causes, prevention:
extenders in a vehicle consisting of
drying oil (usually linseed oils), dryers ▪ Excessive or premature chalking – this is
and the solven t or thinner evidenced by surface dusting and rapid
(turpentine). thinning of the film, sometimes to bare wood.
The cause may be due to improper
o Alkyd-Resin or Oil-Resin Emulsion
formulation or paint application. Paints
Paints – oil and resin emulsified in
containing too high a percentage of volatile
water makes a heterogeneous
thinner forms a porous film subject has
finishing material by an emulsifying
completely worn away. Prevention requires
agent such as casein. A great
merely a strict adherence to high standards
advantage of oil-resin paint is that its
of paint formulation and application.
viscosity can be easily reduced by the
addition of water. ▪ Sagging and Running – is marked by
irregular wavy lines that texture an otherwise
o Synthetic Latex (Rubber-Base)
smooth finish film. The cause is usually paint
Paints – paints made from synthetic
formulation with too low a pigment volume or
latex which acts as the pigment
too heavy and careless application of a thin-
binder and the film forming material
consistency paint. It occurs sometimes when
for the paint. A careful balance of
repainting an interior if an original gloss
synthetic latex and alkyd resins gives
surface has not been cut by sanding. Curing
a solution that can thinned with water
the condition necessitates sanding the
for application as a continuous film
irregularities and repainting. Prevention
with excellent adhesion and wash
involves maintaining proper proportions of

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pigment and linseed oil as to formulation and alligatoring. The cure of condition, if
careful brushing of properly thinned paint as extensive, requires the removal of the film
to application. and repainting. Prevention necessitates
precautions noted above to prevent
▪ Storm Spotting – usually occurs after checking.
continuous rains and electric storms are
characterized by unsightly and irregular color ▪ Cracking and Scaling – are characterized
changes. Rain sometimes absorbs nitrates by irregular cracks that subsequently curl at
and peroxides firmed by electrical discharges the edge, flake and finally scale off. Over
and penetrates the paint film, changing the wood, scaling is usually most marked in
refractive index of the coating. The cure of direction of or across the grain. Cracking is a
the condition can sometimes be wear characteristic of hard-drying paints that
accomplished by rubbing the spots with contain large proportions of zinc oxide
alcohol. Subsequent weathering usually pigment. Scaling comes from the water
restores the original color within a month or pressure when moisture seeps through the
two. crack to the original surface. The condition is
common to any surface coated with paint
▪ Washing – is characterized by streaking on improperly formulated to withstand local
the surface, fading color, the final exposure conditions. The cure of the condition at an
of the original surface and accumulation of early stage requires vigorous brushing and
pigment particles below the painted area. recounting with a less brittle film. Prevention
This is caused by water-soluble compounds involves the formulation to produce a
which develop by chemical reactions in the tougher, more elastic film. Usually this
paint dissolved during rain storms and was means an increased percentage of white
out of the film.Also, when paints are applied lead.
during periods of high humidity and low
temperatures, the film structure may be ▪ Blistering and Peeling – is characterized by
injured during the drying period. swelling of the entire film which is usually
followed by a break in the film and
▪ Stains – are surface discolorations which subsequent peeling. The cause is water
often disappear gradually as the paint film pressure from behind the film due to faulty
wears. Sometimes, however, they go construction that allows moisture seepage or
through the film necessitating its removal abnormal condensation. This is a mechanical
and subsequent repainting. Metal stains are damage that may occur whatever the type or
sometimes caused by water dripping from quality of paint used. It sometimes also
exposed metal. Prevention involves the results when damp surfaces are covered by
coating of the metal. Galvanized iron should quick-drying paints. This type of damage
be painted while metallic zinc dust in spar may be evident on wood, stucco or masonry
varnish or paint containing zinc oxide. surfaces. The cure of condition requires the
Mildew stains are caused by air-borne fingi complete removal of the paint and repainting
that feed on oil and multiply rapidly. They as for new work. Prevention necessitates the
cannot be easily removed. Old growth should permanent removal of sources, often
be removed before repainting by washing involving extensive repairs and waterproofing
with 1 lb. of tri-sodium phosphate or sodium the moisture.
carbonate with 1 gallon of water. For
prevention, the paint can be treated with ▪ Spot Fading – is characterized by color
about ¼ ounce of mercuric chloride per changes and flatting of gloss in irregular
gallon of water. patches on the film. The cause is from
uneven oil absorption, usually a result of
▪ Checking – is characterized by minute insufficient coats or a priming coat
cracks on the surface of elastic paint films. improperly formulated to penetrate and
Usually it is not a serious film defect, for adequately seal surface pores. It may be
checks do not extend through the film. The emphasized when “skimping” is attempted,
cause is improper application or improper that is, application of two coats when three
formulation of undercoats. The finish film is are needed, or the use of a cheaply
applied over a body coat not quite enough formulated paint. The cure of the condition is
for a proper foundation. Unequal tensions repainting. Prevention requires merely the
occur in drying and small surface checks exercise of proper painting technique.
result. The cure of condition involves wire
brushing the affected areas and repainting it, ▪ Wrinkling – should not be confused with
if checking does not disappear under the alligatoring, for wrinkling is marked by a
influence of normal wear. Prevention tough, leather-like texturing. The cause is
involves the allowance of sufficient drying usually when paint is put on too thickly and
time between coats and the formulation of not well brushed out and may be contributed
the body coat with a minimum amount of oil to by formulation, if too high a proportion of
in order to develop a hard foundation for oil is used in finish coats. The cure of the
finish coat. condition requires only sanding and
repainting if texture is slight. Otherwise, the
▪ Alligatoring - is an advance state of film removal is indicated with subsequent
checking, varying in degree to a painting as for new work. Prevention requires
coarse texturing of the finish film. The cause strict adherence to high standards of paint
involves application of a harder drying finish formulation and thorough brushing out in
over soft or slow-drying undercoats. As in application.
checking, formulation with too much linseed
oil in the priming or body coat may result in

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CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHES (WALL) coat of 1:3 mortar with color is applied. This
finish coat is leveled with a wood screed,
1. Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco given a float finish and then steel-trowelled.
Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement,
sand and water. In order to make the mortar 4. Separately Applied Cement Finishes
easier to work with, hydrated lime is added. These separate finishes are designated as
The mixture is applied in three coats – non-slip, heavy duty, colored cement, etc.
scratch, brown and finish coats.
• Granolithic Finish
2. Rubbed Finish This consist of a topping with a
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day mixture of 1 part cement, 1 part sand
or two after it has set using a brick of and 1 part finely crushed stone. It is
carborundum, soft natural stone or emery. called granolithic because fine
Then a thin grout of cement and sand is aggregate chips were originally used
applied to the surface in a circular motion in the aggregate. Finely ground
rubbing it in to fill in the surface corundum may also be a part of the
imperfections. Afterwards, the work is aggregate to produce an enduring
washed down with clean water. A sand-float and non-slip surface.
finish is a method using fine sand instead of
grout. • Terrazzo Finish
Terrazzo is a mixture of cement,
3. Brushed Finish marble chip aggregates and water
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or laid as a topping or as a wall finish,
brushing the concrete surface while still and ground to a fine, smooth surface.
green with fiber or wire brushes and water It is used for floors and bases where
to remove the surface film or mortar leaving durability, resistance to wear and
the coarse aggregate exposed. minmal maintenance are necessary.
It is available in either in precast form,
4. Tooled Finish
e.g. tile or cast-in-place, with either a
Concrete surfaces may be finished by
smoothl;y polished or non-slip
tooling employing any methods for the
surfaces, abrasive granules are
dressing or finishing of natural stone. The
added to the mixture.
most popular method used in tooling
concrete surfaces is through the use of Tile Finishes
bush hammering either manually or by
using a pneumatic tool. 1. Cement Tile
Cement tile is manufactured by pressing in
5. Sand-Blast Finish moulds a plastic mixture of cement and
A sand-blast finish is much the same sand. Surface color of the tile is achieved by
appearance as that of a brushed finish. the addition of mineral oxide colors.
Sand-blasting produces a granulated finish Thickness of cement tiles is 25.4 millimeters
similar to sandstone but is not so uniform (1”). Common sizes are squares 8”x8”,
because the aggregates are likely to be 12”x12”, 16”x16”.
brought out irregularly. It is done through
the use of washing done top cement cover 2. Ceramic Tile
with water with a specified nozzle gun. Ceramic tiles are small surfacing units made
from clay or mixture of clay with other
6. Exposed Aggregate Finish ceramic materialsand fired according to
The color of this finish is obtained from the various processes. Tiles differ principally in:
exposed aggregate and not through the (a) composition of the body; (b) surface
addition of coloring material to the mixture.. finish, that is, glazed or unglazed; (c)
Such colored or other special aggregate process of manufacture; and (d) the degree
used for the finish shall be exposed by of vitrification or fusion of the tile body after
scrubbing. firing, as indicated by the extent to which it
absorbs moisture.
(a) Unglazed tiles are composed of
FLOOR FINISHES
the same ingredients throughout and derive
1. Wood Float Finish their color and texture from the materials of
The concrete aggregate is forced below the which the body is made.
surface, and the surface is then leveled with
(b) Glazed tiles have a glassy
a straight wood screed and while the
surface of ceramic materials fused upon
concrete is not firmly set, it is given a float
their face to give them a decorative
finish with a straight, flat wood trowel
appearance and to make the surface
called floats.
impervious to moisture. Glazes are produce
2. Steel-Trowelled Finish in a large variety of colors, ranging from
After the concrete aggregate is forced below pure white to jet black. Glaze finishes are of
the surface, the surface is then leveled with two general classes in their light reflecting
a straight wood screed, and given a wood qualities:
float finish. The entire surface is then steel-
▪ Bright glazes – which have a
trowelled before the concrete finally sets.
highly polished surface and
3. Integral Colored-Cement Floor Finish reflect an image clearly.
When the concrete is still green but the
▪ Matte glazes – or those which do
surface water is gone, the surface is leveled
not clearly reflect an image or are
with a straight wood screed. Then a finish

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entirely without sheen. All Brand names of ceramic tiles: MARIWASA (local);
degrees of semi-lustrous or satin- EUROTILES (local); LEPANTO (local); ROCERSA;
like finish may be produced
between the two extremes of Resilient Floor Finishes
reflection and non-reflection. Resilient flooring is manufactured as tile or sheet.
In addition, glazes may have plain, textured, Resilient floor tiles include asphalt, vinyl, rubber,
polychrome, mottled, stippled or rippled surface. linoleum and cork. Resilient floor sheets include
vinyl, linoleum and rubber.
1. Asphalt Tile and Sheet
Types of Ceramic Tiles
This consist of thoroughly bonded composition of
The leading types of ceramic floor and wall tiles thermoplastic binder (asphaltic type for standard
are: asphalt tile and resinous for greaseproof asphalt
tile), asbestos and other fibers, inert filler
1. Glazed Interior Tiles – glazed interior tiles materials (various stone dust, diatomite, mica etc)
are non-vitreous product made by the dust- and inert color pigments formed under pressure
press process. while hot and cut to size. Asphalt tile is usually
2. Ceramic Mosaic Tiles – are tiles less than made in 22.86 mm. (9”) squares and less
6 square inches in facial area, commonly in 30.48 mm. (12”) squares. Rectangular
preponderantly unglazed and having fully borders 45.75mm.x 60.96 mm. (18”x24”) are made
vitrified or fairly dense bodies. To facilitate in limited variety of colors and patterns.
installation, ceramic mosaic tiles are 2. Vinyl Tile and Sheet
usually mounted at the factory on sheets of
paper about 2 square feet in area, with the Vinyl resilient flooring materials are divided into
individual tile units being spaced so as to three major types: (a) solid vinyl, (b) vinyl and
allow for the insertion of grout between asbestos combined (c) a thin vinyl applied to
them when the paper is removed and the other types of resilient flooring materials.
face of the tiles is exposed.
▪ Vinyl tiles are manufactured into the
3. Glazed Weatherproof Tiles following thicknesses: 1.5mm,
These are durable tiles with semi-vitreous 2.0mm,2.5mm and 3.0mm, in squares
body and are suitable for use on all walls 300mmx300mm. The colors, texture
both interior and exterior and on all floors and patterns of vinyl asbestos tile
except those subject to heavy wear. All dull cover a wider range than the sheet.
or matte finish is recommended when these
tiles are used on floors. ▪ Vinyl sheet flooring is manufacured in
the same thicknesses in rolls of 6 feet
4. Pavers wide and lengths of 50 feet. The
These are standard size unglazed tiles thicker sheet is used in areas where
resembling ceramic mosaic tiles in heavy traffic will be encountered. Vinyl
composition and physical characteristics flooring is recommended where a
but usually having facial area of 6 square colorful, textured, tough, durable,
inches or more. Because of their greater easily maintained, grease-resistant
size, which usually ranges from 3”x3” to type of finish flooring is required for
6”x6”, these tiles are generally not pasted areas of both light and heavy human
onto paper but are laid out individually. traffic. It may be used for above-grade,
on-grade and below-grade floors. Vinyl
5. Quarry Tiles flooring shoild not be used for exterior
Quarry tile is an unglazed floor tile made floor surfaces; in areas where specific
from natural clays or shales by the plastic chemicals that attack vinyl are used;
method. They are very durable flooring where economy is ofmajor importance.
material being impervious to moisture,
stains and dirt and are reistant to 3. Rubber Tile and Sheet
abrasions.
Rubber floor tiles as a rule are made of nuetral
6. Faience Tiles rubber for greatest resilience. Sizes, thicknesses,
Faience tiles are generally surfaced with a as well as methods of application and precautions
highly colored opaque glaze and are to follow in installation, are much the same as for
always made by the plastic method from vinyl floor tiles. Rubber sheet flooring is applied
natural clays. The body of faience tiles may according to the general rules given for linoleum.
be non-vitreous, semi-vitreous or vitreous, Advantages of rubber flooring are: (a) It is the
the degree of vitrification depending largely quietest floor possible with the exception of thick
upon whether the tiles are to be used for cork tile; and (b) Its colors are more brilliant than
interior and exterior work. those of other types. Rubber flooring, however, are
not resistant to soap, oil, and many household
7. Ceramic Trim Tiles solvents as vinyl and linoleum.
Trim tiles are variously shaped units used
to finish the wall tile installation and include 4. Linoleum Tile and Sheet
caps, bases, inserts, combinations, internal
and external angles, returns (finishing units Linoleum is a resilient, waterproof floor covering
for outside corner installation). that consists of a backing covered with a relatively
thick layer of wearing surface. This wearing surface
The most widely used flux in floor and wall tiles is a mixture that contains oxidized linseed oil
is the mineral feldspar. processed in a special way, combined with wood or
cork flour, various fillers, stone dusts, whiting,

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diatomite, resins, binders, driers and inert color 2. Acoustic Tile Acoustic tile is used for
pigments. Linoleum is available in three gauges: ceiling and wall finishes in rooms where it is
(a) service (1.6mm or 1/16”), standard (2.5mm or required to control sound absorption. There
3/32”) and (c) heavy (3.2mm or 1/8”). It comes in are several types of acoustic tile:
rolls of 2’-0” and 6’-0” wide and up to 30’-0” in
length and in 9”x9” tiles for plain and marbled. ▪ Cellulose fiber tile – These are made
from compressed sugar cane or wood
5. Laminated or Engineered Flooring fibers with perforations on the surface
of the tile.
Brand names of resilient floor sheet and tile:
ARMSTRONG (asphalt, vinyl, vinyl-asbestos, vinyl ▪ Mineral wool tile – Felted rock wool
corlon, rubber, linoleum and cork tiles); APO with a fissured surface. Mineral wool
FLOORING (vinyl sheet and tile); AZROCK tile has limited vacoustic values, is
(asphalt tiles); KENTILE (cork tiles) flame retardant but will not withstand
rough usage and cannot be painted. It
is available in ½”, 5/8”, ¼”, 7/8”, and 1”
Wood Flooring Finishes thickness and sizes of 12”x12”,
12”x24”, and 24”x24”.
Wood is used in several different forms as a finish
flooring material. There are several types of wood ▪ Glass Fiber Tile – are made of glass
flooring: fiber held together by binders.
Thickness is available in 1-1/4” with
1. Strip Flooring sizes of 23-3/4”x23-3/4” and 47-
3/4”x47-3/4”.
This type of flooring consits of tongue-and-groove
(T&G) boards 150mm (6”) or less in width. Nominal ▪ Cork Tiles – an acoustical tile made of
sizes of strips are 1”x3”, 1”x4”, and 1”x6”; with net cork. Available in sizes of ¼”x5-
(face) widths of 2-1/4”, 3-1/4” and 5-1/4” 3/4”x11-1/2” and 1-1/2”x11-1/2”x11-1/2
respectively. The net thickness is 7/8”. Strip flooring
is often laid over a concrete slab sub-floor. The 3. Asbestos Cement Tile – a perforated tile
flooring steps are nailed to 2”x3” or 2”x4” sleepers made of asbestos wool fibers. Not in use
or screeds embedded or anchored to the concrete anymore because of health hazards
floor. The sleepers should be treated with a suitable
wood preservative. The space between the finish
floor and the top of the concrete slab is filled with
cinder concrete or other damp-proof composition
fill. DOOR AND DOOR HARDWARES

Kiln-dried (KD) T&G Flooring and Siding: Doors

MATIMCO, NALCO (Nasipit Lumber Co.) These are movable panels used to open or close
2. Plank Flooring an entranceway. They are the means of access or
approach (ingress) to and exit (egress) from a
This type of flooring consists of square-edged room, building or passage.
boards 8” or more in width as are commonly found
in old Spanish-period houses. Plank flooring is Kinds of doors according to operation:
usually faced-nailed. 1. Swinging Doors – normally swing on
3. Parquet Tile Flooring hinges fixed on a side jamb, either pulled
or pushed. Some may be pivoted from its
Also known as block flooring, which consists of head jamb and threshold.
square pieces or blocks which have been built-up in
several layers like plywood and having a veneered 2. By-pass Doors – glide on an overhead
surface, or consists of several parquet strips track and long bottom guides/rails fixed
assembled at the factory to form a tile. This type of on the floor. They may be used for
flooring may be nailed to a wood sub-floor or set in exterior and interior purposes.
mastic to a concrete sub-floor. 3. Surface Sliding Doors – mounted on
4. Floating Flooring exposed overhead tracks, usually used
for interior and exterior purposes. These
Floating flooring are wood floors that are not nailed doors usually provide access through the
or glued to the sub-floor, but instead “float” above it full width of the doorway.
on a thin pad of resilient foam. They are made by
connecting the individual pieces of flooring together 4. Pocket Sliding Doors – glides on an
at the edges to make one continuous piece as large overhead track and vanishes into a
as the room in which the flooring is laid. pocket or recess within a wall. Pockets
may be built on both sides, each to take
one of thedoor panels. They are generally
for interior use only but may be designed
CEILING FINISHES for exterior wall locations.
1. Ceiling Boards These are shiplapped 5. Folding Doors – usually used to
boards with a bead running along the center subdivide large interior spaces with door
of the board and along the joint, hence it is panels hinged to fold against each other
often referred to as beaded ceiling board when opened.
(B.C.B). The thicknesses are 3/8” and ½”
and widths of 4” and 6”. 6. Classification of Door Frames:
7. Wooden Door Frame

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8. Aluminum Door Frame o Cased Open Frame

9. Iron Door Frame 2. Types of Steel Frame Installations
Three Types: o Butt-Frame Installation
a). Angle Iron Door Frame – made from angle iron o Wrap-Around Installation
40mm X 40mm X 6mm with iron hinges welded to
frame. Joints should be flushed welded and ground 3. Types of Steel Frame
smooth with grinder. o Knocked Down – frames that are
b.) T Iron Door Frame - Frames are made from T field assembled and shall be of
Iron sections. rigidly interlocked frame joints so as
to maintain alignment and assure
c.) Pressed Steel Door Frame – Manufactured performance of completed frames
from mild steel sheet 1.25 mm thick. when field assembled.
Metal Doors and Frames o Welded
Types of Metal Doors a. Face Welded – the joint
between the head and the jamb
Steel Doors faces are completely arc welded
Types According to Design: along their length either internally
or externally. The remaining
1. Flush frame profile, like the soffit,
stops, rabbets are not welded.
▪ Full Flush
b. Full Profile Welded – specified
▪ Flush Panel
also as Fully Welded or
▪ Stile and Rail Construction Continuously Welded. The joints
of all the elements of the head
▪ Stile and Panel Construction and jamb profiles, i.e., soffit,
▪ Recessed Panel stops, rabbets, faces and returns
are completely arc welded
2. Glass internally and externally.
▪ Half Glass 1. Slip-on Drywall – frames use for installation
in existing drywall construction. Not
▪ Half Glass with Muntin available with welded corners.
▪ Full Glass Steel Fire Doors
3. Vision Lite A door assembly of a fire-resistant door, doorframe
4. Narrow Lite and door hardware needed to protect the openings
of a fire-rated wall in a building. The doorframe and
5. Louvered the hardware are required to have a fire-resistance
rating similar to the door. The door (with a
▪ Bottom Louvered maximum size of 1.22 meters x 3.050 meters) must
▪ Full Louvered be equipped with self-latching closers.

▪ Full Louvered with Vision Lite Aluminum Doors

6. Dutch Doors generally fabricated from extrusions and

rolled shapes.
Door Finishes
Wood Doors
1. Galvanized and primed for painting
Types of Wood Doors:
2. Baked Enamel paint
1. Batten Doors
3. Vinyl Cladded
2. Panel Doors
4. Aluminum or Stainless Steel Cladded
(maybe polished or textured) 3. Flush Doors

Types of Door Edges Wood Flush Doors

1. Beveled Edge Doors with no visible seams on both sides or faces.

2. Double Beveled Edge Types of Design

3. Overlapping Astragal 1. Plain flush door

4. Split Astragal 2. Flush door with glass inserts

Steel Door Frames 3. Flush door with louvered

inserts
1. Nomenclature for Steel Door Frames
o Single Rabbet Frame
o Standard Double Rabbet Frame
o Covemold Frame

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Construction – there are three types of flush door Special Doors

according to their construction:
1. Metal Covered Doors
1. Hollow Core Flush Door – contains a
framework consisting of stiles and rails 2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
which bordered the expanded 3. Plastic-Faced Doors
honeycombed core of corrugated
fiberboard or of a grid of interlocking 4. Folding Doors
horizontal and vertical wood strips. This
5. Overhead Doors
type of door is usually covered with
plywood on both faces and has little 6. Sliding Glass Doors
inherent thermal or acoustic insulation
characteristics. It is lightweight and is 7. Tempered Glass Doors
generally use for interior applications. 8. Revolving Doors
2. Solid Core Flush Door – contains a core 9. Flexible Doors
consisting of bonded staved lumber blocks,
particle boards or of mineral composition. It 10. Hangar Doors
is primarily use for exterior applications and
may also be used as sound insulation. Description:
Solid core door is also chosen whenever 1. Metal Covered Doors
increased fire resistance or stability is
required. The bonded staved lumber core is Doors composed of metal facings of relatively light
always used because it is the most gauge wrapped around a core of wood or other
economical unlike the mineral composition material. It serves a decorative or protective
core who has a low-holding strength for function rather than a structural one. Kalamein
hardwares. doors and other metal-covered swinging fire doors
are samples of this type.
3. Wood Framed Flush Door – contains a
framework of stile and rail covered on both 2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
faces with veneer of manufactured boards
such as plywood. Also known as rolling doors consisting of horizontal
and interlocking metal slats that have rollers guided
Wood Panel Doors by a track on either or both sides and is open by a
coiling motion about an overhead drum located at
Doors which consist of a framework of horizontal the head of the door opening. The door maybe
rails and vertical stiles that may be either made of operated manually or through the use of hoist or
veneered hardwood or solid softwood. This lever and/or automatically through the use of
framework holds in place solid wood panels, glass electric motor. These doors are available with
lights inserts or louvers. vision panels, thermal insulation and other options.
1. The available designs for Wood Panel 1. Types of Coiling or Rolling Door
Doors are; Designs;
▪ Panel 2. Wood or Aluminum Panel Doors
▪ Panel with sash 3. Wood or Steel Flush Doors
▪ Louvered Panel 4. Steel or Fiberglass Ribbed Doors
▪ French door 5. Steel or Aluminum Slatted Section
▪ French door with divided lights 3. Plastic-Faced Doors
2. Construction - A framework consisting of Doors constructed of various materials and faced
the rail and stiles whose joints are doweled with melamine plastic sheets, vinyl sheets,
or dovetailed with mortices and tenons. polyvinylflouride films, or other special-duty or
The rail is composed of the top rail, lock rail decoratrive plastics.
and the bottom rail. The stile is made up of
the hinge stile (from which the door is 4. Folding Doors
hung) and lock stile which holds the
lockset. Door heights range from 2.030 Doors made of panels or leaves of various widths
meters – 2.440 meters and widths up to and thickness that are hinged together that fold
0.915 meter. Thickness is usually 35 together when open, use to subdivide large interior
millimeters or 45 millimeters. spaces. For exterior use, the most common type is
the steel accordion door which is made of steel
Batten Doors pleats that folds like an accordion.
Are doors consisting of vertical board sheathing 5. Overhead Doors
nailed at right angles to ledgers or cross strips.
Diagonal brace is nailed and notched between and Doors that are constructed of one or several leaves
into the ledgers. of wood, steel, aluminum or fiberglass and is open
by swinging or rolling up to a position above the
Sliding Doors door opening. The door may be open manually or
operated by a chain hoist or electric motor. Also
These doors may either be of the bypass, surface known as canopy doors
or pocket sliding type. Their panels may be made of
wood, glass or polysterene with flush, louver or
panel designs.

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Three types of overhead doors: large hinge, the pin is removable, in small
hinges, it is fixed.
1. Canopy Door-Operates in vertical tracks
on the door side frame and when fully 2. Fast pin hinge – a hinge I which the pin is
opened forms a canopy of about one-third fastened permanently in place.
of the door’s height above the opening.
3. Full surface hinge – a hinge designed for
1. Balanced - the door is attachment on the surface of the door and
suspended at its center and jamb without mortising.
balanced throughout its operation
by counterweights. 4. Loose joint hinge – a door hinge having
two knuckles, one of which has vertical pin
2. Cantilevered – door supported that fits in a corresponding hole in the other,
by bracing member on both sides by lifting the door up, off the vertical pin, the
operated through door maybe removed with unscrewing the
counterbalance. The three kinds hinge.
of cantilevered doors are; inward
folding, telescoping and outward 5. Loose pin hinge – a hinge having a
folding. removable pin which permits its two parts to
be separated.
2. Retractable-Guided by horizontal tracks
inside and recedes completely when 6. Paumelle hinge – a type of door hinge
opened. having a single joint of the pivot type,
usually of modern design.
3. Sectional Door- Opened by vertical lift
action guided by fixed vertical and 7. Olive knuckle hinge – a paumelle hinge
horizontal tracks. with knuckles forming an oval shape.

6. Sliding Glass Doors 8. Spring hinge – a hinge containing one or

more springs, when a door is opened, the
Doors of narrow stile sliding type usually made of hinge returns it to the open position
aluminum extrusions. Some are made of steel, automatically, may act in one direction only,
wood, or other materials. or in both directions.
Two types: 9. Vertical spring pivot hinge – a spring
a.) slide at straight line or parallel straight hinge for a door which is mortised into the
lines and heel of the door, the door is fastened to the
b.) slide around corners in a building (have floor and door head with pivots.
a hinged door at the jamb).
Door Hardware Functions:
7. Tempered Glass Doors
1. Acts as door hangers – hinges, closers,
Doors made of either figured or polished pivots
tempered glass.
2. Operates the door – handles, latches, pull
8. Revolving Doors bars and push plates
Doors that contain three or four “leaves” or “wings” 3. Closes the door – closers, combination
that rotate about a central, vertical pivot within a pivots and closers
vestibule shaped like a cylinder. It is generally
chosen as entrance doors in large commercial and 4. Locks the door - locksets, dead bolts, flush
institutional buildings because it provides a bolts, electric locks and other special
continuous weatherseal, which eliminates drafts, devices
and prevents huge cooling loss or fluctuations in 5. Seals the door – weatherstripping, sound
temperature whenever it is use by a great number and smoke seals
of people. It excludes pollution from dirt and noise
and provides security by deterring unauthorized or 6. Protects the door – kick plates, corner
undesired access protection and similar hardwares
9. Flexible Doors Door Hand Location Specification
Doors that is flexible and made of plastic or rubber. In specifying door hardwares specially locksets and
closers, it is important to know the door hand
10. Hangar Doors conventions where the terms of reference assumes
Doors that are specially fabricated for aircraft the view from the exterior of the structure/building
hangars. or room to which the doorway is heading.
1. Left Hand (LH) – the door opens inwards
going to the left with the hinges located at
Finishing Hardware: the left.
Hinge - a movable joint used to attach support and 2. Right Hand (RH) - the door opens inwards
turn a door about a pivot, consists of two plates going to the right with the hinges located at
joined together by a pin which the door and connect the right.
it to its frame, enabling it to swing open or closed.
3. Left Hand Reverse (LHR) - the door opens
1. Butt hinge – consists of two rectangular outwards going to the left with the hinges
metal plates which are joined with a pin. In located at the left.

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4. Right Hand Reverse (RHR) - the door position and allow it to be locked with a key or
opens outwards going to the right with the thumbturn.
hinges located at the right.
Types of Latches and Locks:
Handles, Pulls and Push Plates, Door Stops and
Bumpers, Astragals 1. Rim Locks and Latches – the case and
strike are mounted on the face of the door
Handles, Push and Pull Bars - are devices and trim but without morticing.
to hold the door in place without provision
for locking. They do not require automatic 2. Mortise Lock and Latch – this type
latching and are also usually used for developed historically from rim types. This
commercial kitchens and type makes for lengthy installation in wood
hospitals. doors because of the large mortise. The
size of case and assessibility of mechanism
makes economically possible the maximum
Door Stops and Bumpers – are small number and variety of knob and lever
metal fabrications provided with rubber designs and locking options. It allows the
bumpers attached to a door to prevent it use of dead and latch bolts that can be
from harming finishes and damaging extracted in a single operation. It is
adjacent constructions. considered more secure than a cylindrical
lock.
Closers, Combination Pivots and Closers, Panic
Hardwares 3. Unit Lock – also known as preassembled
lock and latch. It is a complete factory lock
Closers - are door devices that assembly that eliminatesmuch adjustment
automatically return the door to its closed position on the job. Unit locks slid into notch cut on
after it is opened and also protect the door and the job (for wood doors) or prepared at shop
surrounding construction from damage by (for metal doors). Dead bolt may be omitted
controlling the distance it can be opened. They can to make simple latch set to match but it can
be either surface mounted on the door or head also have button in insidew knob to prevent
frame or concealed in the frame of door itself. outside knob from turning (for bathrooms,
Pivots are used as the alternative way to bedrooms).
hang frameless doors where it is impossible to 4. Bore-in locks and latches – also known as
make use of hinges or the visual appearance of cylindrical or tubular locks, are relatively
hinges on doors becomes objectionable or creates inexpensive, simple to install in wood doors
an unacceptable look. They are either center hung and have fewer operating functions than
or offset and are mounted on the floor and head of mortise lock. Installation needs only two
the door. holes to bore and a shallow mortise for
Panic Hardware is a type of operating case front.
mechanism required for safe egress or exit during 5. Interconnected lock – a combination
emergency and/or panic situations. This hardware cylindrical lock and dead bolt, in which both
is operated through push bars extending across the locks are interconnected to allow for single
width of the door connected to vertical rods that action to release both bolts by turning a
disengages latches at the top and bottom of the knob or lever handle.
door. The vertical rods can either be concealed or
surface-mounted. 6. Other door locks:
Center Latch Bolt Type is used for:
a.) single door • Entrance lockset – operated inside
with a key and a thumbturn or
b.) active door of a pair universal button which puts and locks
the door in place when pushed. It is
c.) both doors of a pair with mullions usually intricately designed and used
Vertical Rod Type is used for: for entrance doors.

a.) single door • Bedroom lockset – has simple design

than entrance lockset but have the
b.) inactive door of a pair same functions.
c.) both doors of a pair • Toilet lockset – operates without a
key and is lock from the inside by
pushing a universal button and is
Latches, Locksets, Deadbolts, Flushbolts unlock only from the inside by turning
the cylindrical knob.
Latches or Latchset – are devices that hold the
door in place without a provision for locking. It • Dead Bolts – operates through the
contains a beveled latch which extends from the use of a key only.
face of the door edge which automatically engage
the strike that is mounted on the frame when the Parts of Latches and Locks:
door is closed. • Knob - a more or less spherically-shaped
Thumb Latch – this is the oldest type of latch and handle use for operating a lock.
is simple to install but difficult to adjust. It is usually • Knob Rose – is the round plate that is
padlocked. fastened to the face of the door around the
Locksets – are devices that have special hole through which the door knob spindle
mechanisms which hold a door in the closed passes through.

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• Strike, Strike or Striking Plate – a metal box Types of Operation:

or plate set in a door jamb that is either
pierced or recessed to receive the bolt or 1. Fixed Window - cannot be opened,
latch of a lock that is fixed on the door. consisting of a stationary sash and frame It
provides 0% or no ventilation.
• Lip Strike – projects from the side of a strike
plate on which the bolt of a lock strikes first 2. Double-Hung Window - provides only 50%
when a door is closed. It is the projection maximum opening. It consists of two (2)
from the side of the strike plate to protect sashes, both sliding vertically on separate
the door frame. tracks.

• Escutcheon – a protective plate surrounding 3. Sliding Window - provides only 50%

the keyhole of a door. maximum opening. It consists of two or
more sashes, with at least one sliding along
Door bolt or barrel bolt – a sliding rod or bar a track horizontally. The sash is usually
attached to a door for locking removable for easy cleaning.
manually.
4. Awning Window - provides 100% opening.
Chain Door Fastener – a device fastened to a It consists of sashes that swing outward on
door and its jamb to limit the door opening hinges attached to the top of the frame.
depending on the length of the chain. Use for
security purpose. 5. Hopper Window - provides 100% opening.
It consists of sashes that swing outward on
Chain Bolt – a spring bolt attached at the top of a hinges attached to the bottom of the frame.
door which is actuated by the chain attached to it.
6. Casement Window - provides 100%
Foot Bolt – a device fixed at the bottom of the door opening. It consists of sashes that swing
operated by foot. When the door is unbolted, the outward on hinges attached to the sides of
bolt is held up by a spring. the frame.
Flush Bolt – device attached to the inactive leaf of 7. Pivoted Window - provides 100% opening.
a pair of doors to lock it in place. It is either surface- It consists of sashes that rotate about a
mounted or mortised into the edge of the door. vertical or horizontal axis at the centers.
Automatic Door Bottoms – are devices that are 8. Jalousie Window - provides 100%
surface mounted to the bottom of the door or opening. It consists of horizontal glass or
mortised into it to provide a sound or lights seal. wood louvers that pivot simultaneously and
The seal is up when the door is open and a plunger operated by crank or mechanical operator in
strikes the jamb that forces the seal down a common frame. Use commonly for
whenever the door is close. residential buildings.
9. Parts of a Window:
WINDOWS AND WINDOW HARDWARE 10. Frame - refers to the part of the window that
receives and holds the sash and other
Windows and Hardware necessary window hardware. It is fixed and
Traditionally, windows were considered as non-operable.
apertures or openings in a wall. In fact even today Elements of the Frame:
professionals still use this term. But because of the
wide use of glass, windows now form the entire wall 1. Head - the uppermost horizontal part or
system, thereby the traditional distinction between member.
wall and window no longer holds.
2. Jamb - the two vertical side members
Five (5) functions of windows:
3. Sill - the bottom horizontal member
1. Light Admission - the most important with the upper surface usually sloped to
function from a practical, psychological and shed rainwater
aesthetic viewpoint.
4. Sub Sill - an additional sill fitted to a
2. Ventilation - the access of natural ventilation. window frame to allow rainwater to drip
The use of air-conditioning has reduced the further away from the wall surface
need for natural ventilation in many types of
buildings, its function remains valid 5. Casing Trim - the finishing trim work
especially in the advent of green building. around a window opening. It consists of
head and jamb casings, window sills and
3. Vision - allows visual connection to and from aprons.
the external environment
6. Head and Jamb Casing – hides or
4. Escape - sometimes, windows act as conceals the joint or gap between the
emergency exits or escapes from dangers, window and surrounding wall surface.
fires, etc.
7. Windowsill - this is the horizontal ledge
5. Architectural Element - windows are formed by the flat area upon which a
considered by architects as elements of window shuts down called the stool at the
architectural composition and are extremely base of the window opening.
important in the total aesthetic effect created
in a building. 8. Apron - the flat piece of trim immediately
beneath the stool of a window sill.

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9. Architrave – this is the continuous casing

with the same profile that surrounds a
window.
10. Plinth Block – terminates a jamb casing
above the floor.

Sash and Glazing

This refers to the part of the window that holds the
pane of glass or other materials. It is either fixed or
movable.
Elements of the Sash:
1. Pane - a single unit of glass set in
a sash; a division of a window
2. Glazing - the panes or sheets of
glass set in the sash
3. Rails - the horizontal part framing
a sash
4. Muntins - the vertical members
holding the edges of the
window panes
5. Stiles - the upright or vertical members
framing a window sash.
6. Mullions - refers to the vertical
member separating a series
of windows.
Operators are devices for doors and windows that
are not supplied as part of the door and window
package, including both self-contained mechanisms
and those with remote pumps or power units, as
well as photocells, mats, transmitters and other
actuating devices.
Types of Operators:
o Lever Arm
o Rack and Pinion
o Hand Chain Control

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