Graphing Functions

Chapter 4

Relative Extrema Concavity

Definition of Extrema: I is an interval containing c. Definition of concavity: Let f be differentiable on an
open interval I. The graph of f concaves upward if f ′
f(c) is a minimum if f (c ) ≤ f ( x ) for each x in I.
is increasing on I and f concaves downward on I if f ′
f(c) is a maximum if f (c ) ≥ f ( x ) for each x in I.
is decreasing on I.
Definition of relative extrema:
If f ′′ > 0 for x in I, then f concaves upward on I.
If f(c) is a maximum on (a, b), then f(c) is a relative
If f ′′ < 0 for x in I, then f concaves downward on I.
maximum on (a, b).
If f(c) is a minimum on (a, b), then f(c) is a relative A point of inflection is the point at which concavity
minimum on (a, b). changes from upward to downward or visa versa. At
this point, f ′′ is equal to 0 or does not exist.
Definition of a critical number: If f is defined at c, then c
is a critical number if f ′(c ) = 0 or if f ′ (c ) does not The Second Derivative Test: Let f be a function such
exist. that f ′(c ) = 0 and f ′′ exists on an interval containing
c:
Guidelines for finding extrema on [a, b]:
1) f(x) must be continuous on [a, b]. If f ′′ (c ) > 0 , then f(c) is a relative minimum.
2) find critical numbers c on (a, b) and evaluate f(c). If f ′′ (c ) < 0 , then f(c) is a relative maximum.
3) find f(a) and f(b). If f ′′ (c ) = 0 , then the test does not apply, and we use the
4) compare f(a), f(b), f(c) to decide maximum and first derivative test.
minimum.
Finding intervals where f(x) is increasing or decreasing: Asymptotes
1) Find any discontinuities and critical numbers.
2) Set up test intervals using the above. Horizontal asymptotes occur when the degree in the
3) Determine whether f ′ ( x ) is positive (increasing) or numerator is less than or equal to the degree of the
negative (decreasing) on each interval. This is called denominator. f(x) can have at most two horizontal
the First Derivative Test. asymptotes. It is also possible for a function to
intersect a horizontal asymptote, but not a vertical
Rolle's Theorem: Let f be continuous on a closed
asymptote.
interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If
If lim f ( x ) = L or lim f ( x ) = L , the y = L is called a
f (a ) = f ( b ) then there exists at least one number c in x →∞ x →−∞

(a, b) such that f ′(c ) = 0 (f has a horizontal tangent horizontal asymptote of f(x).
line at c, f(c)). Ax n + (terms of lower degree )
y =
Bx + (terms of lower degree )
d
Mean Value Theorem: If f is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), then there exists a c in (a, b)
such that If d = n , y = A / B is a horizontal asymptote.
f ( b ) − f (a )
f ′(c ) = If d > n , y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
b −a If d < n , there is no horizontal asymptote.
In other words, there is some point on the interval
where the slope of the tangent line is the same as the
slope of a line drawn through the endpoints of the Vertical asymptotes occur at the value of x that makes
interval. the denominator of the function equal to zero (after
In terms of rate of change, there must be a point on the the function has been simplified to lowest terms).
interval at which the instantaneous rate of change Slant asymptotes: If the degree of the numerator is one
equals the average rate of change on the interval. greater than the denominator, then there exists a
A function is strictly monotonic on an interval I if it is slant asymptote. Solve the equation for y and
always increasing or decreasing on I. perform the indicated division. Discard the remainder
and set y equal to the result. This is the equation of
the slant asymptote.
To determine if the curve is above or below the slant
asymptote, select an x-value and see whether the
remainder of the polynomial division is positive
(above) or negative (below).

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/23/98

 Evaluating Limits GRAPHING A FUNCTION
0 1. Find f' and f'' and find the limit of f as x → ∞ and as
When the result is , this is an indeterminate form. We x → −∞ . Divide both the numerator and denominator by
0
suggest rationalizing the denominators. the highest power of x to do this.
∞ 2. Determine the symmetry of the function by performing the
When the result is , this is an indeterminate form. We following tests:
∞
suggest dividing the numerator and denominator by Symmetry about the origin: Reverse the signs of x and y.
the highest power of x. If the function is unchanged, symmetry exists.
Recheck the original equation to determine the sign of Symmetry about the y axis: Reverse the sign of x. If the
the result. function is unchanged, symmetry exists.
When the result is ∞ or − ∞ , then the limit does not Symmetry about the x axis: Reverse the sign of y. If the
exist. function is unchanged, symmetry exists; and, of
course, it is not a function.
3. Locate horizontal asymptotes by setting y equal to the
Newton's Method result(s) of the limits of f. (Section 4.5) Also refer to notes
entitled "Polynomials".
Newton's Method is used to approximate the zeros of a 4. Locate vertical asymptotes by finding values for x that
function. Set up a table as follows: make the denominator of the function 0 while the
f (x n ) f (x n ) numerator does not equal 0. If values for x result in 0/0,
n xn f (x n ) f ′( x n ) xn − try factoring the fraction or rationalizing the denominator.
f ′( x n ) f ′( x n ) If the 0/0 result persists then, I believe, a removable
Select a trial value x n and begin filling in the table. The discontinuity exists at x = c. (Sections 2.3, 2.4)
5. Slant asymptotes occur when the degree of the
last value becomes the next x n . Each successive
denominator is one less than the degree of the numerator.
application of these procedure is called an iteration. Determine the equation of the asymptote by performing
One way the method can fail is if the derivative is zero the division and disgarding the remainder. Y = the result
for any x n in the sequence. This can usually be is the slanted asymptote. (Section 4.5)
oversome by choosing a different value for x 1 . If 6. Determine critical numbers by finding where f' = 0 or does
successive iterations fail to produce a convergence, not exist. The function must be defined at these numbers.
then Newton's Method cannot be used. The following (Section 4.1)
condition must be met on the interval containing the 7. Locate the intervals of concavity by determining for what
zero in order for the method to work: values of x f'' is equal to 0 or is undefined. (Section 4.4)
8. Begin constructing a chart by setting up test intervals by
f ( x )f ′′( x ) combining values of x for the domain, vertical asymptotes,
2
<1 critical numbers, and intervals of concavity. (Section 4.3,
f ′( x ) 4.4)
9. Select a value in each interval to determine whether f' is
positive or negative in each interval. List continuous
intervals over which f' is positive as f increasing and over
Estimation of Error which f' is negative as f decreasing. (Section 4.1, 4.3)
10. Select a value in each interval to determine whether f'' is
Implicitly differentiate the equation with respect to the
positive or negative in each interval. List continuous
variable with the given error. The differential of that
intervals over which f'' is positive as f concave upward and
variable with respect to itself will be that given error.
over which f'' is negative as f concave downward.
For example, if you were to calculate the error in the
(Section 4.1, 4.4)
volume of a sphere with a given error in the radius,
11. Locate any relative maximums by determining points at
then dvdr
would be the result in ± units 2 and dr
dr
would which the function changes from increasing to decreasing.
be the error of the radius. Locate relative minimums by determining points at which
the function changes from decreasing to increasing.
(Section 4.1)
12. Locate any points of inflection on the graph by determining
points at which the concavity changes. (Section 4.4)
13. Locate any x and y intercepts.

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/23/98