SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS.

BY
J O S E P H E. MAYER * AND B. I. HART,
Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground.

ABSTRACT.

Subject to the assumptions of zero starting pressure, covolume equal to charge volume,
burning rate proportional to pressure, constant burning surface, and no heat loss through gas
or projectile friction, the equations of interior ballistics are presented in simple form.
It is hoped that these simple equations will be of some aid in making ready approximate
evaluations of the effect of variation of any parameter.
The general equations are listed in section I. In section II the expressions for the maxi-
mum pressure and muzzle velocity are discussed more fully, and the derivatives with respect
to various parameters are given.

I. THE GENERAL EQUATIONS.

The equations of interior ballistics are used to calculate t h e velocity
of the projectile as a function of travel in t h e bore of the gun tube, and
the pressure in the tube as a function of the travel.t T h e conversion
to pressure as a function of time is i m p o r t a n t for some problems, such
as recoil, and is always possible if the two functions m e n t i o n e d a b o v e
are available. In this paper equations are given for the velocity-travel
and pressure-travel curves, but not for t h e pressure-time relationship.
The projectile is propelled b y the pressure of gas acting on its base.
The pressure of gas is affected b y t h e a m o u n t of charge burnt, which
in turn is a function of the past pressure-time relation, since t h e r a t e
of burning of propellants depends on t h e pressure. T h e equation of
state of the gas, p ( v - cb) = c R T , is c o m m o n l y used (with p = pres-
sure, v = volume, b = a t e m p e r a t u r e - i n d e p e n d e n t covolume of t h e gas,
c = charge, R = a constant, and T = absolute t e m p e r a t u r e ) . T h e
t e m p e r a t u r e of the gas is To if no w o r k has been done and no h e a t lost.
This t e m p e r a t u r e is referred to as the adiabatic flame t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e somewhat inconsistent t e r m specific force, or just force, X, is used
for the product R T o . The specific h e a t of t h e gas is implicitly included
by giving the ratio of specific heats 3`, so t h a t the decrease in p v due
to the loss of energy of the gas is equal to (3' - I) times t h e e n e r g y
loss (equation (5)).
The propellent charge of a gun is in the form of powder grains of
known size and shape. E a c h of these grains burns on its surface,
* Also Department of Chemistry, Columbia University.
t T. J. Hayes, "Elements of Ordnance," New York, J o h n Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1938.
C. Cranz, "Lehrbuch der Ballistik," Vol. II, Berlin, J. Springer, I926. The latter work
contains an extensive bibliography.
4oi
402 JOSEPH E. MAYER AND t3. I. HART. [J. F. I.

which recedes parallel to itself at a rate dependent on the gas pressure.

T h u s the actual d e v e l o p m e n t of gas depends on the geometry of the
grains, and grains are used for which the surface decreases (regressive
grains) during burning, stays constant (constant burning grains) or
.even increases (progressive grains). T h e t r e a t m e n t here is for grains
o f constant burning surface. T h e grains are usually described b y giving
t h e i r "web," w, which is essentially their thickness, t h a t is, twice the
a m o u n t of surface regression necessary before two opposite burning
surfaces come into contact.
T h e loss of efficiency t h r o u g h heat conduction and friction is not
large in artillery weapons, and is neglected here. In actual rifled
weapons the projectile starts to move only after the pressure exceeds a
certain " s t a r t i n g pressure," an effect which is also neglected in w h a t
follows.
T h e differential equations, which are set up in accord with the
c o m m o n l y used physical hypotheses, are usually solved b y numerical
integration, and the results t a b u l a t e d for various values of the m a n y
p a r a m e t e r s involved. By a suitable choice of assumptions relatively
simple analytical solutions m a y be obtained. These are convenient,
even if highly approximate.
We use the symbols
a = cross section of the bore (ins.)~.
b, as a subscript, indicates all burnt.
c = charge b u r n t (lbs.).
C = total charge (lbs.).
g = gravitational c o n s t a n t = 386. 4 in./sec3
m, as a subscript, refers to muzzle.
max, as a subscript, refers to m a x i m u m pressure.
p = pressure (lbs./in.2).
Pc = a c o n s t a n t of the dimensions of pressure (Ibs./in3).
pq = a c o n s t a n t of the dimensions of pressure (lbs./in.2).
q = burning c o n s t a n t (surface recession (ins./sec.) = q X pres-
sure (lbs./in3)).
T = t e m p e r a t u r e , absolute, of the powder gases.
To = the adiabatic flame t e m p e r a t u r e .
u = velocity of the projectile (ft./sec.).
v = v o l u m e behind projectile base minus charge volume (ins.)2.
vc = c h a m b e r volume (ins.) 3.
v0 = c h a m b e r volume minus original charge volume (ins.) 3.
W = projectile weight plus one third C (lbs.).
w = web (ins.).
~, = ratio of specific heats.
X = specific force of propellant (ins.); this is defined as the
pressure v o l u m e p r o d u c t of unit weight of propellant if
b u r n e d w i t h o u t loss of energy.
Nov., 1945.] SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS. 403

We assume :
( I ) t h a t t h e s t a r t i n g p r e s s u r e is z e r o ; t h a t is, t h a t t h e p r o j e c t i l e
s t a r t s t o m o v e i m m e d i a t e l y t h e p o w d e r b e g i n s to b u r n a n d t h a t t h e
p r e s s u r e n e c e s s a r y to e n g r a v e t h e b a n d is zero,
(2) t h a t t h e c o v o l u m e of t h e p r o p e l l e n t gases is e q u a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l
charge volume,
(3) t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l b u r n i n g r a t e of t h e p r o p e l l a n t is p r o p o r t i o n a l
to t h e first p o w e r of t h e p r e s s u r e ,
(4) t h a t the a r e a of t h e s u r f a c e of t h e p r o p e l l a n t r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t
during the burning,
(5) t h a t no h e a t or e n e r g y is lost t h r o u g h c o n d u c t i o n or t h r o u g h
friction.*
T h e b u r n i n g of a p r o p e l l a n t is g i v e n b y t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e r a t e
of recession ~ of t h e b u r n i n g s u r f a c e of t h e g r a i n is a f u n c t i o n of t h e
p r e s s u r e , a n d we c h o o s e
= qp, (1)
w i t h g t h e b u r n i n g c o n s t a n t of t h e p o w d e r . T h e a m o u n t , ~, of c h a r g e
b u r n t p e r u n i t t i m e is ~pa, w h e r e p is t h e p r o p e l l a n t d e n s i t y a n d a its
s u r f a c e . Since t h e p r o p e l l a n t is a s s u m e d t o be of s u c h a s h a p e t h a t its
s u r f a c e r e m a i n s c o n s t a n t (for i n s t a n c e , s h e e t s of a r e a >> t h a n t h i c k n e s s
s q u a r e d ) t h e v o l u m e of t h e p r o p e l l a n t is i n i t i a l l y (wa/2) w i t h w t h e
w e b or t h i c k n e s s , a n d t h e initial c h a r g e C is (pwa/2). O n e t h e n h a s
p~r = 2 C / w a n d
= c(2~/w) = c(2qp/w) (2)
from (I).
T h e specific force k of t h e p r o p e l l a n t is t h e p r o d u c t of p a n d t h e
free v o l u m e for t h e u n c o o l e d g a s e s p r o d u c e d f r o m u n i t w e i g h t of
propellant. T h e free v o l u m e of t h e c h a m b e r , v0, is

Vo = vc - - I7.7C (3)
w h e r e 17. 7 is t h e a v e r a g e v o l u m e in c u b i c inches of one p o u n d of
p r o p e l l a n t , a n d t h e free v o l u m e b e h i n d t h e p r o j e c t i l e base, v, is
v = Vo + 12as (4)
w h e r e s is t h e t r a v e l in feet.
* The common procedure for taking care of the energy losses due to friction and heat is by
changing the value of % as suggested by R. H. Kent. If this is done Dr. J. P. Vinti and
Mr. J. Chernick have found that the agreement between this simple theory and more elaborate
theories, as judged by the ratio of muzzle energy to maximum pressure, is of the order of one
per cent. The maximum pressure, however, may be somewhat more in error, the amount of
error depending on the manner of transforming the burning rate coefficient appropriate to a
more accurate burning law to a value for use in the first power burning law. If the burning
law should be g2p°.s instead of qp and the correspondence is made by equating qp to {/=p0.8at
maximum pressure, the discrepancy in maximum pressure may amount to as much as 3o
per cent. On the other hand, if the correspondence is made at ½p~x, the discrepancy may
be only a few per cent.
404 JOSEPH E. MAYER AND B. I. HART. [J. F. I.

The pressure is related to the free volume v, the a m o u n t of powder

burnt c, and the velocity of the projectile u by
pv = cx - ('r - ~)(w/2g)(~2u) 2 (5)
where ( W / 2 g ) ( I 2 U ) 2 is the energy of the projectile, which has all come
at the expense of the energy of the propellent gases. Since W includes
one-third of the charge weight C, as well as the projectile weight, there
is included as "projectile energy" the kinetic energy of motion of the
propellent gases. T h e factor one-third arises from the fact that, if
their density distribution down the tube is uniform, the average of the
square of the velocity of the gases is one-third the velocity of the
projectile squared.
The equation of motion of the projectile is
( W / g ) ( I 2 a ) = pa. (6)
The three equations, (2), (5), and (6) are our fundamental equations.
We define
Pq = (2qCX/aw)2(W/gvo), (7)
po = cx/vo, (8)
both of the dimensions of pressure, the latter being the pressure which
would be developed in the chamber if the complete charge burnt before
motion of the projectile, t h a t is, with instantaneous combustion.
From (2), since the initial charge burnt is zero, we see t h a t c is
proportional to f p d t , whereas from (6) it is seen t h a t u is also propor-
tional to the same integral. The velocity of the projectile is therefore
always proportional to the charge b u r n t up to complete combustion.
Using (7) and (8) the relationship can be expressed as

cx = ~c ) p ~vo = 4p#o(W/g)(i2u) (9)

or

(W/2g)(I2U) 2 = ~ -C pcVo -- • (9')

Pq
Equation (5) m a y then be written

io,
2 pq

We use du/dt = (du/ds)(ds/dt) = u(du/ds) = Ieaudu/d(I2as)

I2au(du/dv), or from (6)
p = (W/ga)(I2fz) = (W/g)(Ieu)d(I2u)/dv, (II)
and from (9),
p = pcvo(po/pq) (c/C) (d/dv) (c/C). (~ 2)
Nov., 1945.] SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS. 405

With this (IO) becomes

d(c/C) _ pj _ 7 -- I c
-- (13 )
dlnv Pc 2 C'
= (olc dx
In (v/v0) v0 (P~/Pc) - - ½("Y - - I)X
(I3')
_ 2 ln[I 3' -- I /)oC]-
"y-- I 2 pq
T h e n the relation between c/C, the fraction of the charge burnt,
and V/Vo, the expansion ratio, is
V/Vo = E1 -- ½(T -- I ) ( p c / P q ) ( c / C ) - ] -2/('t-1) (14)
c / C = [2pq/pc(')' -- I)-][I -- (Y/VO)--("/--1)/2-]. (14')
The pressure-expansion ratio equation is, from (IO) and (14'):
p = E2/('}' -- I ) ~ p q ( U / V O ) - - v E ( u / V O ) t('r-1) - - I-1. (I5)

The pressure is a m a x i m u m when:

Vmax/V0 = E2~t/(~f .J[- I)~2/(,--1), (16)
Cmax/C = Pq/VP,, (16')
and has the value:
Pmax = PqE(V + I)(7+1)V--272--(7+1)~1[(7--1)" (17)

The function f(~) = ~(~ + I)(~+1)7-2~2-(~+1)~ 1/(~-1) is I/e for 3' = I.

It does not v a r y greatly with q, having values:
~' f(3') ~' f('}')
I.O o.368 1.25 o.31o
I.O5 0.355 1.3 ° o.3ol
I.IO 0.342 1.35 0.292
1.15 O.331 1.4 o 0.283
1.20 0.320
It is closely approximated b y f(~,) --~ e-lEI -~- ~-('y -- I)-]--l, t h e agree-
m e n t being to at least three significant figures for values of 3' to 1.4o.
The values of v ..... /Vo for different values of 7 are:
Vmax/V0 ~1/ Vmax/V0
I.O 2.72 1.25 2.32
1.05 2.62 1.3o 2.26
I.IO 2.54 1.35 2.21
1.15 2.46 1.4o 2.16
1.2o 2.39
 406 JOSEPH E . MAYER AND B. I. HART. [J. F. I.

In terms of the expansion ratio, before all the propellant is consumed,

the energy of the projectile, from (9') and (14'), is:

V/f ( 1 2 . ) 2 _ I Wu 2= [-2pqvo/("[ - I)2"]EI - (V/Vo)-(3'-l)/2] 2 (18)

2g 5-37
and the velocity is

u = VIO.74Pqvo/W I EI - (V/Vo)-C'-~I2-]. (I9)

"y - - I

The position of all burnt is given by c / C = I, which from (14) is

vb = v0l-I - ½(v - I ) ( p , / p q ) - ] -2I~,-1~, (20)
and this m a y be approximated by:

vb = voePo/P, I + 4 (3' -- I ) ( p c / P q ) 2

_]_ g (,y __ i)~. ~ (pc/pq)8 + 4 (p~/pq)4 + . . . . (20*)

The pressure at all burnt is:

= p EI - ½('r - ('+'/('-" (21)

which m a y be approximated by:

Pb = P,e-<po/~'~>EI - ½(3' - I ) ( p c / p q ) -- 1(3' - I ) ( p / P ~ ) 2 + "" "3. (21")
T h e energy of the projectile at b u r n t is:

I WUb2 I CX(p~/p~) (22)'

5.37 2
and the velocity is
Ub = 4 2 . 6 8 ( C X / W ) ( p ~ / p q ) . ( 2 2 p)

Beyond the position of b u r n t the gases obey the equation of adiabatic

expansion, pv* is constant, so t h a t at the muzzle the pressure is (Vb/Vm)*pb,
and from (2 I),
P . . . . le = p c ( V O / V m ) ' r E I - - 1('3[ - - I)(Pc/Pq)3 -1. (23)

The muzzle energy is given by:

- - -- - - I - - (VO/Vm) 7--1 I -- ('y -- I)(pc/pa) (24)

5.37 3,- i 2 '

* Equations marked by asterisk are approximate expansions which are valid for most
weapons.
Nov., 1945.] SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS OF INTERIOR BAI.LISTICS. 407

which m a y be approximated as:

--I Wu,,,z = CX {[In (Vm,/V0) - I ]

--I(T2 -- I ) [ In = (v,,,/v0) - ( p , / p q ) I n (v,,,5'0)

} (24*)

The t e m p e r a t u r e (absolute) at the muzzle is

r m : ro(Vo/Vm)3'-l[I -- ~ ( ~ / - l)(Dc/Pq)] -1 (25)
where To is the adiabatic flame t e m p e r a t u r e of the propbllant, t h a t is,
the t e m p e r a t u r e of the uncooled gases produced in the combustion.
II. THE MUZZLE VELOCITY AND MAXIMUM PRESSURE.
Of the equations listed those giving the m a x i m u m pressure, (I7),
and the muzzle energy, (24), are of the greatest practical importance.
The m a x i m u m pressure is given by (I7) which m a y be approximated,
to far greater accuracy t h a n the t h e o r y warrants, by the simple form
/)max = (pq/e)[I + a(3" -- I ) ] -1 (26)

where e = 2.718 i s the base of the natural logarithm system. Since

Pv = ( 2 q C X / a w ) 2 [ W / g ( V c - I7.7C)-], (27)
it is seen t h a t the m a x i n m m pressure is proportional to the projectile
/( 17"7C)
weight, depends on the charge as C 2 I , depends on
Vc
burning rate as q2, on web as w -2, and on the specific force of the propellant
as V. The dependence on the c h a m b e r volume is as I/(Vc - I 7 . 7 C ) .
Since the burning rate q m a y be regarded as the least well k n o w n
of the parameters entering this simplified form of the t h e o r y one m a y
use the m a x i n m m pressure to determine q, or, more simply, to d e t e r m i n e
the p a r a m e t e r pq :
Pq = 2.718p .... [ I -{- a ( T -- I ) ] . (28)
The equation for the muzzle energy, in inch lbs., m a y be m a d e to
appear simpler by defining the new symbols:
r = In (vm/vo) = 2.3o3[-log10 (I2as + vc - I7.7C)
- log10 (vc -- I 7 . 7 C ) ] , (29)
~o = po/2pq = (4.o2/W) (aw/q)2(I/CX), (30)
h = r -- ~o, (31)

E m -- I Wum2 ' (32)

5.37
408 JOSEPH E. MAYER AND B. I. HART. [J. F. I.

which latter is the nmzzle energy in inch lbs., if the projectile weight,
W, is in lbs., and the nmzzle velocity, urn, in feet per second.
In view of (28) ~ m a y be d e t e r m i n e d from the m a x i m u m pressure as
<p = pc/{2ep ..... [ I -}- 3 ( 7 - - I ) ] }
= CX/{[vc- I7.7C]5.436pm'~x[I + ~ ( 7 - I)]}. (33)
This e q u a t i o n is valid only if the point of all b u r n t comes later t h a n
the m a x i m u m pressure, which requires t h a t
9 ~ 1/27 [~o. 4 if (7 = 1.25)]. (33')

T h e gun will "spit p o w d e r " unless the position of all b u r n t is before

the muzzle. This requires t h a t

- In [ I - (7 - I)~] =< 7 -- I r, (33")

2
or approximately,
~=<½r.
T h e q u a n t i t y h = r - 9 is seen to be positive, and equal to or greater
t h a n 9, if the gun does n o t "spit powder."
T h e e q u a t i o n (24) for the muzzle energy becomes
CX
Em - - - {I -- e - ( ~ - l ) ' [ I -- (7 - - I)~o] -1} (34)
7-- I
which m a y be e x p a n d e d to the forms

Em= CX
[ (r -- 9) -- 2 (7 --
i I)( r2 - - 2 r 9 + 2 9 ~)

I
+~(7 - - I)2( r 3 - 3C9 +6r92- 693 )

- - 2--4 (7 -- I)3( r4 -- 4r39 + I2r292 -- 24r98 + 2494) "" (34*)

g~=cx h-~(7-i)(h~+9 ~)

I
+ g (7 - i),(h~ + 3h9' - 29 ~)

- 24 (7 - i)~(h* + 6 h ' 9 ' - 8h9 ~ + 999 .... (34**)

Except for v e r y long guns the first t w o t e r m s

Em= CXh{I - 1(7 - i)[h + (9'/h)] + ... } (34***)
are sufficient, within an accuracy to which this simple t h e o r y applies.
Nov., 1945.] SIMPLIFIED ~QUATIONS OF I N T E R I O R BALLISTICS. 409

From (34**) it is seen t h a t for guns of m o d e r a t e length (vm/vo a b o u t

2o, r a b o u t 3 and h a b o u t 2), the muzzle energy is proportional to t h e
total "force" of the powder, the p r o d u c t of charge C and the specific force
X, and relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of the value of 3". Since the potential of
the powder is X/(3" - I), this q u a n t i t y for fixed force is highly d e p e n d e n t
on 3". T h a t is, the specific force X, r a t h e r t h a n the potential X/(3" - I),
represents the capacity of the propellant to do work in the gun, a n d
is a more useful characteristic of the propellant on which to base
comparisons of different compositions t h a n the potential.
T h e variation of muzzle energy E .... and muzzle velocity urn, w i t h
the various parameters m a y be m o s t c o n v e n i e n t l y expressed as loga-
rithmic derivatives, which give the per cent. change in Em or u~ w i t h
unit per cent. change in the parameter. R e g a r d i n g charge C, projectile
weight W, web w, burning c o n s t a n t q, specific heat ratio 3", and specific
force X as parameters, for a given gun (fixed v~, a, and s) the logarithmic
derivatives are as follows:
We use

J = ~mm I - - (3" - - I ) ~ -- E m (3" - - I )

I{ i
i
+ - - (3" -- I)2Eh~ + 4~a/h + 3~4/h2-] + . . . .
j (35)
12
This p a r a m e t e r has a value in the neighborhood of 1/2, for m o s t guns.
T h e per cent. change in muzzle energy for u n i t per cent. change in
projectile weight is, using the conventional designation in t h e r m o -
dynamics of indicating by subscripts to t h e partial derivatives t h a t web
a n d burning rate are held constant,
(0 In Em/OIn W)w,~ = j ~ I - (3' - - I ) ~ ] -1, (3 6)
a n d the per cent. change in muzzle velocity is
(Olnum/Oln W)w,~ = ½ { j ~ I -- (3" -- I)~-1-1 - I}. (36')
For all o t h e r parameters the per cent. change in muzzle velocity is
just half the per cent. change in muzzle energy. T h e effect of c h a n g e is
(OlnE~) = 2Olnu'n---
OlnC ,o,~ OlnC

= I ~-j I - - (3" - - I ) f

I -~- I " (37)

Vc k 12~Sm J Ve
41o JOSEPH E . ]V[AYER AND B. I. HART. [J. F. I.

The changes due to web, w, and burning rate, q, are equal in magni-
t u d e and opposite in sign:
0 In Em 0 In E m 0 In Um 0 In u~
-- -- 2 -- 2 - -
0 In q 0 In w 0 in q 0 lnw (38)
= 2j~p[I -- (T -- I ) g~] -I.

The changes due to force are:

(01nEro) O ln u,~
"= 2 -- I ~ - j ~ [ I -- (3' -- I)qo] -I. (39)'
0 In X ~,q 0 In X
If the powder characteristics, projectile weight, and other d i m e n -
sions of the gun are held constant we have
0 In E,n ) 0 In um
O ln vc w,q O ln vc
i77c]1[, i77c]1 ,4o>
12aSm Uc

for the effect of the c h a m b e r capacity, vc, and

(01nE~)
-o V~ ~ ~,q = 2 3 ~n ~
Olnum
- j
[
~+
vc-- I7.__.__7C]
Y2aS.,
-I (4i>

for the effect of the travel, Sin, from the seating of the projectile to
the muzzle.
If, instead of considering the parameters as C, W, w, q, X and those
of the gun, we t a k e C, W, X, Pmax and those of the gun, it is equivalent
to assuming t h a t the web, or burning rate, or both, are varied to fix t h e
m a x i m u m pressure. In this case we shall indicate the logarithmic
derivatives b y partials with the subscript p, to indicate t h a t the maxi-
m u m pressure is held constant. T h e results are:
(0 In Em/O In W)p = o, (42)'
I
(0 In um/O In W)p = -- -, (42')
2

0 In C p 0 In C p

=i+j [i I7"7C]-11 I7"7C

Vc Vc

I2aSm J I -- (7- I)q~

= 2 = I -jg[I - (y - I)~-] -1. (44)

0 In k p 0 In X p
Nov., 1945.] SIMPLIFIED .EQUATIONS OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS. 411

Similarly if web or burning rate or both are adjusted to maintain

the same maxinmm pressure the effects of varying the chamber volume,
Vc or travel, s.,~ are:
(01nEro) = 2 (OlnUv~)
0 In vc p 0 In

= j I Vc I -- ( 7 - 1)9

.
[I
. .
+vc--
.
I7"7C]-1} , (45)
12a, Sm

(OlnEm) = 2 ( 0-1 n- u)~ p =J[I + V ~ - - Il "7I"27aCs ], . (46)

01nSm p 0 lns~
Finally the change of muzzle energy with maximum pressure, if
obtained by changing web or burning rate only, is
0 In E~ 0 In um
-2 = j g [ I - (V - I ) 9 ] -1. (47)
0 In P m.x 0 In pmax