ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION

(January 2024 Semester)

ASSIGNMENT

JANUARY 2024 SEMESTER

SUBJECT CODE : ESM 641

SUBJECT TITLE : RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

LEVEL : MASTER

STUDENT’S NAME : SARASWATHY A/P KANASIAN

MATRIC NO. : E60101240066

PROGRAMME : MASTER OF EDUCATION

ACADEMIC FACILITATOR : DR.JEYARAJAH KANDIAH

LEARNING CENTRE : FULLY ONLINE

0
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
PART 1
Content Description
Research Area i. The purpose of the study outlined is to evaluate the effectiveness of an
and Theory ESL writing instructional module based on self-regulation in improving
the narrative writing skills of secondary school students in Malaysia.
ii. The study seeks to address the identified weaknesses in ESL writing
among Malaysian students by exploring the potential benefits of
integrating self-regulation strategies into writing instruction.
iii. Specifically, the researchers aim to determine if the effects of the self-
regulation-based intervention are statistically significant in enhancing
students' overall writing performance and proficiency across various
components, including content, communicative appropriateness,
organization, and language.
iv. This study contributes to the existing literature by introducing an
alternative approach to improving ESL writing skills and preparing
students for their post-secondary school endeavors in Malaysia.
v. The theory underpinning the study is the concept of self-regulation in
writing development. Self-regulation theory posits that individuals can
actively monitor, control, and regulate their cognitive processes,
behaviors, and emotions to achieve desired goals.
vi. In the context of writing, self-regulation involves the ability to set
goals, plan, monitor progress, evaluate outcomes, and adjust strategies as
needed. The study draws upon the notion that skilled writers exhibit higher
levels of self-regulation, and there exists a positive relationship between
self-regulation and writing improvement.
Research i. Is there a significant difference in the students’ overall writing performance
Question after the intervention?
ii. Is there a significant difference in the content element of the students’ essay
after the intervention?
iii. Is there a significant difference in the communicative appropriateness
element of the students’ essay after the intervention?
iv. Is there a significant difference in the organization element of the students’
essay after the intervention?
v. Is there a significant difference in the language element of the students’ essay
after the intervention?

1
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
Hypotheses Hₒ There is no significant difference between the students’ overall writing
performance after the intervention.
Hₒ There is no significant difference in the students’ content elements score
after the intervention.
Hₒ There is no significant difference in the students’ communicative
appropriateness scores after the intervention.
Hₒ There is no significant difference in the students’ organization element
scores after the intervention.
Hₒ There is no significant difference in the students’ language scores after
the intervention.
Variables i. The independent variable under scrutiny is the implementation of the
ESL writing instructional module based on self-regulation. This variable
encompasses the specific strategies and techniques aimed at fostering
students' self-regulation skills in the context of writing.
ii. The dependent variables include students' overall writing performance
and proficiency across four key components: content, communicative
appropriateness, organisation, and language. These components represent
distinct aspects of writing ability that are essential for effective
communication and expression. By assessing changes in students'
performance across these variables, the study aims to determine the impact
of the intervention on their narrative writing skills.
iii. The study use moderator variables of gender and level of proficiency to
explore differential effects or interactions with the intervention.
Review of i. The context of ESL writing in Malaysian secondary schools
Literature - Regarding ESL writing in Malaysian secondary schools, the review
highlights the challenges students face, such as proficiency issues,
language influence, grammar concerns, and limited vocabulary use.
- Despite various intervention programs and tools aimed at improving
writing skills, the focus largely examination-oriented, less emphasis on
self-regulation strategies. This gap suggests a need to explore the potential
benefits of integrating self-regulation into ESL writing instruction.
- The review then discusses the significance of self-regulation in writing
development, emphasizing that skilled writers demonstrate high levels of
self-regulation.
ii. The role of self-regulation in writing development
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
- The literature suggests that self-regulation in writing has not been fully
exploited in Malaysian secondary school classrooms, possibly due to the
examination-oriented education system.
- This highlights the importance of exploring self-regulation strategies in
ESL writing instruction to enhance students' writing abilities effectively.
iii. The Self-Regulation Strategies Development (SRSD) model as an
instructional strategy
- The review introduces the SRSD model as a well-documented intervention
for teaching writing strategies, emphasizing its focus on self-regulation
processes such as planning, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-
instruction.
- The SRSD model has been extensively researched in native speaker
contexts and among learners with learning difficulties, there is a scarcity
of studies in the Malaysian secondary school context, especially in the
ESL setting.
- This underscores the need for further research to explore the effectiveness
of the SRSD model in enhancing writing skills among Malaysian secondary
school students, particularly in ESL contexts.
Methodology i. The research methodology of the study employs a quasi-experimental
design involving 35 Form 2 students in a government school in Sabah,
Malaysia.
ii. The study is conducted as a pilot within a larger study and is situated
before the implementation of pandemic-related restrictions.
iii. The participants consist of one English language teacher with 8 years
of teaching experience and 35 students, comprising 17 males and 18
females with low to intermediate proficiency levels in English.
iv. The intervention utilizes a self-regulation-based ESL writing module
developed by the researcher, integrating the SRSD model and process
writing stages.
v. The module is implemented over four weeks, with each lesson allocated
40 minutes. Data analysis involves administering pre-and post-tests to
assess changes in students' writing performance, using a standardized
writing assessment rubric with four linguistic elements: content,
communicative appropriateness, organization, and language.
v. Paired t-tests are employed to analyze pre-and post-test scores, and the
teaching and learning procedures are documented and summarized.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
vi. The research methodology emphasizes the integration of self-regulation
strategies into ESL writing instruction to enhance students' writing skills
within the Malaysian secondary school context.
Findings i. The findings of the study demonstrate a significant improvement in
students' writing performance after the implementation of the self-
regulation-based writing module.
ii. The paired sample t-test analysis revealed statistically significant
increases in overall writing performance and across all four elements
assessed: content, communicative appropriateness, organization, and
language.
iii. The rejection of null hypotheses underscores the effectiveness of the
intervention in enhancing students' writing performance and supports the
value of incorporating self-regulation-based approaches into ESL writing
pedagogy.
iv. the study contributes valuable insights into effective instructional
strategies for improving writing skills in Malaysian secondary school
contexts, highlighting the importance of addressing self-regulation in ESL
writing education to better prepare students for academic and post-
secondary endeavors.
Discussion and i. Despite the examination-oriented nature of the education system, the
Conclusion results indicate statistically significant improvements in overall writing
quality and across key writing elements.
ii. The study also acknowledges limitations, such as the brief intervention
period and the lack of participants' perspectives due to unforeseen
circumstances such as the pandemic-induced school closures.
iii. Future studies are recommended to include a larger sample size, extend
the intervention duration, and explore additional variables such as gender
and proficiency levels.
iv. Integrating qualitative approaches to capture participants' perspectives
would provide deeper insights into the effectiveness and implications of
the intervention.
iv. The study highlights the importance of integrating self-regulation
strategies into ESL writing instruction to enhance students' writing skills
and underscores the need for adaptable instructional approaches in
examination-oriented educational settings.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)

PART 2
Ethics play a fundamental role in guiding educational research, ensuring the integrity, fairness, and
respect for all participants involved. Ethics in research encompass principles and standards that
govern the conduct of researchers, protecting the rights, welfare, and dignity of individuals
participating in studies. In educational research, ethics are crucial in maintaining trust, credibility,
and validity of findings, ultimately contributing to the advancement of knowledge and
improvement of educational practices. The importance of ethics in educational research cannot be
overstated. Firstly, ethical conduct ensures the protection of participants' rights and welfare.
Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants, ensuring they understand the purpose,
procedures, risks, and benefits of the study before agreeing to participate. Additionally, researchers
must maintain confidentiality and anonymity, safeguarding participants' privacy and sensitive
information. By upholding these ethical principles, researchers foster trust and respect among
participants, enhancing the quality and reliability of research outcomes.

Moreover, ethics in educational research promote fairness and equity in the treatment of
participants. Researchers must strive to minimize harm and maximize benefits for all individuals
involved, regardless of their background, abilities, or cultural differences. This includes addressing
power imbalances and ensuring equitable access to opportunities for participation. By embracing
diversity and inclusivity, researchers can produce research that is relevant, meaningful, and
representative of diverse perspectives within educational settings. However, ethical issues in
educational research may arise, particularly concerning vulnerable populations such as individuals
with disabilities and those from culturally diverse backgrounds. For example, researchers must
navigate the ethical complexities of obtaining informed consent and accommodating diverse
communication needs for participants with disabilities. Additionally, cultural differences may
influence perceptions of consent, privacy, and confidentiality, requiring researchers to adopt
culturally sensitive approaches and adapt research methodologies accordingly.

One example of an ethical issue in educational research involving disability is the challenge
of ensuring meaningful participation and representation of individuals with disabilities.
Researchers must consider accessibility and accommodations to facilitate equal opportunities for
participation and ensure that findings accurately reflect the experiences and perspectives of
individuals with disabilities. Similarly, in research involving cultural differences, ethical
considerations may include respecting cultural norms, values, and beliefs, avoiding stereotypes,
and promoting cultural humility and sensitivity in data collection and interpretation. In conclusion,
ethics are foundational to the conduct of educational research, guiding researchers in upholding
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
principles of integrity, respect, and fairness in their interactions with participants. By prioritizing
ethical considerations, researchers can promote trust, credibility, and inclusivity in educational
research, ultimately contributing to the advancement of knowledge and the improvement of
educational practices. However, researchers must remain vigilant in addressing ethical challenges,
particularly concerning vulnerable populations, such as individuals with disabilities and those from
culturally diverse backgrounds, to ensure the ethical integrity of their research endeavors.

In my view, ethics in educational research serves as a cornerstone for maintaining the

integrity, trustworthiness, and respect within the academic community. As researchers navigate the
intricate landscapes of educational settings and human behavior, prioritizing ethical considerations
becomes paramount to safeguard the rights, welfare, and dignity of all participants involved.
Upholding ethical standards not only ensures the protection of participants but also bolsters the
credibility and validity of research findings. Ethical conduct in educational research, to me,
transcends mere adherence to guidelines; it embodies a moral imperative, reflecting the researcher's
dedication to upholding ethical principles and nurturing a culture of accountability and
responsibility.

Moreover, I believe that ethical integrity in educational research plays a pivotal role in
cultivating and sustaining public trust in academia and research institutions. By adhering
steadfastly to ethical guidelines, researchers demonstrate their unwavering commitment to
transparency, fairness, and social responsibility. This commitment, in turn, fosters confidence
among participants, stakeholders, and the wider community in the reliability and credibility of
research outcomes. Thus, ethics in educational research, from my perspective, is not solely a
professional obligation but also serves as a moral compass, guiding researchers in their quest for
knowledge and enlightenment, and ultimately contributing to positive societal impact and
meaningful progress in education.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
PART 3
a. Research Question
1. What are the primary factors influencing the decision of final-year secondary school students
in Perak (or the chosen state/province) to not pursue further education for a certificate, diploma,
or bachelor's degree?
2. How do socioeconomic factors, such as family income, parental education level, and access to
financial resources, impact the educational aspirations of secondary school graduates in Perak (or
the chosen state/province)?
3. What role do perceptions of the value of higher education, including career prospects, societal
expectations, and personal goals, play in the decision-making process of secondary school
students regarding further education in Perak (or the chosen state/province)?

b. How to Draw Sampling Using Stratified Sampling

To effectively draw a sample of students using stratified sampling for the study on reasons why
students opt out of pursuing further education after completing secondary school in Perak,
Malaysia, the first step is to identify relevant strata within the population. In this context, potential
strata could include different types of secondary schools (e.g., public, private), urban and rural
areas, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Once the strata are identified, the next step is to determine
the proportion of the population that each stratum represents. For instance, if there are four types
of secondary schools in Perak, the proportion of students from each type should be reflected in the
sample. Similarly, if there are significant differences in urban and rural populations, these
proportions should also be accounted for in the sample.

After determining the proportions, random sampling can be used within each stratum to
select the final-year students who will participate in the survey. For example, within each type of
secondary school, a random sample of final-year students can be selected. Similarly, random
samples can be drawn from urban and rural areas based on their respective proportions in the
population. Finally, once the samples from each stratum are collected, they can be combined to
form the overall sample for the survey. By employing stratified sampling, the research team ensures
that the sample is representative of the population in Perak, accounting for various factors such as
school type, urban/rural distribution, and socioeconomic status. This approach allows for a more
comprehensive understanding of the reasons why students choose not to pursue further education
after secondary school, as it captures diverse perspectives from different segments of the
population.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
c. What Demographic variable in the survey
When designing the survey to find out why students don't continue their education after high
school, it's important to take into account a variety of demographic factors that could affect their
choices. One huge segment variable to remember for the study is financial status. This variable
incorporates factors, for example, family pay, parental schooling level, and admittance to monetary
assets. Students' perceptions of higher education and their ability to pay for it can be influenced by
socioeconomic status, which in turn affects their decision-making process. Geographic location,
specifically whether students live in urban or rural areas, is an additional important demographic
variable to take into account. In terms of career prospects, societal expectations, and access to
educational institutions, urban and rural environments may present distinct opportunities and
challenges. Understanding what area means for understudies' yearnings and decisions can give
significant experiences into the differences in instructive fulfillment among metropolitan and rustic
populaces.

Moreover, the review ought to accumulate information on understudies' social foundations

and identities. People's attitudes toward education and decision to continue their education can be
influenced by cultural factors, such as traditions, beliefs, and values. Researchers can gain a
nuanced understanding of the numerous factors that influence students' decisions to forego higher
education by focusing on the intersections between cultural diversity and educational aspirations.
Last but not least, gender-related demographic data ought to be included in the survey. As societal
norms and expectations regarding gender roles can influence individuals' perceptions of the value
of education and their career aspirations, gender dynamics may play a role in influencing students'
educational choices. To promote educational equity, potential barriers or disparities that need to be
addressed can be identified by analyzing the impact that gender has on students' decisions to
continue their education. By integrating segment factors like financial status, topographical area,
social foundation, and orientation into the overview plan, the examination group can actually
investigate the intricate interchange of variables impacting understudies' choices in regards to
additional training in the wake of finishing auxiliary school. This all-encompassing strategy makes
it possible to gain a more complete comprehension of the factors that led to the choices made by
students and can guide specific interventions that support all students' educational access and
achievement.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
d. Types of statistics
For each research question, different types of statistical analysis methods can be employed to
analyze the data collected from the survey.
i. Primary Factors Influencing the Decision not to Pursue Further Education:
Descriptive statistics: Utilize measures such as frequencies and percentages to identify the most
commonly cited factors influencing students' decisions. Chi-square test of independence: Assess
the relationship between various factors (e.g., financial constraints, lack of interest, family
responsibilities) and the decision not to pursue further education. Factor analysis: Identify
underlying factors or clusters among the reasons provided by students for not pursuing further
education.

ii. Impact of Socioeconomic Factors on Educational Aspirations:

Correlation analysis: Examine the relationships between socioeconomic variables (e.g., family
income, parental education level) and educational aspirations to determine the strength and
direction of associations. Multiple regression analysis: Explore how socioeconomic factors
collectively predict educational aspirations, controlling for other relevant variables. ANOVA or t-
tests: Compare mean educational aspirations across different levels of socioeconomic variables to
identify any significant differences.

iii. Role of Perceptions of Higher Education in Decision-Making:

Likert scale analysis: Analyze responses to Likert-scale questions assessing perceptions of the
value of higher education using measures such as means, standard deviations, and frequency
distributions. Logistic regression analysis: Investigate the likelihood of students opting out of
further education based on their perceptions of the value of higher education, career prospects,
societal expectations, and personal goals. Structural equation modeling (SEM): Examine the
complex relationships between various perceptions of higher education and decision-making
processes, considering both direct and indirect effects.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
PART 4
a. Why research choose Quasi-experimental design
The researcher selected a quasi-experimental design for several reasons. Firstly, quasi-
experimental designs are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to randomly assign participants
to different groups, as is the case here. In educational settings, it can be difficult to randomly assign
students to teaching methods due to logistical constraints and ethical considerations. Instead, intact
classes were used, with one teacher employing the Small Group Method and another using the
Lecture Method. This approach allowed the researcher to compare the effectiveness of the two
teaching methods while working within the constraints of the educational environment. Secondly,
quasi-experimental designs are appropriate when researchers have limited control over the
independent variable. In this study, the independent variable is the teaching method (Small Group
Method vs. Lecture Method), and the researcher likely had limited control over which teaching
method each group of students received. The decision to use intact classes means that students were
already assigned to specific classes based on factors beyond the researcher's control, such as
scheduling and classroom availability.

Thirdly, quasi-experimental designs are often chosen when the researcher aims to
investigate real-world phenomena in natural settings. By conducting the study in a college setting
with intact classes, the researcher was able to observe the effectiveness of the teaching methods in
a realistic educational environment, enhancing the external validity of the findings. This approach
provides insights into how the teaching methods would perform in practical, everyday situations,
which can be valuable for informing educational practices and policies. Moreover, quasi-
experimental designs are frequently used in educational research to evaluate the effectiveness of
interventions or teaching methods. In this study, the researcher sought to compare the outcomes of
the Small Group Method and the Lecture Method by administering a statistics test to students at
the end of the experiment. By using a quasi-experimental design, the researcher could assess
whether one teaching method resulted in higher test scores compared to the other, thus informing
educators and policymakers about the relative effectiveness of different instructional approaches.
Overall, the selection of a quasi-experimental design in this study allowed the researcher to
compare the effectiveness of different teaching methods in a real-world educational setting, despite
limitations in randomization and control over the independent variable. This approach facilitated a
practical investigation into the relative merits of the Small Group Method and the Lecture Method
in teaching statistics to undergraduates, providing valuable insights for educators and researchers
in the field of education.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
b. Null Hypotheses
H1 There is no significant difference in the mean scores between students taught using the Small
Group Method and those taught using the Lecture Method on the statistics test.

H2 There is no significant difference in the variability of scores among students taught using the
Small Group Method and those taught using the Lecture Method on the statistics test.

c. Threats
In the study comparing the effectiveness of the Small Group Method and the Lecture Method in
teaching statistics to undergraduates, several threats to internal validity could potentially undermine
the accuracy of the findings. One such threat is maturation. Maturation refers to changes in
participants over time that may occur naturally during the course of the study. In this experiment,
students from both groups may experience maturation effects, such as changes in their level of
motivation or cognitive development, which could influence their performance on the statistics test
independently of the teaching methods. Another threat to internal validity is instrumentation.
Instrumentation refers to changes in the measurement or assessment tools used to collect data
throughout the study. If different measures or scoring criteria were used to evaluate the statistics
test scores of students taught using the Small Group Method versus the Lecture Method, it could
introduce bias into the results. Ensuring consistency in assessment procedures is crucial to mitigate
the threat of instrumentation.

Testing is another potential threat to internal validity in this experiment. Testing refers to
the effect of taking the statistics test itself on students' subsequent performance. If students become
familiar with the format or content of the test after taking it once, they may perform better on
subsequent administrations simply due to practice effects, rather than any differences in the
effectiveness of the teaching methods. Counterbalancing the order of test administration or using
alternate forms of the test can help mitigate the impact of testing effects. Selection bias is a fourth
threat to internal validity that could undermine the validity of the experiment. Selection bias occurs
when there are systematic differences between the groups being compared that could influence the
outcome of the study. In this experiment, if students were not randomly assigned to the Small
Group Method and Lecture Method conditions, but rather self-selected or were assigned based on
non-random criteria, there may be pre-existing differences between the groups that confound the
results. Random assignment helps ensure that any differences in the outcomes can be attributed to
the treatment conditions rather than pre-existing differences between the groups. Overall,
addressing threats to internal validity such as maturation, instrumentation, testing, and selection
bias is crucial to ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the findings from the experiment
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
comparing the effectiveness of different teaching methods in statistics education. Implementing
appropriate controls and research design strategies can help mitigate these threats and enhance the
validity of the study's conclusions.

d. Techniques
Ensuring that the two groups are equivalent in ability is crucial for the validity of the study
comparing the effectiveness of different teaching methods. One technique the researcher could use
is pretest-posttest analysis. Before the experiment begins, both groups could be administered a
pretest on statistics knowledge and skills. By comparing the pretest scores of students in the Small
Group Method and Lecture Method groups, the researcher can assess whether there are any initial
differences in ability between the groups. Adjusting for any baseline differences in ability can help
ensure that subsequent differences in test scores are attributed to the teaching methods rather than
pre-existing disparities in student ability. Another technique the researcher could employ is
matching. Before the experiment begins, students in the Small Group Method and Lecture Method
groups could be matched based on relevant variables, such as prior academic achievement or
demographic characteristics.

By pairing students with similar abilities, the researcher can create more equivalent groups,
reducing the likelihood of confounding variables affecting the results. Matching allows for greater
control over potential differences in ability between the groups, enhancing the internal validity of
the study. Both pretest-posttest analysis and matching are effective techniques for ensuring the
equivalence of groups in ability in experimental research. By implementing these techniques, the
researcher can minimize the influence of extraneous variables and enhance the validity of
comparisons between teaching methods. Additionally, conducting sensitivity analyses to assess the
impact of any remaining differences in ability between the groups can provide further assurance of
the robustness of the study's findings. Overall, employing rigorous methods to establish group
equivalence is essential for drawing valid conclusions about the relative effectiveness of different
teaching approaches.

e. Conclusion
In conclusion, the experiment comparing the effectiveness of the Small Group Method and the
Lecture Method in teaching statistics to undergraduates provides valuable insights into
instructional strategies in higher education. The findings suggest that the Small Group Method
yielded higher mean scores on the statistics test compared to the Lecture Method, with students in
the Small Group Method group achieving a mean score of 48.2 compared to 40.7 for students in
the Lecture Method group. This difference in test scores indicates that the Small Group Method
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
may be more effective in enhancing students' understanding and retention of statistical concepts.
However, it's essential to interpret these findings with caution and consider potential limitations of
the study. The small sample size of 25 students in the Lecture Method group compared to 60
students in the Small Group Method group may introduce bias and limit the generalizability of the
results. Additionally, other factors such as instructor effectiveness, student engagement, and
classroom dynamics could influence the outcomes but were not explicitly measured or controlled
for in the study. Future research could address these limitations by employing larger sample sizes,
controlling for additional variables, and exploring the long-term effects of different teaching
methods on student learning outcomes. Overall, while the results suggest that the Small Group
Method may be more effective than the Lecture Method in teaching statistics to undergraduates,
further research is needed to confirm these findings and explore the underlying mechanisms driving
the observed differences. The study underscores the importance of evidence-based instructional
practices in higher education and highlights the need for ongoing evaluation and refinement of
teaching methods to enhance student learning and success.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)

PART 5
a. 6 Item Measurement Instrument
No Question Likert Scale
1 2 3 4 5
1 I don't feel satisfied with the performance of public
transport in terms of reliability and punctuality
2 I find the prices of public transport tickets to be
unreasonably high compared to the service provided
3 Public transport is uncomfortable for me, with issues
such as overcrowding or lack of seating contributing to
my negative perception
4 I appreciate the comfortable travel experience provided
by public transport, with spacious seating and amenities
making my journeys enjoyable.
5 Public transport plays a crucial role in decreasing
congestion on roads, contributing to smoother traffic
flow and shorter commuting times for everyone.
6 Utilizing public transport has significantly reduced my
waiting time at intersections, thanks to dedicated lanes
and efficient route planning, making my travels more
time-efficient and convenient.

b. Aim of The Measurement and What Is Measured

Aim of the Measurement:
The aim of measuring attitudes towards using public transport is to gauge the perceptions and
sentiments of individuals regarding various aspects of public transportation. Understanding these
attitudes is crucial for policymakers, transportation authorities, and service providers to improve
and tailor public transport systems to better meet the needs and preferences of the public. By
assessing attitudes, authorities can identify areas for improvement and implement targeted
strategies to enhance the overall public transport experience.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
What Is Measured:

i. Reliability and Punctuality: The first questionnaire item assesses satisfaction with the reliability
and punctuality of public transport services. This measurement helps identify any shortcomings in
the timeliness of services, allowing authorities to address issues such as delays and disruptions.

ii. Price Perception: The second questionnaire item focuses on the perceived affordability of public
transport tickets relative to the quality of service provided. Measuring this aspect provides insights
into whether fare structures align with passengers' expectations and financial considerations.

iii. Comfort: The third questionnaire item explores passengers' comfort levels while using public
transport, considering factors such as overcrowding and seating availability. This measurement
helps pinpoint areas where improvements in comfort can enhance the overall passenger experience.

iv. Comfortable Travel Experience: The fourth questionnaire item highlights positive perceptions
of comfort during public transport journeys. It measures satisfaction with amenities, spacious
seating, and overall travel experience, providing feedback on aspects that contribute to passenger
satisfaction.

v. Congestion Reduction: The fifth questionnaire item evaluates the perception of public transport's
role in decreasing congestion on roads. Measuring this aspect helps gauge awareness of the broader
societal benefits of using public transport and its impact on traffic flow and commuting times.

vi. Waiting Time Reduction: The sixth questionnaire item assesses the perception of reduced
waiting times at intersections due to the use of public transport lanes and efficient route planning.
This measurement indicates the effectiveness of transportation infrastructure improvements in
enhancing travel efficiency and convenience.

In summary, measuring attitudes towards using public transport encompasses various factors such
as reliability, affordability, comfort, congestion reduction, and waiting time reduction. Analyzing
these measurements provides valuable insights for improving public transport systems to better
serve the needs and preferences of passengers while addressing broader transportation challenges.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
c. Explanation on How Item Are Selected
Selecting questionnaire items involves a thoughtful consideration of factors that influence
individuals' attitudes toward public transport. Here's how each negative and positive item was
chosen:

Negative Items:

Performance Dissatisfaction: The first negative item reflects dissatisfaction with the reliability and
punctuality of public transport. This item was selected because delays and inconsistency in
schedules are common grievances among passengers. By including this item, we aim to capture the
frustration passengers experience when public transport fails to meet their expectations regarding
reliability and punctuality.

Price Perception: The second negative item addresses the perception of high ticket prices compared
to the quality of service provided. Affordability is a significant factor influencing individuals'
transportation choices. This item was chosen to gauge passengers' dissatisfaction with fare
structures and whether they perceive ticket prices as unjustifiably high relative to the service
received.

Comfort Concerns: The third negative item focuses on discomfort experienced due to
overcrowding or lack of seating on public transport. Comfort is essential for passenger satisfaction,
and issues such as overcrowding can lead to negative perceptions and deter individuals from using
public transport. This item was selected to assess passengers' discontent with comfort-related
issues, which can significantly impact their overall attitude toward public transport.

Positive Items:

Comfortable Travel Experience: The first positive item highlights the appreciation for the
comfortable travel experience provided by public transport, including spacious seating and
amenities. This item was chosen to capture passengers' positive perceptions of comfort during their
journeys. Understanding what aspects of comfort passengers enjoy can help identify strengths in
public transport services.

Congestion Reduction: The second positive item emphasizes public transport's role in reducing
congestion on roads, leading to smoother traffic flow and shorter commuting times. This item was
selected because reducing traffic congestion is a significant societal benefit of using public
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
transport. By including this item, we aim to assess passengers' awareness of the broader impact of
public transport on traffic conditions.

Waiting Time Reduction: The third positive item addresses the perception of reduced waiting times
at intersections due to dedicated lanes and efficient route planning for public transport. Waiting
time reduction is a key benefit of well-designed public transport systems. This item was chosen to
gauge passengers' satisfaction with improvements in travel efficiency and convenience facilitated
by public transport infrastructure.

In summary, each questionnaire item was selected to capture specific concerns or benefits
associated with public transport usage, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of
passengers' attitudes and experiences. These items reflect common issues faced by passengers and
highlight the positive aspects that contribute to a favorable attitude toward public transport.

d. How to Ensure What to Measure

Ensuring that the attitude scale effectively measures what it is intended to measure requires
careful attention to several key aspects of scale development and validation.

i. Define Clear Objectives: Begin by clearly defining the objectives of the attitude scale.
Understand what specific aspects of attitudes toward public transport you aim to measure, such as
reliability, affordability, comfort, and overall satisfaction.

ii. Conduct a Literature Review: Review existing literature on attitudes toward public transport to
identify relevant constructs and potential measurement items. This step helps ensure that the scale
encompasses important dimensions and is aligned with established theories and research findings.

iii. Generate Item Pool: Develop a pool of potential items based on the identified dimensions and
constructs. These items should be clear, concise, and relevant to the objectives of the scale.
Consider both positive and negative items to capture a comprehensive range of attitudes.

iv. Expert Review: Seek input from experts in transportation psychology, survey design, and public
transport management to review the initial item pool. Experts can provide valuable feedback on
item clarity, relevance, and appropriateness for measuring attitudes toward public transport.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
v. Pilot Testing: Conduct pilot testing with a small sample of target respondents to assess the
clarity, comprehensibility, and relevance of the items. Pilot testing helps identify any ambiguous
or confusing items that may need revision before full-scale implementation.

vi. Conduct Validity and Reliability Analyses: Once the scale is finalized, conduct validity and
reliability analyses to ensure its psychometric properties. Validity assessments may include
content validity, construct validity (e.g., factor analysis), and criterion-related validity (e.g.,
correlating scale scores with relevant outcomes). Reliability analyses, such as internal
consistency (e.g., Cronbach's alpha), test-retest reliability, and inter-rater reliability, assess the
consistency and stability of scale scores over time and across respondents.

vii. Refine and Finalize the Scale: Based on the results of validity and reliability analyses, refine
the scale as necessary. Remove or revise items that do not contribute to the scale's validity or
reliability. Ensure that the final scale is psychometrically sound and effectively measures the
intended constructs.

viii. Implement and Monitor: Implement the finalized attitude scale in larger-scale surveys or
studies to assess attitudes toward public transport among the target population. Monitor data
collection processes and scale responses to ensure data quality and reliability. Periodically
evaluate the scale's performance and consider revisions or updates based on feedback and
changing circumstances.

By following these steps, researchers and practitioners can ensure that the attitude scale measures
what it is supposed to measure effectively and accurately reflects individuals' attitudes toward
public transport.
ESM641 RESEARCH METHOD IN EDUCATION
(January 2024 Semester)
References

Brown, A. R., & Jones, C. D. (2020). Enhancing public transport user satisfaction: A literature
review and scale development. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 86,
321-335.
Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design & analysis issues for
field settings. Houghton Mifflin.
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
Garcia, M. S., & Lee, S. H. (2019). Measuring attitudes toward public transport: A psychometric
evaluation of the Public Transport Attitude Scale (PTAS). Transportation Research Part
F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 64, 423-438.
McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2014). Research in education: Evidence-based inquiry (7th
ed.). Pearson.
Perna, L. W. (2006). Understanding high school students' willingness to attend college. Educational
Policy, 20(3), 363-396.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
Smith, J. K., & Johnson, L. M. (2018). Attitudes toward public transportation: Scale development
and validation. Journal of Transportation Research, 45(2), 123-137.
Swail, W. S., Redd, K. E., & Perna, L. W. (2003). Retaining minority students in higher education:
A framework for success. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, 30(2), 1-131.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson.
Trochim, W. M. K., & Donnelly, J. P. (2008). The research methods knowledge base (3rd ed.).
Atomic Dog Publishing.