3.9 5.

Article

Factors Predicting Individuals’

Behavioural Intentions for Choosing
Cultural Tourism: A Structural
Model

Silvia Platania, Kyle Maurice Woosnam and Manuel Alector Ribeiro

Special Issue
Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Development
Edited by
Prof. Dr. Lucia Marchegiani and Prof. Dr. Enrico Cori

https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810347
 sustainability

Article
Factors Predicting Individuals’ Behavioural Intentions for
Choosing Cultural Tourism: A Structural Model
Silvia Platania 1 , Kyle Maurice Woosnam 2,3, * and Manuel Alector Ribeiro 3,4,5

1 Department of Educational Science, Section of Psychology, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy;
[email protected]
2 Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management Program, Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources,
University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
3 School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg 2006, South Africa; [email protected]
4 School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
5 Research Centre for Tourism, Sustainability and Well-Being (CinTurs), Faculty of Economics, Campus de
Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005 Faro, Portugal
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-864-653-0167

Abstract: Drawing from the theory of self-regulation and a model of goal-directed behaviour, this
study examines the determinants (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control,
desire, negative WOM coping strategies, and avoidance coping strategies) of visitors’ intentions to
engage in cultural tourism within Sicily. Based on a sample of 469 visitors, the results revealed that 12
of the 14 proposed hypothesised direct effects were significant in explaining behavioural intentions



to choose a cultural holiday. As for indirect effects, negative WOM coping strategies served as a more

 salient mediator in the model, as opposed to avoidance coping strategies.
Citation: Platania, S.;
Woosnam, K.M.; Ribeiro, M.A. Keywords: cultural tourism; negative word-of-mouth (WOM); avoidance; self-regulation theory;
Factors Predicting Individuals’ self-directed behaviour; mediation
Behavioural Intentions for Choosing
Cultural Tourism: A Structural Model.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su131810347 1. Introduction
Cultural tourism research has steadily increased over the last few decades, as more
Academic Editors: Lucia Marchegiani,
individuals intentionally seek out the cultural attributes of destinations they visit. This is
Mark Bonn and Enrico Cori
especially true among visitors who strongly identify with particular cultures [1]. Cultural
tourism, in a basic sense, encompasses travelling to destinations and engaging in activities
Received: 7 July 2021
Accepted: 14 September 2021
that provide opportunities for experiencing others’ diverse ways of life, thereby gaining
Published: 16 September 2021
a first-hand understanding of local customs, traditions, intellectual ideas, the physical
environment, and those places of architectural, historical, archaeological or other cultural
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
significance [2,3]. Moreover, the expanding notion of tourists’ cultural consumption makes
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
the definition of cultural tourism increasingly elusive [4]. According to Barbieri and
published maps and institutional affil- Mahoney [5], a contemporary understanding of cultural tourism includes not only tangible
iations. aspects, but also intangible cultural elements, such as an “appreciation of a way of life for
particular cultures” [6] (p. 972). Central to cultural tourism is the idea that “individuals
seek to gain an understanding or appreciation of the nature of the place being visited” [7]
(p. 204). In recent years, especially in Europe (but generally throughout the world), cultural
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
tourism has been considered an important economic driver for many local destinations,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
regions, and countries [8–12]. As such, the diversity of cultural resources and the ability of
This article is an open access article
the site to meet the needs of tourists through its hospitality are considered highly important
distributed under the terms and “pull” factors. In helping to meet the growing needs of specialized travellers, cultural
conditions of the Creative Commons tourism can be considered a thriving alternative form of sustainable tourism, largely in
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// response to mass tourism pursuits [13].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Some of the most salient driving factors behind destination choice focus on perceptions
4.0/). of the place under consideration [14]. These perceptions are often intertwined with visitors’

Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810347 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 2 of 20

values and motivations [15], the latter of which are often considered either push factors
(e.g., self-expression, self-development, relaxation, and prestige internally motivating a
person to travel) or pull factors (e.g., external to the individual and illustrated in the
attributes of a destination) [16]. Considering the various studies connecting the effects
of self-concept with destination image (self-congruity), and destination with attributes
and a tourist’s ideal expectations (functional congruity), on travel behaviour, destination
selection is largely precipitated by the connection tourists make between expectations and
the potential advantages of visiting [17–22]. Furthermore, tourists develop strategies of
self-regulating emotions as they consider particular holidays; emotions that can be either
positive (in attracting a tourist to the destination) or negative (by discouraging a tourist
from selecting the destination) [23]. Moreover, “self-regulation and cognitive control
models agree in their characterization of emotion regulation as an effortful top-down
control process that is guided by goals” [24] (p. 13).
The purpose of this work is to investigate the role that emotions (i.e., motivations,
expectations and attitudes) may play in predicting tourists’ intentions to engage in cultural
tourism. Furthermore, we are keen to investigate the role that coping factors (i.e., avoidance
and negative word-of-mouth or WOM) may play in mediating the relationship between
emotions and intentions to engage in cultural tourism holidays. The consideration of
this mediation surrounds the growing interest among researchers in connecting tourists’
emotions with factors of attraction to and repulsion from destinations, and how this rela-
tionship has significant implications for tourists’ well-being and quality of life. The results
of this study will contribute to the burgeoning research on cultural tourism, especially in
helping to pave the way for future research that models potential tourists’ decision-making
in selecting cultural tourism holidays. This work is also significant in determining how
destination marketing organizations can best position themselves to account for potential
visitors’ emotions when selecting their destination over others.
The structure of this paper will begin with a review of the pertinent literature con-
cerning cultural tourism, self-regulation theory, travellers’ motivations and behavioural
intentions, and coping strategies and goal-directed behavioural intentions. This review
will serve to provide support for the formulated direct and indirect effects hypotheses in
the proposed theoretical model. Following this, research methods are discussed. Results
from the confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation model are then provided,
which will address each of the model hypotheses. Finally, the paper concludes with a
discussion of implications (theoretical and practical in nature), limitations, and future
research opportunities.

2. Literature Review, Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Cultural Tourism
Considering cultural tourism as a form of sustainable tourism, Tyrrell, Paris, and
Biaett [25] contend that a central focus of sustainable tourism is ensuring that the “triple
bottom line” (TBL) of the community is realized, such that social–cultural resources are
promoted and minimally impacted, while the environment is minimally impacted and the
economy is stimulated. This social–cultural leg of the “TBL stool” is at times, however,
not the central focus within sustainable tourism planning and research [26,27]. Of course,
considering the demand side of tourism is also crucial for sustainable tourism. As such,
providing a pleasing tourist experience is crucial to the long-term success of a destination
when planning and managing for sustainable tourism [28].
Although travellers’ experiences have received significant research attention, various
segments likely perceive such experiences differently based on their motivations. Emo-
tional experiences act as antecedents of the overall perceived image of the destination
and contribute to satisfaction. As such, emotions influence various stages of the tourist’s
experience [29–32]. At the pre-travel stage, emotions play a fundamental role in tourists’
motivations [33,34] and destination choice processes [35]. At the post-travel stage, integrat-
ing the effects of emotions on post-consumption behaviours is an important development
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 3 of 20

in consumer and tourism research [33,36–38], especially as it relates to behavioural change

and intentions to revisit. Based on the literature, it is evident that emotions precede tourist
choice, and consequent motivations induce individuals to choose not only a particular
place to visit, but also the type of holiday to undertake. As such, the aim of this research is
to investigate emotional antecedents and motivations contributing to tourists’ behavioural
intentions in terms of selecting cultural tourism holidays.

2.2. Self-Regulation as a Determinant of Decision Making in Tourism Choice

To understand motives, it is best to start with identifying individuals’ most salient
goals. Goals are defined as the “internal representation of desire states, where states are
broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes” [39] (p. 338). To better explain
goal striving, Bagozzi, Baumgartner, and Pieters [40] introduced anticipated emotions as
predictors of volitions to act. The authors argued that people, when considering whether
to act in goal-directed situations, consider the emotional consequences of either achieving
or not achieving a sought-after goal [40]. According to Bagozzi [41], attitudes do not
necessarily result in intentions to act, because motivations must be acknowledged.
The theory of self-regulation or model goal-directed behaviour (MGB) is based on
two well-received social psychological theories: (1) the theory of reasoned action (TRA),
including attitudes, subjective norms and behavioural intentions [42–44], and (2) the theory
of planned behaviour (TPB), including perceived behavioural control, which increases
the predictive power of TRA [42,45,46]. The MGB expands the TPB [47] by including
desire as an essential mediator and incorporating the effects of anticipated emotions as
a form of forward-looking counter-factual thinking about goals [48]. The theory of self-
regulation is one framework to consider in explaining this idea. Self-regulation is typically
considered a complex, universal human ability that structures goal-directed behaviour
and increases the likelihood of fulfilling a variety of individual needs. This and individual
differences in self-regulation underline the necessity to investigate its components, its
developmental conditions, and its activation in different contexts. Given this, investigators
have consistently highlighted that standards for self-regulation, and related strategies differ
among individuals from distinctive cultural backgrounds.
One’s motivational commitment lies in the greatness of the desire to act. Desires
(as distinct from attitudes and beliefs) are thought to be very important in the genesis of
human actions and are argued to contribute to an individual’s behavioural intentions. For
example, Bagozzi and Dholakia [49] indicate that an indicator of self-regulated goal-setting
is choosing a level of difficulty that will maximize achievement (a task that is neither too
easy nor too difficult). An indicator of effective self-regulation is when an undesirable
dominant behaviour is intentionally inhibited.
The ability to self-regulate (e.g., by effortful control) is complemented by motivations
and intentions to self-regulate in line with others’ expectations. These expectations, in
turn, are influenced by cultural values. Therefore, self-regulation differs with respect to
the respective dominant cultural values and the related cultural model of agency (i.e.,
attitudes → desires → intentions), as modelled by Bagozzi’s [41] conative self-regulation
of the attitude–intention relationship.
A missing element in attitudinal theory is the mechanism that transforms assess-
ments into intent. Lazarus [50] argues that the processes of appraising internal and sit-
uational conditions lead to emotional responses; these in turn result in coping activities
(i.e., appraisal → emotional responses → coping). In the presence of a particular emotion,
two coping responses are possible. The first concerns both past and present reactions.
One’s purpose could be achieved or not; an event may be enjoyable or unpleasant. In the
event of an unpleasant experience, a goal–desire conflict will arise which will lead to a
specific coping response (e.g., abandoning the goal), while a pleasant experience will lead
to emotions such as euphoria, satisfaction, pleasure or love.
The second type of response concerns possible or expected goals, which are divided
into two types: (1) goal–desire avoidance (i.e., goals that are anticipated as unpleasant)
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 4 of 20

and (2) goal–desire pursuits (i.e., goals that are anticipated as pleasant). Regarding the
measurement of emotional self-regulation of the attitude–intention relationship, coping
responses can be obtained by asking individuals to recall coping thoughts and actions they
have utilized in relation to expected or possible results.
Unlike passive attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, antic-
ipated emotions function dynamically in a self-regulatory sense in response to actual or
imagined feedback [51,52]. That is, for a goal that one contemplates, one appraises the
consequences of achieving or not achieving that goal, with corresponding positive and
negative emotions developing. A comparison is made between one’s goal as a standard or
reference value, and an estimate is made concerning how one would feel after achieving
or failing to achieve the goal. The anticipated emotions finally function to influence deci-
sion making by pressing for a decision that either promotes positive emotions or avoids
negative emotions.

2.3. Traveller Motivations and Behaviour

The research surrounding tourist motivations has been rather extensive, dating back
roughly forty years. Crompton [16,53] was one of the first researchers to investigate tourist
motivations, focusing on the needs of individual travellers. Bryant and Morrison [54]
followed this by focusing on segmenting tourists based on market demands. Ross and
Iso-Ahola [55] examined the tourism motivations and satisfactions of tourist travellers.
Jamrozy and Uysal [56] observed the motivation of transcultural tourism to understand the
behaviour of German travelers, while Cha, McClearly and Uysal [57] focused on Japanese
residents’ motivations for travelling overseas. Based on the literature surrounding tourists’
motivations, it is apparent that not all individuals share the same motivations for visiting a
particular destination or type of holiday. Deci and Ryan [58] highlighted such motivational
distinctions in their seminal research on the topic. Such work provides insight as to the
role environmental factors play in individuals choosing a destination, thus demonstrating
that changes in behaviour can be seen through obvious psychosocial mediators [58,59].
Several reasons exist as to why people engage in particular behaviours [60]. Regardless
of the experiences, most people tend to rely on their past experiences when trying to satisfy
their needs in a new situation. Thus, a positive past experience tends to pave the way for
positive future intentions, just as negative experiences can equally explain such intentions
not to engage in a particular behaviour in the future. It goes without saying that not all
intentions are universal, especially those where coping strategies are implemented by
potential travellers.
Several studies underline the importance of emotions in consumer behavior [31], and
intentions towards a destination [61]. Despite this, few studies have investigated tourists’
emotional associations with destinations [62,63].

2.4. Coping Strategies and Goal-Directed Behavioural Intentions

Minimal work has been undertaken to determine the influence of coping strategies on
the correlation between motivation and goal-directed behavioural intentions [64]. Some
studies confirm that negative experiences contribute to tourists’ tendency for avoidance.
Furthermore, these studies suggest that this behaviour manifests itself as a coping strategy
in stressful experiences [65–67]. Another coping strategy that tourists can use is to warn
others of the unpleasant experience through negative WOM [68]. This negative WOM turns
out to be harmful advertising, given its power to dissuade individuals from selecting a
particular destination [69]. Consumers can focus on a number of different coping strategies
as a reaction to the experience that can influence the achievement of the goal [70]. If
emotions are therefore able to direct the action of the tourist towards the intention to reach
the goal (in our case, cultural tourism in Sicily), at the same time, coping factors such as
avoidance and negative WOM can influence the relationship.
In the literature, several studies have examined the influence of WOM on destination
choice. In general, WOM is considered one of the most important factors influencing
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 5 of 20

consumer behavior [71]. This is especially true when individuals are contemplating the
purchase of intangible products, such as travel [72]. In essence, WOM provides the potential
consumer with greater confidence in purchase decisions.
Based on previous literature, the primary aim of this research is to examine antecedent
factors (i.e., emotional and motivational) that contribute to tourists’ behavioural intentions
of selecting a cultural tourism holiday. As such, the theory of self-regulation is used to
formulate and test a model based on the goal-directed behavioural framework to better
understand why tourists visit Sicily and engage in cultural tourism. With this knowledge,
destination marketing organizations and tourism planners throughout Sicily will be better
equipped to meet the needs of potential visitors, helping to ensure this niche form of
tourism is sustainably developed and managed. Stated more specifically, this work will
examine whether the variables (e.g., attitudes regarding the act, subjective norms, perceived
behavioural control, and desire) that predict behavioural intentions to select a cultural
tourism holiday can be mediated by emotions (e.g., coping strategies and avoidance)
among potential tourists. Based on these aims, the following question guides this research:
“Are tourists’ attitudes transformed into action based on positive (or negative) emotions
developed through their travel experiences?”
The following model (see Figure 1) presents 14 direct effect hypotheses (i.e., H1 , H2 ,
H3 , H4 , and H5 ) and 8 indirect effect hypotheses (i.e., H6 and H7 ) related to attitudes
about choosing a cultural holiday, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, desire,
emotions (i.e., negative WOM and avoidance) and behavioural intentions towards choosing
a cultural holiday. Stated more specifically, those hypotheses are:

Hypothesis 1 (H1a–1d ). Attitudes about choosing a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b),
perceived behavioural control (c), and desire (d) will each significantly predict individuals’ intentions
to choose a cultural heritage holiday.

Hypothesis 2 (H2a–2d ). Attitudes about choosing a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b),
perceived behavioural control (c), and desire (d) will each significantly predict individuals’ negative
WOM coping strategies.

Hypothesis 3 (H3a–3d ). Attitudes about choosing a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b),
perceived behavioural control (c), and desire (d) will each significantly predict individuals’ avoidance
coping strategies.

Hypothesis 4 (H4 ). Tourists’ negative WOM coping strategies will significantly influence indi-
viduals’ intentions to choose a cultural heritage holiday.

Hypothesis 5 (H5 ). Tourists’ avoidance coping strategies will significantly influence individuals’
intentions to choose a cultural heritage holiday.

Hypothesis 6 (H6a–6d ). Tourists’ negative WOM coping strategies will mediate the relationship
of attitudes about a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b), perceived behavioural control (c) and
desire (d) with individuals’ intentions to choose a cultural heritage holiday.

Hypothesis 7 (H7a–7d ). Tourists’ avoidance coping strategies will mediate the relationship of
attitudes about a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b), perceived behavioural control (c), and
desire (d) with individuals’ intentions to choose a cultural heritage holiday.
 Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 6 of 20

Hypothesis 7 (H7a–7d). Tourists’ avoidance coping strategies will mediate the relationship of atti-
tudes about a cultural holiday (a), subjective norms (b), perceived behavioural control (c), and de-
sire (d) with individuals’ intentions to choose a cultural heritage holiday.
The full hypothesized theoretical framework is depicted in Figure 1.
The full hypothesized theoretical framework is depicted in Figure 1.

FigureFigure 1. Proposed
1. Proposed modelmodel (H6a–6d
(H6a–6d indicatingthe
indicating theindirect
indirect effects
effects of
of negative
negativeWOM
WOMand
andH7a–7d
H7a–7dindicating the indirect
indicating effectseffects
the indirect
of avoidance not drawn).
of avoidance not drawn).
3. Research
3. Research Methods
Methods
3.1. Study Context
3.1. Study Context andandData
Data Collection
Collection

AsAs part of the “Old World,” Italy is a country that has no shortage of tangible or
part of the “Old World,” Italy is a country that has no shortage of tangible or
intangible cultural heritage. According to UNESCO [73], Italy ranks first among all na-
intangible cultural heritage. According to UNESCO [73], Italy ranks first among all nations
tions with the most World Heritage Sites (WHS): from the Langhe landscapes in the north,
with the most World Heritage Sites (WHS): from the Langhe landscapes in the north, to
to the Arab–Norman domes of Palermo, to the Eternal City (Rome) in the centre. Hun-
thedreds
Arab–Norman domes
of archaeological of Palermo,
sites and well over to the
3000Eternal
museums Cityare(Rome)
dedicatedin the centre. Hundreds
throughout Italy
of archaeological
to preserving cultural sites heritage
and well over
[74]. 3000 museums
Southern arepopular
Italy is a very dedicated throughout
region, Italy to
with its rich
cultural heritage
preserving cultural including
heritage the[74].
remains of Magna
Southern Graecia;
Italy from popular
is a very the Valleyregion,
of the Temples,
with its rich
to Agrigento,
cultural heritagetoincluding
the town ofthe Selinunte
remains inof
Sicily,
Magnaand Graecia;
moving up the peninsula
from the ValleytoofPaestum
the Temples,
and the Homeric
to Agrigento, to thecharm
townofofCampi Flegrei
Selinunte ininSicily,
Campania. Sicily, inup
and moving particular, boasts 7to
the peninsula WHSPaestum
and(ofthetheHomeric
51 throughout
charm Italy) listed through
of Campi FlegreiUNESCO:
in Campania.(1) Archaeological Area of Agrigento
Sicily, in particular, boasts 7 WHS
(of (listed
the 51in 1997); (2) Villa
throughout Italy)Romana
listed del CasaleUNESCO:
through (1997); (3) Isole Eolie (Aeolian Islands,
(1) Archaeological Area of2000);
Agrigento
(4) Late
(listed Baroque
in 1997); (2)Towns of the Val del
Villa Romana di Noto
Casale(southeastern
(1997); (3)Sicily,
Isole2002);
Eolie (5) Syracuse
(Aeolian and the 2000);
Islands,
(4) Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica (2005); (6) Mount Etna (2013); and (7) the Arab–Norman
Late Baroque Towns of the Val di Noto (southeastern Sicily, 2002); (5) Syracuse and the
Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale (2015).
Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica (2005); (6) Mount Etna (2013); and (7) the Arab–Norman
Considering potential visitors to Sicily as our study population, participants were
Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale (2015).
recruited by publishing a link to our online questionnaire in two online social media
Considering
groups (i.e., LinkedInpotential visitors to
and Twitter), andSicily
they aswereouralso
study population,
approached participants
in workgroups via were
recruited
written correspondence (e.g., email or invitation by letter) to participate. In so doing, groups
by publishing a link to our online questionnaire in two online social media a
convenience
(i.e., LinkedIn sampling
and Twitter),strategyand was
theyfollowed
were to secure
also our sample
approached inofworkgroups
potential visitors
via to
written
Sicily. Data were
correspondence collected
(e.g., email or online between
invitation byMay 2017
letter) to and March 2018.
participate. In soThe questionnaire
doing, a convenience
was available
sampling in two
strategy waslanguages:
followedItalian
to secure and our
English. At the
sample of beginning
potential of the survey,
visitors par- Data
to Sicily.
wereticipants
collectedwereonline
asked between
in which language
May 2017they andwouldMarch like to complete
2018. the questionnaire.
The questionnaire By
was available
clicking on the corresponding link, they were directed to the questionnaire
in two languages: Italian and English. At the beginning of the survey, participants were using the de-
sired
asked inlanguage. Of the 743
which language individuals
they would like (i.e.,to
345 via LinkedIn
complete and 398 via Twitter
the questionnaire. postings)on the
By clicking
corresponding link, they were directed to the questionnaire using the desired language. Of
the 743 individuals (i.e., 345 via LinkedIn and 398 via Twitter postings) that accessed the
questionnaire, 481 provided responses (i.e., 250 via LinkedIn and 231 via Twitter postings).
However, upon closer examination, 12 questionnaires lacked complete responses and
were excluded from analysis. This resulted in 469 useable questionnaires (i.e., 240 via
LinkedIn for a response rate of 69.6%, and 229 via Twitter for a response rate of 57.5%). All
participants were volunteers; no compensation was supplied.
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 7 of 20

We examined the potential for nonresponse bias by analysing early (the first 10%)
and later (the last 10%) responses [75]. An independent samples t-test was performed on
demographic variables (age, gender, marital status, level of education and occupation) and
the results demonstrate that no statistical differences were detected between early and late
respondents regarding the respondents’ characteristics. Consequently, we conclude that
nonresponse was not an issue in our data.

3.2. Measures
The online questionnaire included measures for the seven model constructs. Four
constructs focused on self-regulation (as related to the self-regulation theory)—attitudes
toward act, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and desire. According to Si-
mons [76] (p. 80), an attitude is a “relatively enduring predisposition to respond favourably
or unfavourably towards something.” It is defined as the sum of the expected outcomes
that is weighted by an evaluation of the desirability of the outcome (Fishbein 1963). Par-
ticipants were asked to evaluate the concept “The cultural holiday is . . . ” via 17 7-point
semantic differential items [77]; 10 assessed evaluation attitudes (e.g., “useful–useless”)
and 7 assessed affective attitudes (e.g., “pleasant–unpleasant”).
Subjective norms refer to the desire to act as others think you should act, and are
therefore internally controlled. This variable was measured by two items (e.g., “My friends
support my decision to practice cultural holidays”). Perceived behavioural control indicates
an individual’s perception that s/he has the skills and ability to enact a behaviour. This
construct is argued to be one of the most important within the theory of reasoned action
(TRA) to allow for the prediction of behaviour [78]. This variable was measured through
three items (e.g., “If I wanted to, it would be easy for me to visit museums and works
of art in Sicily”). The construct of desire differs from attitudes toward an act because
it is a conative state that is directed toward approaching or avoiding something [51].
Desire is “the fundamental psychological determinant of intentions” [51] (p. 185). To
detect this construct, we utilized three items (e.g., “I would like to return to Sicily to learn
more about the culture of its people”). Subjective norms, perceived behavioural control,
and desire items were presented on a 4-point Likert scale (from “completely false” to
“completely true”).
Two coping strategy constructs (i.e., negative WOM and avoidance) were also included
in the model. Consistent with the literature [79,80], we define WOM coping strategies
as “strategies involving problem-solving efforts that managers take to master, tolerate or
minimize WOM considered as a threat to the product, service, markets or company” [81]
(p. 126). In consumer psychology research, negative WOM is very important to consumers
as regards maintaining a consistent social self-image [82–85]. Negative WOM was mea-
sured through three items (e.g., “I would say negative things about the destination to other
people”). Avoidance refers to a negative assessment that the tourist makes based on an
experience [86,87]. The reasons for the negative evaluation can be multiple [88]. Such
avoidance behaviour means that the “individual emotional relief and can be defined as con-
sumers’ attempt to regulate their emotions through mental or physical detachment from a
harmful or distressing situation” [64] (p. 212). Avoidance was measured through two items
(e.g., “I would go on as if nothing has happened”). Negative WOM and avoidance items
were presented on a 4-point Likert scale (from “completely false” to “completely true”).
Behavioural intentions to participate in cultural tourism served as the ultimate out-
come construct within the model. As such, it was measured using three items (e.g., “It is
likely I will return to Sicily to visit the scenery and its historical beauties”) using a 4-point
Likert scale (from “very unlikely” to “very likely”). In addition to these seven model
constructs, participants were asked to respond to four demographic questions (e.g., gender,
country of origin, level of education, and household income) and two questions relating to
recent travel behaviour (e.g., trips made in the last two years and trips made in the last two
years to different places).
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 8 of 20

3.3. Data Analysis

Prior to analysis, data were screened to ensure no outliers were present. A confir-
matory factor analysis (CFA) was then used to test the fit of the measurement model [89]
and examine the psychometrics of each construct. AMOS provides several goodness-of-fit
indexes, including the chi-square (χ2 ), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root Mean Square Resid-
ual (SRMR). Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC)
were also presented (lower values indicate better fit). AMOS was utilised given that it
allows for CFA and structural equation modelling concurrently. The χ2 test examines the
null hypothesis that the covariance matrix and mean vector in the population are equal to
the model-implied covariance matrix and mean vector [90]. A significant χ2 value leads to
the rejection of the null hypothesis that the model fits the population. Because the χ2 is
highly sensitive to sample size (i.e., the larger the sample size, the more likely to reject the
model), the ratio chi-square (χ2 )/degrees of freedom (df) is frequently analysed. Kline [91]
recommends that a χ2 /df greater than 3.0 represents inadequate fit. According to Hu and
Bentler [92], a CFI in excess of 0.95 can indicate a good model fit. The RMSEA is a measure
of approximate model fit. According to Browne and Cudeck [93], an RMSEA less than 0.09
is also an indicator of a reasonable error of approximation in smaller samples. Finally, the
SRMR coefficient is a standardized measure for the evaluation of the model residuals, with
critical values as high as 0.08 considered acceptable [92].
Once the measurement model was established through CFA, linear structural equation
models were calibrated to test the hypothesised relationships in the mediation model in
Figure 1, also using AMOS 25.0 [94], and in keeping with Shrout and Bolger’s [95] logic
with regard to expected proximal and distal effects. Other well-known analytical tools,
such as correlations, were also used, implemented using SPSS 25.0. In order to optimise the
sample size, missing values for the relevant items were estimated using the Expectation
Maximisation method. None of the items had more than 5% missing values, indicating
that this option was appropriate [96].

4. Results
4.1. Sample Profile
Of the 469 completed questionnaires, 58.6% were finished by females. Respondents
mainly included young adult tourists in the age groups of 18–29 (40.7%) and 30–39 (24.5%).
Most respondents were from Italy (67.6%), followed by other European countries (29.7%),
the USA (2.3%), and others (0.4%). A preponderance of individuals (67.0%) had obtained a
bachelor’s degree. Finally, a majority of the sample participants had an income of less than
EUR 12,000 (52.0%), had completed 1–5 trips in the last two years (65.7%) and had done so
in at least two different places (56.3%) (See Table 1).

Table 1. Sample characteristics.

Frequency (s) Percentage %

Gender
Male 194 41.4
Female 275 58.6
Age
18–29 191 40.7
30–39 115 24.5
40–49 97 20.7
50–59 47 10.0
≥60 19 4.1
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 9 of 20

Table 1. Cont.

Frequency (s) Percentage %

Country of Origin
Italy 317 67.6
Rest of Europe 139 29.7
USA 11 2.3
Other 2 0.4
Level of Education
Middle School 13 2.8
High School 73 15.6
Bachelor’s Degree 314 67.0
Master’s Degree 14 2.9
Doctoral Degree 55 11.7
Income
Less than EUR 12,000 244 52.0
EUR 12,001–25,000 134 28.6
EUR 25,001–45,000 78 16.6
EUR 45,001–60,000 5 1.1
Over EUR 60,000 8 1.7
Trips made in the last two years
From 1 to 5 308 65.7
From 6 to 10 101 21.6
From 11 to 15 24 5.1
From 16 to 20 11 2.3
Over 20 25 5.3
Trips made in the last two years in different places
From 1 to 5 264 56.3
From 6 to 10 90 19.2
From 11 to 15 68 14.5
From 16 to 20 33 7.0
Over 20 14 3.0

4.2. Measurement Model Evaluation

All the variables studied were measured from the same source, and therefore common-
method bias may have occurred. A CFA according to Harman’s single-factor test was
used to diagnose the extent to which common-method variance was a problem [97]. A
comparison between the hypothesised model and a model with one factor (with all items
loading on a unique factor) revealed that the former provided a better fit for the data in all
the CFA fit measures. CFA was performed using robust maximum likelihood estimation to
examine the structure of the constructs. Two different models were tested and compared.
The first model included eight factors, considering all scales with a single-factor structure,
but for attitude toward acting (i.e., evaluative attitudes and affective attitudes), a factorial
structure of second order was used. The results of this model provided a reasonably
good fit to the data: χ2 [11, n = 469] = 35.236, p = 0.002, χ2 /df = 3.20, RMSEA = 0.07
(C.I. = 0.075–0.086), CFI = 0.98, GFI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.08. Moreover, the AIC and BIC
values were 141.235 and 176.91, respectively. The second CFA model included the same
factors but considered all scales with a single-factor structure, and also for attitude toward
acting, in which all indicators loaded onto one factor. The results of this model provided
a better fit to the data, so the general model of CFA suggests a seven-factor solution
(χ2 [3, n = 469] = 8.415, p = 0.038, χ2 /df = 2.80, RMSEA = 0.06 (CI = 0.048–0.065), CFI = 0.99,
GFI = 0.99, SRMR = 0.03, AIC = 58.415; BIC = 162.180). This second model fit the data
significantly better than the first, not only for the values of fit indices but also for the χ2
difference test (∆χ2 (8) = 26.821, p < 0.001). According to these results, we found no evidence
of common-method bias in the data.
The construct validity of the model was assessed by measuring convergent and dis-
criminant validities. The reliability analysis confirmed that the model demonstrated a high
level of internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha values greater than 0.70. The composite
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 10 of 20

reliabilities (CR) exceeded the threshold value of 0.70 [98], indicating the construct reli-
ability of the measurement scales, with CR values ranging from 0.79 to 0.96, providing
evidence of convergent validity. The AVE values of all constructs ranged from 0.62 to
0.82, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.50 [98]. In addition, convergent validity
(Table 2) was assumed based on the statistically significant (p < 0.001 and p < 0.005) item
loadings [99].
To measure the statistical power of the sample, we conducted a post-hoc calucation of
statistical power using multiple regression analysis. The power of the hypothesis test is
between 0 and 1; if the power is close to 1, the hypothesis test is very good. The results
showed an observed statistical power of 1.0, with a probability level at 0.05 [100].

Table 2. Results of the measurement model: reliability and convergent validity.

Constructs and Indicators Mean (SD) Skewness/Kurtosis β t-Values

Attitudes concerning choosing cultural tourism (α = 0.78; AVE = 0.72; CR = 0.96)
Evaluative attitudes
Appreciable/Depreciable 3.62 (0.52) 1.87/4.04 0.848 N/A a
Useful/Useless 4.63 (0.48) −0.52/−1.74 0.790 15.22 ***
Effective/Ineffective 4.93 (0.68) 1.12/2.57 0.826 19.82 **
Unreliable/Reliable 6.18 (0.73) −0.29/−1.10 0.758 14.90 ***
Pleasant/Unpleasant 4.42 (0.49) 0.34/−1.88 0.985 28.83 ***
Fine/Despicable 4.47 (0.87) 0.11/−1.99 0.841 21.58 ***
Nice/Ugly 4.30 (0.50) 0.89/-1.12 0.986 29.26 ***
Bad/Good 6.08 (0.51) −1.95/3.64 0.798 16.61 ***
Meaningful/Meaningless 4.92 (0.50) 1.07/6.37 0.817 17.67 ***
Affective attitudes
Powerless/Powerful 2.38 (0.38) 0.25/−1.42 0.833 N/Aa
Stupid/Smart 6.36 (0.87) −1.06/−0.06 0.757 13.03 **
Weak/Strong 4.64 (0.52) −0.12/−1/04 0.866 22.87 ***
Sad/Cheerful 4.43 (0.50) 0.28/−1.92 0.978 28.90 ***
Passive/Active 4.40 (0.51) 0.68/−0.91 0.838 18.96 ***
Static/Dynamic 4.75 (0.50) 0.61/1.20 0.821 17.66 ***
Delicate/Solid 4.74 (0.62) 0.78/0.58 0.842 19.67 ***
Subjective norms (α = 0.74; AVE = 0.66; CR = 0.79)
My parents support my decision to undertake cultural tourism 3.50 (0.72) −1.54/2.28 0.717 N/A a
My friends support my decision to engage in cultural tourism 2.97 (1.02) −0.64/−0.74 0.899 23.85 ***
Negative WOM (α = 0.84; AVE = 0.62; CR = 0.83)
I would complain about the dest to others 3.79 (0.85) 0.42/−1.49 0.717 N/A a
I would say neg things about dest to others 3.73 (0.89) 0.57/−1.50 0.888 16.23 ***
I would recommend others to not visit 3.62 (0.78) 0.77/−0.95 0.747 15.23 ***
Perceived behavioural control (α = 0.72; AVE = 0.69; CR = 0.87)
If I wanted to, it would be easy for me to choose a cultural tourism
3.49 (0.86) −1.76/2.24 0.686 N/A a
holiday again
If I wanted to, it would be easy for me to visit museums and works of art
3.67 (0.62) −1.72/1.66 0.799 20.21 ***
in Sicily
If I wanted to, it would be easy for me to choose to choose to visit landscapes
3.47 (0.67) −0.90/−0.38 0.975 24.75 ***
of Sicily again
Desire (α = 0.83; AVE = 0.82; CR = 0.93)
I would like to return to Sicily to learn more about the culture of its people 3.62 (0.70) −2.22/5.05 0.969 N/A a
I would love to go back to Sicily 3.68 (0.63) −2.37/6.22 0.930 24.15 ***
I would like to return to Sicily to review the landscapes and its
3.68 (0.57) −2.03/5.06 0.818 17.36 ***
historical beauties
Behavioural intentions to engage in cultural tourism (α = 0.71; AVE = 0.69; CR = 0.87)
I would like to get back to cultural tourism 3.39 (0.74) −1.36/2.07 0.898 N/A a
It is highly like I will return to Sicily 3.63 (0.61) −1.78/3.45 0.896 26.19 ***
It is likely I will return to Sicily to visit the Scenery and its historical beauties 3.48 (0.71) −1.44/2.11 0.671 9.78 ***
Notes: α = Cronbach’s alpha; AVE: average variance extracted; CR: composite reliability. *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.005. a in AMOS, one loading
has to be fixed to 1; hence, the t-value cannot be calculated for this item.

In SEM, one of the main concerns about the data is whether the sample has a mul-
tivariate normal distribution, because that determines which estimation method will be
used and to what extent the estimates obtained from the most common methods are trust-
worthy [101]. Each observed variable has minimum, maximum, skewness, and kurtosis
values. Values greater than 2.0 for skewness and greater than 7.0 for kurtosis indicate the
non-normality of the data. In Table 3, the results show that no item presented a skewness
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 11 of 20

or kurtosis level higher than these thresholds, indicating the normality of the data. In
addition, the multivariate normality of the distribution was evaluated through the Mardia
coefficient. According to Bollen [102], if the Mardia coefficient is less than P (P + 2), where
P is the number of observed variables, multivariate normality can be deduced. In our study,
the Mardia coefficient was 27.16, demonstrating that the observed distribution falls within
the normality values for all the variables included in the model.
In Table 3, significant correlations were found between behavioural intentions and all
other factors within the model. The same can be said for the relationship between subjective
norms and perceived behavioural control and avoidance. Furthermore, there was a strong
correlation between desire and behavioural intentions (r = 0.67 **). Discriminant validity
was assessed by calculating the square root of the AVE for each specified construct. Table 3
reveals that the square root of AVE (presented in the diagonal) for each construct was
greater than its correlation with all other constructs, providing support of discriminant
validity amongst all constructs in the measurement model [98].

Table 3. Discriminant validity results.

Constructs a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Behavioural intentions 0.83 b

Attitudes regarding cultural tourism −0.44 ** 0.85

Subjective norms −0.37 ** −0.39 ** 0.81
Negative WOM −0.20 ** −0.17 ** 0.22 ** 0.79
Perceived behavioural control −0.39 ** −0.14 ** 0.24 ** 0.26 ** 0.83
Desire 0.67 ** −0.45 ** 0.37 ** 0.08 0.48 ** 0.91
Avoidance −0.14 ** −0.11 ** 0.32 ** 0.06 0.48 ** 0.25 ** 0.87
a b
469 individuals responded to all items within each construct. The bolded diagonal elements are the square root of the average variance
extracted; interconstruct correlations are shown below the diagonal. ** correlations are significant at the p < 0.001 level.

4.3. Structural Model Evaluation

Multiple mediation analysis was conducted using AMOS software, version 25.0 [94].
The effects of multiple mediator variables can be tested individually and simultaneously.
The advantage of simultaneous testing is the ability to learn whether the effects of one
mediator and another are independent [103]. Behavioural intentions were therefore entered
as the dependent variable, while attitude toward acting, subjective norms, perceived
behavioural control and desire were independent variables; negative WOM and avoidance
were entered as mediators. All variables were entered as latent constructs, with the
exception of behavioural intentions, which was entered as an observed construct. The
bootstrapping method (i.e., 2000 samples) was used with bias-corrected (BC) confidence
intervals in order to obtain more powerful confidence interval limits for indirect effects
(95% CI) [104].

4.4. Direct Effects

As shown in Figure 2, the results revealed a direct effect of all predictors on be-
havioural intentions, thus supporting Hypothesis 1. Specifically, behavioural intention
was significantly related to attitudes concerning choosing a cultural holiday (H1a , β = 0.29;
p < 0.001), subjective norms (H1b , β = 0.12; p < 0.01), perceived behavioural control (H1c ,
β = 0.53; p < 0.001) and desire (H1d , β = 0.14; p < 0.01). Hypothesis 2 was also confirmed;
attitudes concerning choosing a cultural holiday (H2a , β = −0.14; p < 0.001), subjective
norms (H2b , β = 0.16; p < 0.01), perceived behavioural control (H2c , β = 0.10; p < 0.05) and
desire (H2d , β = −0.18; p < 0.01) predicted individuals’ negative WOM coping strategies.
Hypothesis 3 was only partially confirmed. Subjective norms (H3b , β = 0.22; p < 0.001)
and perceived behavioural control (H3c , β = 0.42; p < 0.001) significantly explained avoid-
ance coping strategies; however, attitudes concerning choosing a cultural holiday (H3a ,
β = −0.02; p = 0.729) and desire (H3d , β = −0.03; p = 0.673) did not significantly explain
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 12 of 20

avoidance coping strategies. Moreover, negative WOM coping strategies (H4 , β = 0.09;
p < 0.05) and avoidance coping strategies (H5 , β = −0.10; p < 0.05) significantly explained
behavioural intentions. The proposed structural model explained a significant amount
of variance in each construct. Specifically, the model explained 47% of the variance in
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER negative
REVIEW WOM coping strategies, 35% of the variance in avoidance coping strategies 9 of 21and
53% of the variance in behavioural intention.

Figure 2. Final SEM (H6a–6d indicating indirect effects of negative WOM and H7a–7d indicating indirect effects of avoidance
Figure 2. Final SEM (H6a–6d indicating indirect effects of negative WOM and H7a–7d indicating indirect effects of avoidance
not drawn) *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
not drawn) *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.
4. Results
4.1.Indirect
4.5. Sample Effects
Profile
Of the
The 469 completed
statistical questionnaires,
significance of indirect58.6%
effectswere
withinfinished by females.
the tested modelRespondents
was examined
onmainly included young
2000 bootstrap samples.adult tourists inwere
Estimations the age groups
tested withinof the
18–29
95%(40.7%) and 30–39
confidence interval
(24.5%).
(CI) Mostbias-corrected,
and were respondents were andfrom Italy (67.6%),
accelerated followed
results by other
are included. AsEuropean
presented countries
in Table 4,
(29.7%), the6 USA
Hypothesis (2.3%), and since
was supported, othersthe
(0.4%). A preponderance
bootstrap CIs do not crossof individuals (67.0%)indicate
zero. The results had
obtained a bachelor’s degree. Finally, a majority of the sample participants
that negative WOM coping strategies mediated the effects of attitudes concerning choosing had an income
a of less than
cultural EUR 12,000
holiday (H6a :(52.0%),
β = 0.06, had
p<completed
0.01, 95%1–5CItrips in the
(0.126, last two
0.324)), years (65.7%)
subjective norms and
(H6b :
had done so in at least two different places (56.3%) (See Table 1).
β = 0.03, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.032, 0.568)), perceived behavioural control (H6c : β = 0.06,
p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.055, 0.486)), desire (H6d : β = 0.07, p < 0.001, 95% CI (0.041, 0.004)) and
Table 1. Sample characteristics.
behavioural intentions.
Hypothesis 7 was only partially confirmed. The results Frequency
reveal(s) that Percentage %
avoidance coping
Gender
strategies mediated the effects of attitudes concerning choosing a cultural holiday (H7a :
βMale
= 0.04, p < 0.05, 95% CI (0.085, 0.017)) and subjective norms 194 (H 7b : β = 41.4
0.05, p < 0.01,
Female
95%, CI (0.054, 0.167)) on behavioural intentions. Conversely, 275avoidance coping 58.6strategies
did not mediate the relationship between perceived behavioural control (H7c : β = −0.02;
p Age
= 0.729) and behavioural intentions, nor the relationship between desire (H7d : β = −0.03,
p 18–29
= 0.673) and behavioural intentions, given that the indirect 191 paths were not 40.7
significant
30–39 115
(Table 4). Thus, H7a and H7b were supported, while H7c and H7d were rejected. 24.5
40–49 97 20.7
50–59 47 10.0
≥60 19 4.1
Country of Origin
Italy 317 67.6
Rest of Europe 139 29.7
USA 11 2.3
Other 2 0.4
Level of Education
Middle School 13 2.8
High School 73 15.6
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 13 of 20

Table 4. Standardized indirect effects.

Boot 95% CI
Predictor β SE
LL UL
H6a : Attitudes → Negative WOM → Behavioural intention 0.06 *** 0.04 0.126 0.324
H6b : Subjective norms → Negative WOM → Behavioural intention 0.03 *** 0.02 0.032 0.568
H6c : Perceived behavioural control → Negative WOM → Behavioural intention 0.06 *** 0.03 0.055 0.486
H6d : Desire → Negative WOM → Behavioural intention 0.07 ** 0.06 0.041 0.004
H7a : Attitudes → Avoidance → Behavioural intention 0.04 * 0.05 0.085 0.017
H7b : Subjective norms → Avoidance → Behavioural intention 0.05 ** 0.03 0.054 0.167
H7c : Perceived behavioural control → Avoidance → Behavioural intention 0.07 ns −0.02 −0.023 0.101
H7d : Desire → Avoidance → Behavioural intention 0.07 ns −0.03 −0.350 0.170
Note: ns = not significant. *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.

5. Discussion
This study proposed and empirically tested an integrative model that investigated the
motivational and emotional determinants of visitors’ behavioural intentions of engaging
in cultural tourism. The results reveal that the effects of attitudes, subjective norms,
perceived behavioural control and desire significantly affect tourists’ intentions to choose
cultural tourism. The results also reveal that these four goal-directed motivation factors
were significant predictors of negative WOM, while only subjective norms and perceived
behavioural control predicted avoidance. The findings also reveal that the two dimensions
of anticipated emotion, namely negative WOM and avoidance, were determinants of
intentions to choose cultural tourism holidays. The findings of this study also demonstrate
that negative WOM mediated the indirect effects of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived
behavioural control and desire on intentions to choose cultural tourism. Finally, the
results indicate that the indirect effects of subjective norms and perceived behavioural
control on intentions to choose cultural tourism were mediated by avoidance, whereas
the indirect effects of attitudes and desire on intentions to choose cultural tourism (via
avoidance) were found to be insignificant. These findings offer important theoretical and
managerial implications.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

Our study makes three main theoretical contributions to the literature surrounding
cultural tourism. First, rooted in the theory of self-regulation or model goal-directed be-
havior (MGB), this study extends this model to better understand tourists’ cognitive and
affective decision-making when engaging in cultural tourism. The inclusion of essential
and key constructs when developing and extending a theoretical framework in the domain
of the consumer decision-making process was shown to be reliable and valid. The empirical
results of the extended model highlight the importance of desire as a determinant of antici-
pated emotions and behavioral intention. Consequently, the extension of the theoretical
model also includes anticipated emotions of negative WOM and avoidance as key medi-
ating mechanisms in the relationship between goal-directed motivation and behavioral
intentions to choose cultural holidays. The extension, modification and inclusion of new
variables with MGB and TPB models are in line with previous research [47,105,106]. This
work also responds to the calls of other scholars [45,107,108], who highlighted the need
for a revision of the current socio-psychological theories to include new variables that are
essential within a particular setting or that modify existing paths among latent constructs.
Second, the two dimensions of anticipated emotions, namely negative WOM and
avoidance, were revealed to be two important proximal determinants of volitional process
(i.e., intentions). Here, we proposed and provided empirical evidence that anticipated
emotions provided the motivational impetus for intentions to act, and suggested that
attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral controls and desire are antecedents in
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 14 of 20

decision-making via anticipated emotions, en route to influencing intentions. Specifically,

these two dimensions of anticipated emotion were found to be key mediating mechanisms
in the effects of MGB constructs (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral
control and desire) on tourists’ behavioral intentions to engage in cultural tourism. Fur-
thermore, the inclusion of these two anticipated emotions as mediating variables helps to
elicit the representation of goal-directed behaviors in the MGB and increase the predictive
power of the theoretical model. Additionally, this finding demonstrated the importance
of the inclusion of anticipated emotion in the decision-making process, and corroborates
the assertion proposed by Bagozzi et al. [109]. The authors argue that individuals consider
when to act or not in a goal-directed situation by considering the emotional consequences of
both achieving and not achieving the sought-after goal, which Gleicher et al. [110] termed
“prefactual appraisals”. This perspective expands the theoretical underpinning of the effect
of goal-directed motivation on volitional process via anticipated emotions, thereby adding
knowledge to the tourist behaviour literature.
Third, our findings reveal that goal–desire is structurally different from behavioural
intentions to engage in cultural tourism, providing support for Perugini and Bagozzi’s [111]
reasoning of a theoretical and empirical difference between desires and intentions. When
desires were considered simultaneously with other MGB constructs, they were able to
explain 20% of the variance in negative WOM, 27% of the variance in avoidance, and 50%
of the variance in behavioural intentions to engage in cultural tourism, demonstrating
a robust power to explain visitors’ behavioural intentions to engage in cultural tourism.
These results contradict previous studies [48,106,112,113], which applied MGB throughout
a broad range of behavioural domains (e.g., brand-related behaviour, dieting, alcohol
consumption, exercise, learning software, information search, pro-environmental behaviour
in festivals, visa exemption, etc.), and which failed to support a theoretical claim of the
relationship between desire and intentions, but instead revealed that these two constructs
were highly correlated. In this sense, our results show that through construct validity and
reliability analyses, the constructs of desire and behavioural intention are theoretically
distinct, with high levels of explanatory power. All in all, our proposed framework, wherein
desire is considered an independent variable (contrary to previous studies that consider
it as a mediator), provides an in-depth description of the psychosocial and emotional
determinants of tourists’ intentions to engage in cultural tourism.

5.2. Practical Implications

From a practical perspective, this study provides several contributions and offers
a reflection on the relationship that the tourist forms with the place visited, in terms of
the desire to be satisfied through cultural tourism. First, the results suggest that coping
strategies play a fundamental role in this relationship by defining tourists’ intentions
to enjoy cultural tourism in specific places. This means that the experiences gained via
tourists’ visits and the image created about what the place has to offer are very important
as regards fulfilling desires. All predictive variables used in the model were found to
be effective in determining the effect on behavioural intention. These results can be of
help and offer suggestions to professionals and marketers, who can thus understand, both
separately and jointly, the effect that each of these variables has on tourists’ behaviours,
and on the possibility of identifying with a cultural holiday, and the choice of the place that
can respond to such needs. This provides valuable and important suggestions regarding
the factors that can inhibit or aid this choice, in order to favour the appropriate factors.
Furthermore, the results relating to the perception of cultural tourism and tourists’
needs to be able to take advantage of the beauty and amenities of the place in terms
of accessibility and ease can certainly offer useful suggestions for DMOs (destination
marketing organizations) and those responsible for destination management. The results
show how perceived behavioural control has a predictive effect on behavioural intention
and is mediated by negative WOMs and avoidance. For the tourist, it is essential to be
able to perceive that they have the scope and the ability to enact a behaviour. The territory
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 15 of 20

and marketing policies must be able to favour this opportunity. This is especially relevant
when it comes to cultural tourism, the accessibility of the place, the possibility of visiting
an attraction or destination in order to have an experience that is as pleasant as possible in
terms of usability, all of which are important to ensuring that the tourist does not develop
avoidance behaviours towards the place and provide negative WOM. Therefore, managers
should provide greater clarity and transparency in the information given on-site, greater
emotional involvement, and develop a desire towards the place. The aspects that emerged
during this study acquire greater significance if we assess them under the current situation
due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Tourism in every part of the world has been affected, but
there are territories that more than any others derive most of their economic needs from
tourism. This is the case of Italy, especially Sicily, a land of great culture and history. A
return of tourism to some sense of normalcy will not be easy, and the findings of this study
could provide useful indications for cultural tourism destinations to cope and revive the
tourism industry as we wrestle with the COVID-19 pandemic. DMOs and practitioners
must start again by offering tourists certainty and safe conditions that place such visitors
at the centre of the touristic visit, which provide opportunities to safely take advantage of
all the beauties of the place and allow for the rediscovery of emotional pleasure derived
from the desire to visit. The tourist must feel enriched by the acquisition of the traditions,
culture and identity of the place, in order to be able to realise the full benefits of the visit.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

This study is not without its limitations. Though convenience sampling is extremely
useful in securing a robust sample size for executing CFA-SEM and mediation analyses,
such an approach is limiting, in that it reduces the ability to generalise research findings
and increases the potential for sampling bias and sampling error [114]. Nevertheless,
convenience sampling may be the only option available in certain situations (for more
information see [115]), especially in ours.
Although socio-demographic differences were reported in this research, these vari-
ables have only been described, and were not used within model analysis. One of the
limitations of our research related to demographics was the preponderance of younger
female participants. Given that slightly more than 40% of our sample were between the
ages of 18 and 29, and nearly 60% were females, our results should be interpreted with
some caution, as this is likely not representative of the wider population of potential trav-
ellers to Sicily. In fact, these demographics are likely a function of the means by which we
secured our sample—using LinkedIn and Twitter. Future research may seek to balance
the number of respondents based on gender and age by intentionally oversampling older
male participants. Within what is an investigation into motivational factors contributing to
behavioural intentions to engage in cultural holidays, the role of gender and age may serve
to explain some model relationships, especially concerning the effects of coping strategies.
Younger women (who comprised a large portion of our sample) may have affected model
relationships, especially as regards negative WOM and avoidance.
As differences between the consumption preferences of men and women become less
distinct, it would be interesting to explore how consumers maintain the balance between
the dichotomous role of masculine and feminine gender identities and understand the
difference between men and women as they create gender-related self-image. In addition,
gender identity closely relates to cultural change. Future research should also consider the
role that other socio-demographic variables (e.g., age, income and level of education) may
play in developing coping strategies. Multiple authors have highlighted the significance of
gender, age, income, education, and nationality [116–119] in the model’s results.
Another important limitation concerns the high percentage (67.6%) of domestic
tourists that participated in this study. Prior knowledge of particular sites would most
likely shape individuals’ interest in revisiting. Future researchers should seek to secure
a balanced number of domestic and international tourists when examining subsequent,
comparable models. As such, future research may consider undertaking a multi-group
Sustainability 2021, 13, 10347 16 of 20

analysis to determine if results would hold (or be different) across these two distinct groups
of travellers.
Finally, a variable that has not been included in the research model, but that could
give further insight into comparable models, is destination image. According to Bigné
et al. [120], Gallarza, Saura, and Garcia [121] and San Martin and Del Bosque [122], the
image that a tourist has of a destination can be quite personal, as it depends on individual
perceptions of the place, which can be most salient in the context of cultural tourism.
Perhaps the image individuals possess of culturally rich destinations, in light of the current
COVID-19 pandemic in which we find ourselves, will go far in explaining intentions to
undertake a cultural tourism holiday. As we continue to embrace what travel looks like in
the face of the COVID-19 pandemic (and beyond) [123], it will be of paramount importance
that we continue to advance models examining various theoretically derived constructs
so as to gain a timely perspective of what drives individuals’ intentions to engage in this
unique form of tourism [124]. For now, our work serves as a continued jumping off point,
moving this line of research forward through the employment of the self-regulation theory.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.P.; methodology, S.P. and M.A.R.; software, S.P. and
M.A.R.; validation, S.P., M.A.R. and K.M.W.; formal analysis, S.P. and M.A.R.; investigation, S.P.;
resources, S.P.; data curation, S.P.; writing—original draft preparation, S.P. and K.M.W.; writing—
review and editing, S.P., M.A.R. and K.M.W.; visualization, S.P. and K.M.W.; supervision, S.P. and
K.M.W.; project administration, S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work is partially financed by Portuguese Funds provided by FCT—Fundação para a
Ciência e Tecnologia (Foundation for Science and Technology, Portugal) through project UIDB/04020.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Should readers express interest in securing the data used in this paper,
they are encouraged to contact the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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