Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid
cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in
the world after water,[2] and is the most widely used building material.[3] Its usage worldwide, ton for
ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminum combined.[4] Globally, the ready-mix concrete
industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is projected to exceed $600 billion in revenue by
2025.[5] This widespread use results in a number of environmental impacts. Most notably, the
production process for cement produces large volumes of greenhouse gas emissions, leading to net 8%
of global emissions.[6][7] Other environmental concerns include widespread illegal sand mining, impacts
on the surrounding environment such as increased surface runoff or urban heat island effect, and
potential public health implications from toxic ingredients. Significant research and development is
being done to try to reduce the emissions or make concrete a source of carbon sequestration, and
increase recycled and secondary raw materials content into the mix to achieve a circular economy.
Concrete is expected to be a key material for structures resilient to climate disasters,[8] as well as a
solution to mitigate the pollution of other industries, capturing wastes such as coal fly ash or bauxite
tailings and residue.
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References
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The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Gagg, Colin R. (1 May 2014). "Cement and concrete as an engineering material: An historic appraisal and
case study analysis". Engineering Failure Analysis. 40: 114–140. doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004.
ISSN 1350-6307.
Crow, James Mitchell (March 2008). "The concrete conundrum" (PDF). Chemistry World: 62–66.
"What is the development impact of concrete?". Cement Trust. 24 October 2010. Archived from the
original on 17 September 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
"Global Ready-mix Concrete (RMC) Market worth over USD US$ 624.82 Bn by 2025: QY Research, Inc".
Digital Journal (Press release).
The Cement Sustainability Initiative: Our agenda for action, World Business Council for Sustainable
Development, page 20, published 1 June 2002
Lehne, Johanna; Preston, Felix (2018). Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and
Concrete (PDF). London: Chatham House. pp. v. ISBN 978-1784132729.
Lehne, Johanna; Preston, Felix (13 June 2018). "Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon
Cement and Concrete".
Li, Zongjin (2011). Advanced concrete technology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470902431.
Industrial Resources Council (2008). "Portland Cement Concrete". www.industrialresourcescouncil.org.
Retrieved 15 June 2018.
Special concrete is defined as “concrete which meets special performance an uniformity requirements
that cannot always be achieved routinely by using only conventional materials and normal mixing,
placing and curing practices”.
pecial concrete is defined as “concrete which meets special performance an uniformity requirements
that cannot always be achieved routinely by using only conventional materials and normal mixing,
placing and curing practices
Special Concrete means the concrete used or made for special cases, such as:
Frequently, concrete may be used for some special purpose for which special properties are more
important than those commonly considered. Sometimes, it may be of great importance to enhance one
of the ordinary properties. These special applications often become apparent as new development using
new materials or as improvements using the basic materials. Some utilize special aggregates (lightweight
aggregate, steel fiber, plastic fiber, glass fiber, and special heavy aggregate).
Some special properties — increased compressive and tensile strength, water proofing, and improved
chemical resistance are achieved with polymers, either as admixtures or surface treatment of hardened
concrete. Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors. The oldest and cheapest is perhaps
carbon black. Admixtures causing expansion for use in sealing cracks or under machine bases, etc.,
include powdered aluminum and finely ground iron. Special admixtures are available for use where the
natural aggregate is alkali reactive, to neutralize this reaction. Proprietary admixtures are available that
increase the tensile strength or bond strength of concrete. They are useful for making repairs to
concrete surfaces.
