Science Exam Study Notes

Scientific Method:
Variables

Independent:
● The only thing you change.

Dependent:
● The change that happens because of the independent variable.

Constant:
● Things that stay constant and unchanged.

Steps of the scientific method

1. Question
2. Form hypothesis
3. Gather data
4. Experiment
5. Draw conclusions

Cells:
Cell Theory

Based on Redi's experiment, and several more observations made by scientists around the
world, a generalized theory was formed. The Cell Theory stated three hypotheses:

1. The cell is the basic unit of life.

2. All living things are composed of one or more cells.
3. All cells come from preexisting cells

Modern day scientists have since expanded the cell theory, adding the following postulates:

4. Energy flow occurs within cells.

5. Hereditary information (DNA) is contained within cells.
6. All cells have the same basic chemical composition.

Characteristics of living things

● Reproduction

● Require energy to survive

 ● They have at least 1 cell

● Movement

● Breathe (oxygen, CO2)

● Respond to their environment

● Create waste

● Have a lifespan

Plant and animal cells

Plant cells:
● Cell wall
● Plastid
● Chloroplast

Animal cells:
● Lysosome
● Centriole

Cell membrane

Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion:
● The movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.

Osmosis:
● The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of
higher water concentration (or low solute concentration) to an area of lower water
concentration (or high solute concentration).

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Endocytosis:
● The process by which non-dissolved materials, or large amounts of material, are
brought into a cell from the outside environment.
● A type of Endocytosis is called Phagocytosis, also referred to as “cell eating”.
● Endocytosis is used to transport solids or liquids that the cell can use as nutrients
 into the cytoplasm.

Exocytosis:
● The process by which large amounts of material, or large non-dissolved particles, are
moved from a cell’s cytoplasm to the outside environment.

Unicellular organisms vs multicellular organisms

Unicellular organisms:
●

Multicellular organisms:

Fluids:
Characteristics of fluids

Liquids:
● Definite volume
● No definite shape (shape can change)

Gasses:
● No definite volume
● No definite shape (shape can change)

Particle Theory of Matter

● All matter is made of tiny particles.

● Particles have empty spaces between them.

● Particles are moving randomly all the time.

● Particles move faster and spread farther apart when they are heated.

● Particles attract each other.

Flow rate

Things that could affect flow rate:

● The type of fluid that is flowing (thin fluids flow faster than thick ones).
● The force pushing on the fluid (stronger forces produce faster flow rates).
● The size of the pipe or opening the fluid is flowing through (larger openings allow for
faster flow).
● The type of surface over which the fluid is flowing (smooth surfaces allow for faster
flow).
Viscosity

● The viscosity of a fluid refers to its “thickness,” or its resistance to flow.

Adhesion and cohesion

Adhesion:
● Adhesion is the force of attraction between particles of a fluid and particles of other
substances.
● Adhesion causes gasses and liquids to travel faster near the center of pipes and
tubes than at the edges.
● The fluid’s attraction to the material of the pipes and tubes slows down the flow of the
fluid.

Cohesion:
● Cohesion is the force of attraction between the particles of a substance.
● Less viscous fluids, such as water and milk, show less cohesion. They flow more
freely.

Density calculations

● Density = Mass/ Volume

Pressure calculations

● Pressure = Force/ Area

Buoyancy

● Archimedes' principle is the statement that the buoyant force on an object is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Compressibility of fluids

● The ability to decrease the volume of a gas.

● Liquids are incompressible.
● There is very little empty space between liquid particles. When a force is applied, the
particles cannot move much closer together. Because liquids cannot be squeezed
into a much smaller volume, they are called incompressible.
Pneumatic systems

● Pneumatic systems are devices that use pressure to transmit forces through a gas to
move something else.
● In a pneumatic system, a gas transmits a force exerted on the gas in an enclosed
space.
● The operation of most pneumatic systems is based on the fact that gasses can be
compressed.
● A compressor is needed to build up air pressure. When the pressure is released, the
air particles start to move apart suddenly, creating a strong, steady force that can
perform tasks.
● Examples: jackhammers, bicycle pumps, train bakes.

Hydraulic systems

● Hydraulic systems are devices that use pressure to transmit forces through a liquid
to move something else.
● In most hydraulic systems, a force is exerted on a continuous, enclosed liquid.
● This applied force creates pressure that is transmitted in the liquid through a series
of tubes, pipes, or hoses. Eventually, this causes motion at the other end of the
system.
● Examples: car jacks, airplanes, car breaks.

Water Systems:

Water Cycle

Treating water

1. Remove any large objects, such as sticks, leaves, and garbage, from the water. A
metal screen covers the end of the pipe that draws the water from its source. This
screen blocks objects from entering the treatment plant with the water.
2. The water enters a large tank where a chemical is added. The alum is stirred into the
water and forms small, sticky lumps that attract most of the waste solids floating in
the water. This combination of chemical and waste solids is called floc.
3. The water and floc enter a settling tank. The water flows slowly to allow the floc to
settle to the bottom of the tank.
4. The partially cleaned water from the top of the settling tank now moves through a
sand and charcoal filter. This removes any remaining waste solids and small pieces
of floc that did not settle in the previous step. The water is now clear, colorless, and
odorless.
5. The water may still contain microorganisms, such as bacteria, that can make people
ill. Chlorine or ozone can be added to the water to kill these organisms.
 6. The treated water is then stored in sealed containers, ready for use. This ensures a
reliable flow of water whenever we need it.

1. Large objects are filtered out in a pipe with a metal screen at the end.
2. It then enters a large tank where chemicals are added which creates lumps of
chemicals and waste called floc.
3. The floc enters a settling tank which allows it to settle to the bottom.
4. Filtered through a sand and charcoal filter.
5. Chlorine or ozone are added to the water to kill any remaining organisms.
6. Water is sealed ready for use.

State changes

Melting:
● The change of state from a solid to a liquid; occurs when a solid gains thermal
energy.
● Example: Ice to water; putting ice in something warm.

Sublimation:
● The change of state from a solid to a gas without first becoming a liquid; occurs when
a solid gains thermal energy.
● Example: Dry ice to gas; turns into gas at room temperature.

Evaporation:
● The change of state from a liquid to a gas; occurs when a liquid gains thermal
energy.
● Example: Water to steam; water being heated in a kettle.

Condensation:
● The change of state from a gas to a liquid; occurs when a gas loses thermal energy.
● Example: Vapor to liquid; turns into liquid droplets on cold surface.

Deposition:
● The change of state from a gas to a solid; occurs when a gas loses thermal energy.
● Example: Vapor to ice; formation of frost on a cold surface, water vapor in the air
turns into ice.

Freezing:
● The change of state from a liquid to a solid; occurs when a liquid loses thermal
energy.
● Example: Water to ice; putting water in a freezer.

Water particle arrangement as solid, liquid, and gas

Solid:
● Tightly packed together.
 ● Has a definite shape and volume.

Liquid:
● Close together, but are not in a fixed position.
● Have more energy and are constantly moving.
● Does not have a definite shape but has a definite volume.

Gas:
● Far apart and are constantly moving at high speeds in different directions.
● Have more energy and are not held together by bonds.
● Does not have a definite shape or volume.

Fresh vs salt water

Fresh:
● Many places on Earth have plenty of salt water but not enough fresh water to meet
people’s needs.
● Fresh water source salinity = > 1%

Salt:
● Average ocean salinity = 3-4%
● Dead sea salinity = 30%
● Salt can be removed from salt water by desalination. One example is evaporating
then condensing water.

Deslatination

● Any process that removes salt from water, producing pure water and solid salt.
● Example: Reverse osmosis is a desalination process that uses osmosis across a
membrane with tube-like pores called nanotubes. Water particles can easily pass
through the little nanotubes, but salt particles and other large non-water particles
cannot.

Testing water quality

Ph:
● Water becomes acidic if it contains certain dissolved chemicals, such as sulfuric acid
or nitric acid.
● We can measure the acidity of water with an indicator that turns different colors in
acidic and basic solutions.
● Water is acidic if its pH is below 7 and basic if its pH is above 7.
● Good-quality fresh water has a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.

Salinity:
● A conductivity apparatus is used to determine whether a solution can carry an
 electrical current. Salt water is a good conductor of electricity. Therefore, testing a
sample of water for conductivity will tell you whether the solution contains salt.

Turbidity:
● Sediment (bits of solid matter) makes water turbid (cloudy).
● Clear water is usually of better quality than turbid water.
● You can observe the turbidity of water by looking at it.

Temperature:
● Warm water has less dissolved oxygen than cold water.
● If the water does not have enough oxygen, aquatic organisms will die.
● Increasing the temperature of water by artificial means is called thermal pollution.
● Thermal pollution reduces the quality of the water.

Water contamination

Chemical:
● Mineral mining
● Salt
● Fertilizers
● Herbicides and pesticides
● Acid precipitation

Biological:
● Small natural things in water

Systems in Action:

Types of Systems

Physical:
● A group of physical parts that work together to perform a function.
● Examples: Jackhammer, camera, electric circuit.

Natural:
●

Social:
● A group of people, or other organisms, joining together to perform tasks and
establish relationships.
● Examples: Animal packs, orchestra.

System components

Subsystems:
● Smaller systems within systems.
 ● Subsystems help the system perform the task for which it is designed.

Mechanisms:
● The part of a subsystem that changes one type of force into another, one type of
energy into another, one type of motion into another, or one type of action into
another.

Input:
● All of the things that go into a system to make it work.
● Inputs may include forces, energy, and raw materials.
● The input of a can opener includes the force your hand puts on the handles.

Output:
● All of the tasks or services that the system performs.
● The output of a can opener is the turning and cutting of the can’s lid

Simple machines

Levers:
● A rigid bar that pivots at a point called the fulcrum.
● The load arm is the part of the bar between the fulcrum and the object (load) you
want to move.
● The effort arm is the part of the bar between the fulcrum and where the effort is
applied.
● Examples: Scissors, seesaw.

Work calculations

● W = FxD