Transformer Testing

Routine Tests - The following constitute the routine tests:

1. Measurement of winding resistance

2. Measurement of voltage radio and check of voltage vector relationship
3. Measurement of impedance voltage/short-circuit impedance (principal tapping) and load
loss
4. Measurement of no-load loss and current
5. Measurement of insulation resistance
6. Dielectric tests
7. Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate

Type tests - The following shall constitute the type tests:

1. Measurement of winding resistance

2. Measurement of voltage radio and check of voltage vector relationship
3. Measurement of impedance voltage/short-circuit impedance (principal tapping) and load
loss
4. Measurement of no-load loss and current
5. Measurement of insulation resistance
6. Dielectric tests
7. Temperature-rise test
8. Tests on on-load tap-changers, where appropriate

16.1.3 Special Tests -- The following tests shall be carried out –by mutual agreement between
the purchaser and the supplier:

1. Dielectric tests (16.7);

2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase transformers (16.10);
3. Short-circuit test
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps

If special tests other than those listed in the above list are required, the test method shall be
subject to agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
1. Measurement of Winding Resistance:
Measurement is made to check transformer windings and terminal connections and also
both to use as reference for future measurements and to calculate the load loss values at
reference (e.g. 75C) temperature. Measuring the winding resistance is done by using DC current
and is very much dependent on temperature. Temperature correction is made according to the
equations below:

R2: winding resistance at temperature t2, R1: winding resistance at temperature t1

Because of this, temperatures must be measured when measuring the winding resistances
and temperature during measurement should be recorded as well. Winding resistances are
measured between all connection terminals of windings and at all tap positions. During this,
winding temperature should also be appropriately measured and recorded.
Generally transformer windings are immersed in insulation liquid and covered with paper
insulation; hence it is impossible to measure the actual winding temperature in a de-energizing
transformer at time of transformer winding resistance measurement. An approximation is
developed to calculate temperature of winding at that condition, as follows:
Temperature of winding = Average temperature of insulating oil
(Average temperature of insulating oil should be taken 3 to 8 hours after de-energizing
transformer and when the difference between top & bottom oil temperatures becomes less than
5oC)
The measuring current can be obtained either from a battery or from a constant (stable)
current source. The measuring current value should be high enough to obtain a correct and
precise measurement and small enough not to change the winding temperature. In practice, this
value should be larger than 1.2xI0 and smaller than 0.1xIN, if possible.
A transformer consists of a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series. As the
measurement current increases, the core will be saturated and inductance will decrease. In this
way, the current will reach the saturation value in a shorter time. Thus, After the current is
applied to the circuit, it should be waited until the current becomes stationary (complete
saturation) before taking measurements, otherwise, there will be measurement errors.

Fig. 1.1 V-I Method for Measurement of Winding Resistance of Transformer

 The transformer winding resistances can be measured either by current-voltage method or
bridge method. If digital measuring instruments are used, the measurement accuracy will
be higher. Measuring by the current-voltage method is shown in figure 1.1.
In the current – voltage method, the measuring current passing through the winding also
passes through a standard resistor with a known value and the voltage drop values on both
resistors (winding resistance and standard resistance) are compared to find the unknown
resistance (winding resistance). One should be careful not to keep the voltage measuring
voltmeter connected to the circuit to protect it from high voltages which may occur during
switching the current circuit on and off.
The arrangement shown in fig. 1.2 is used for measuring resistance of a star/delta
connected three phase transformer.

Fig. 1.2 Arrangement for Star/Delta Connected Transformers

For star connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase would be half of
measured resistance between two line terminals of the transformer. For delta connected three
phase winding, the resistance per phase would be 0.67 times of measured resistance between two
line terminals of the transformer.
The bridge method is based on comparing an unknown (being measured) resistor with a
known value resistor. When the currents flowing in the arms are balanced, the current through
the galvanometer will be zero. In general, if the small value resistors (e.g. less than 1 Ω) are
measured with a Kelvin bridge and higher value resistors are measured with a Wheatstone
bridge, measurement errors will be minimized.
 Fig. 1.3 Kelvin Bridge Fig. 1.4 Wheatstone bridge
The resistance measured with the Kelvin Bridge:
 where (R1=R3 & R2=R4)

The resistance measured with the Wheatstone Bridge:

2. Measurement of Voltage Ratio (Turns Ratio Measurement):

The no-load voltage ratio between two windings of a transformer is called turn ratio. The aim of
measurement is to confirm the no-load voltage ratio given in the customer order specifications, determine
the conditions of both the windings and the connections and examining the problems (if any)
measurements are made at all tap positions and all phases.
The turn ratio measurement can be made using two different methods:
a) Bridge method
b) By measuring the voltage ratios of the windings
a) Bridge Method: Measurement of turn ratio is based on, applying a phase voltage to one of the
windings using a bridge (equipment) and measuring the ratio of the induced voltage at the
bridge. The measurements are repeated in all phases and at all tap positions, sequentially. During
measurement, only turn ratio between the winding couples which have the same magnetic flux
can be measured, which means the turn ratio between the winding couples which have the
parallel vectors in the vector diagram can be measured. In general, the measuring voltage is 220
V a.c. 50 Hz. However, equipments which have other voltage levels can also be used. The
accuracy of the measuring instrument is ≤ 0.1%.

Fig. 2.1 Bridge Method for Measurement of Turns Ratio

Theoretical turn ratio = HV winding voltage / LV winding voltage.
The theoretical no-load turn ratio of the transformer is adjusted on the equipment by an
adjustable transformer; it is changed until a balance occurs on the % error indicator. The value
read on this error indicator shows the deviation of the transformer from real turn ratio as %.

b) By measuring the voltage ratios of the windings: The voltages at the winding couples to be
measured, can be measured at the same time and the ratio can be determined, or digital
instruments which are manufactured for this purpose can be used in the voltage ratio
measurement method. By using such instruments, in addition to measuring the turn ratio, also
determining the connection group (with three phase measuring instrument) and measuring the
currents during measurement are also possible. The method of comparing the vector couple
voltages also allows measuring the angle (phase shift) between vectors at the same time.

3. Polarity Test and Determination of Vector Group:

Depending on the type of the transformer, the input and output windings of a multi-phase
transformer are connected either as star ( Y ) or delta ( D ) or zigzag ( Z ). The phase angle
between the high voltage and the low voltage windings varies between 0 and 360.
Representing as vectors, the HV winding is represented as 12(0) hour and the other
windings of the connection group are represented by other numbers of the clock in reference to
the real or virtual point. For example, in Dyn 11 connection group the HV winding is delta and
the LV winding is star and there is a phase difference of 330  (11x30) between two windings.
While the HV end shows 12(0), the LV end shows 11 o’clock (after 330).

The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful parallel operation
of transformers. Hence each and every power transformer must undergo through vector group
test of transformer at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector group of
transformer. Determining the connection group is applicable only in three phase transformers.
For single phase transformers, polarity test is employed.
The phase sequence or the order, in which the phases reach their maximum positive
voltages, must be identical for two paralleled transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each
pair of phases will be short circuited.
It is known that, the primary and secondary coils on any one limb have induced emfs that
are in time - phase. In two transformers with same number primary turns, the primary windings
are connected in star. The secondary number of turns per phase in both transformers is also same.
But the first transformer has star connected secondary and other transformer has delta connected
secondary. If same voltages are applied in primary of both transformers, the secondary induced
emf in each phase will be in same time-phase with that of respective primary phase, as because
the primary and secondary coils of same phase are wound on the same limb in the core of
transformer. In first transformer, as the secondary is star connected, the secondary line voltage is
√3 times of induced voltage per secondary phase coil. But in case of second transformer, where
secondary is delta connected, the line voltage is equal to induced voltage per secondary phase
coil. From the vector diagram of secondary line voltages of both transformers, it can be easily
seen that there will be a clear 30 o angular difference between the line voltages of these
transformers. Now, if these transformers are run in parallel, then there will be a circulating
current flowing between the transformers as because there is a phase angle difference between
their secondary line voltages. This phase difference cannot be compensated. Thus two sets of
connections giving secondary voltages with a phase displacement cannot be intended for parallel
operation of transformers.

Fig. 3.1 Determination of Vector Group of Transformer (One of many possible methods)
As seen from the vector diagram, in order to be Dyn 11 group, Ac  > AB > Bb
correlation has to be realized. Taking the other phases as reference for starting, same principles
can be used and also for determining the other connection groups, same principles will be
helpful.

Determination of Polarity:
This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities in a single
phase transformer. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting the polarities of the
induced emfs. The dot method is used to indicate the polarities. The transformer is connected to
a low voltage a.c. source with the connections made as shown in the fig. 3.2 with terminals A 1
and a1 shorted together.
 Fig. 3.2 Polarity Test using AC Supply
A supply voltage Vs is applied to the primary and the readings of the voltmeters V 1, V2
and V3 are noted. If V3 reads V1 −V2, then assumed dot locations are correct (for the connection
shown). The beginning and end of the primary and secondary may then be marked by A 1 − A2
and a1 − a2 respectively. If the voltage rises from A 1 to A2 in the primary, at any instant it does so
from a1 to a2 in the secondary. If V3 reads V1+ V2, then assumed dot locations are correct (for
the connection shown). The beginning and end of the primary and secondary may then be
marked by A1 − A2 and a2 – a1 respectively. If more secondary terminals are present due to taps
taken from the windings they can be labeled as a 3, a4, a5, a6. It is the voltage rising from smaller
number towards larger ones in each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries
are present.

Fig. 3.3 Polarity Test using DC Supply

Fig. 3.3 shows the d.c. method of testing the polarity. When the switch S is closed if the
secondary voltage shows a positive reading, with a moving coil meter, the assumed polarity is
correct. If the meter kicks back the assumed polarity is wrong.

4. Measurement of Short Circuit Impedance and Load Loss

(Short Circuit Test):
The short-circuit loss and the short-circuit voltage show the performance of the
transformer. These values are recorded and guaranteed to the customer and important for
operational economy. The short-circuit voltage is an important criteria especially during parallel
operations of the transformers. The short-circuit loss is a data which is also used in the heat test.
The short-circuit loss is composed of; “Joule “ losses (direct current/DC losses) which is
formed by the load current in the winding and the additional losses (alternating current/AC
losses) in the windings, core pressing arrangements, tank walls and magnetic screening (if any)
by the leakage (scatter) fluxes.
 Fig. 4.1 Test Arrangement for Power Transformer Short Circuit Test

In general, the HV windings of the transformer are supplied while the LV windings are
short-circuited. During measurement, the current has to be at the value of IN or close to this
value as far as possible. The voltage, current and short-circuit losses of each phase should be
measured during measurement.
In cases where the power supply is not sufficient enough to supply the
measurement circuit, compensation to meet the reactive power has to be made using capacitors
as shown in fig. 4.1.
Before beginning to measure, the transformer winding/oil temperature has to be stabilized
and the winding/oil temperature and winding resistances have to be measured. In order to avoid
increasing the winding temperature by the applied current, the measurement has to be completed
in a short time and the measuring current has to be kept between 25%...100% of the rated
current. In this way, the measurement errors due to winding temperature increase will be
minimized.
The losses have to be corrected based on reference temperature (e.g. 75 C) stated in the
standards and evaluated. The short-circuit voltage and losses which are found at the temperature
at which the measurement was made have to be corrected according to this reference
temperature.

5. Measurement of no-load loss and current (Open Ckt Test):

 The no-load losses are very much related to the operational performance of a transformer.
As long as the transformer is operated, these losses occur. For this reason, no-load losses are
very important for operational economy. No-load losses are also used in the heating test.
The no-load losses of a transformer are grouped in three main topics; iron losses at the
core of the transformer, dielectric losses at the insulating material and the copper losses due to
no-load current. The last two of them are very small in value and can be ignored. So, only the
iron losses are considered in determining the no-load losses.

Fig. 5.1 Test Arrangement for Power Transformer Open Circuit Test
The no-load loss and current measurements of a transformer are made while one of the
windings (usually the HV winding) is kept open and the other winding is supplied at the rated
voltage and frequency. During this test the no-load current (Io) and the no-load losses (Po) are
measured.
The measured losses depend heavily on the applied voltage waveform and frequency. For
this reason, the waveform of the voltage should be very sinusoidal and at rated frequency.
Normally, the measurements are made while the supply voltage is increased at equal intervals
from 90% to 115% of the transformer rated voltage and this way the values at the rated voltage
can also be found.

6. Dielectric Tests:
The following insulation tests are performed in order to meet the transformer insulation strength
expectations.
Separate source AC withstand voltage test: To confirm the insulation strength of the
transformer line and neutral connection terminals and the connected windings to the earthed
parts and other windings.
Induced AC voltage test (short duration and long duration) : To confirm the insulation
strength of the transformer connection terminals and the connected windings to the earthed parts
and other windings, both between the phases and through the winding.
Partial discharge measurement: To confirm the “partial discharge below a determined level”
property of the transformer insulation structure under operating conditions.
Lightning impulse test: To confirm the transformer insulation strength in case of a lightning
hitting the connection terminals.
Switching impulse test: To confirm the insulation of the transformer terminals and windings to
the earthed parts and other windings, and to confirm the insulation strength in the windings and
through the windings.
Table 6.1 enlists the dielectric tests that are to be carried out on windings of different types and
different ratings as per IS-2026.
The test voltages for transformers of different ratings are given in Table 6.2.

Table 6.1 Dielectric Tests on Transformers of Different Voltage Ratings

Table 6.2 Rated Withstand Voltages for Different Dielectric Tests
6a. Separate Source AC Voltage Withstand Test:
The aim of this test is to check the insulation strength between the windings and earthed
core, other windings, construction pieces and the tank, with foreseen test voltage. In this way, the
insulation strength of the transformer is tested against excessive voltages due to operational
system instabilities, malfunctions, operational mistakes and transient events.
During the Separate source AC withstand voltage test, the frequency of the test voltage
should be equal to the transformer’s rated frequency or should be not less than 80% of this
frequency. In this way, 60 Hz transformers can also be tested at 50 Hz. The shape of the voltage
should be single phase and sinusoidal as far as possible.

Fig. 6.1 Test Arrangement for Separate Source AC Voltage Withstand Test
The test voltage is measured with the help of a voltage divider. The test voltage should be
read from voltmeter as peak value divided by √2. Test period is 1 minute. All the terminals of the
winding under test should be connected together and the voltage should be applied here.
Meanwhile, the terminals of the non tested windings should be connected together as groups.
Non-tested windings, tank and the core should be earthed. The secondary windings of bushing
type current transformers should be connected together and earthed.
The test shall be commenced at a voltage not greater than one-third of the specified test
value and shall be increased to test value as rapidly as consistent with the measurements. At the
end of the test, the voltage shall be reduced rapidly to less than one-third of the test value before
switching off.
The current should be stable during test and no surges should occur. The test is successful
if no collapse of voltage occurs.
6b. Induced Overvoltage Withstand Test:
The aim of this test is to check the insulation both between phases and between
turns of the windings and also the insulation between the input terminals of the graded insulation
windings and earth. During test, normally the test voltage is applied to the low voltage winding.
Meanwhile the other windings should be left open and earthed from a common point.
Since the test voltage will be much higher than the transformer’s rated voltage (As can be
seen from table 6.2), the test frequency should not be less than twice the rated frequency value,
in order to avoid oversaturation of the transformer core. The test voltage value is chosen
according to the Um value of the winding with highest operating voltage. Other windings should
be kept at a test level closest to their own operation voltage.
If the frequency is less than twice the rated frequency, then the duration of test will be 1
minute, i.e. the specified test voltage shall be applied for duration of 60 sec. But if the test
frequency is greater than or equal to double the rated frequency, then the test duration, which
should not be less than 15 seconds is calculated according to the equation below:

Short Duration Test:

Fig. 6.2 Test Arrangement for Induced Overvoltage Withstand Test (Short Duration)
If the frequency is less than twice the rated frequency, then the duration of test will be 1 minute,
i.e. the specified test voltage shall be applied for duration of 60 sec. But if the test frequency is
greater than or equal to double the rated frequency, then the test duration, which should not be
less than 15 seconds is calculated according to the equation below:
The test connection of a transformer is the same as operating connection. Three phase,
symmetrical voltage is applied to the transformer under test. Normally the test voltage is twice
the rated voltage and therefore to avoid saturation of core, the frequency is more than twice the
rated frequency. This voltage should not be more than the test voltage. To be safe, the tap
position of the transformer under test should be appropriate. The value of the test voltage
(between phases and between phase and earth) is measured at the LV side on an accurate voltage
transformer.
Long Duration Test:
In three phase transformers, it is applied either to terminals respectively as single phase
connection, or symmetrically as three phase connection. When the test voltages are applied as
symmetrical three phase connection, the test arrangement is shown in fig. 6.3. The star point (if
any) is earthed during test, the other windings are earthed from; star point if they are star
connected and from any terminal or from power supply if they are delta connected.

. 6.3 Test Arrangement for Induced Overvoltage Withstand Test (Long Duration)

Fig. 6.4 Test Voltage Value and Application Period for Long Duration Test
The test application period and values are given in figure 6.4. The duration of the test is
independent of the test frequency. In all voltage steps of the test, partial-discharge measurement
is made and the apparent charge shall not be greater than the specified value ‘q’. The details of
partial-discharge measurement are explained in section 6c. The voltages according to earth
should be as;

,
where Um is given according to table 6.2. Partial-discharge measurement should be made
at all HV line terminals.
 The test is accepted as successful if there are no test voltage collapses, a sudden increase
in test current, smoke, abnormal sound, gas bubbles during test and the condition regarding the
apparent charge ‘q’ as mentioned above is satisfied.

6c. Partial Discharge Measurement:

It aims to measure the partial discharges which may occur in the transformer insulation
structure during test.
Partial-discharges are electrical arks which form the surges between electrodes of any
area of the insulating media of a transformer between the conductors. These discharges may
occur in air bubbles left in the insulating media, gaps in the solid materials or at the surfaces of
two different insulators. Although these discharges have small (weak) energy, the thermal
energies due to these discharges can cause aging, deformation and tear of the insulating material.
The structure where a partial-discharge occurred in an insulating media is shown in the
simplified figure 6.5. As seen on the simplified diagram, the impulses forming on the discharge
point cause a U voltage drop at the transformer line terminals. This forms a measurable “q”
load at the measuring impedance. This load is called apparent load and given in pC (Pico-
Coulomb) units.

Fig. 6.5 Partial Discharge in Insulating Medium

The measurement circuit in figure 6.6 is formed according to Bushing-tap method stated
in standards.
Before starting to measure, complete measurement circuit should be calibrated. For this, a
calibrator (Calibration generator) is necessary. The calibrator produces a q0 load with a
predefined value. Calibrator is connected to the test material in parallel. The q0 load produced in
the calibrator is read at the measuring instrument. These steps are repeated at all terminals
of the transformer to be measured at no-voltage.

After the calibration operations are completed, the calibration generator is taken away
from the measuring circuit. When the power system is connected (supply generator switch is
closed), the voltage level will be too low (remenance level). This value which is considered as
the base noise (interference) level of the measuring system should be less than half of the
guaranteed partial-discharge level.

Fig. 6.6 Measurement Circuit for Partial Discharge Measurement

The voltage is substantially increased up to the level stated by the specifications and in
the meantime the partial-discharge values at the predefined voltage levels are measured at each
measuring terminal and recorded. The voltage application period, level and measuring intervals
are given in the induced voltage test section.
After the transformer is energized for measuring operations, the partial-discharge value
read at the measuring instrument is multiplied with the predefined K correction factor, and real
apparent partial- discharge value for each terminal is found.

The test is considered to be successful if the partial-discharge value measured at the

transformer’s measuring terminals is lower than predefined values or values stated in the
standards and no increasing tendency is observed during test.

6d. Lightning Impulse Test:

1. Full Impulse Test
Impulse test are applied to transformers to confirm their capacity to withstand
atmospheric lightning and transient extra voltages during switching. As can be seen from table
6.1, according to IS-2026, these tests are defined as type or routine test depending on the
operating voltage levels.
Power transformers used in high voltage networks have to face atmospheric discharges
(lightning). The amplitudes of lightning excessive voltages always depend on impulse current
and the impulse impedance at the place of the lightning. This value can reach a few times of the
transformer winding's operating voltage.
Impulse voltages are formed by an "impulse voltage generator" at laboratories. For oil
type transformers, in general, the impulse wave of negative (-) polarity is applied to reduce the
risk of erratic external flashover in the test circuit.
The test impulse shall be a full lightening impulse and it's shape at the line terminal
should be as “Tfront / Ttail =1.2 ± 30 % / 50 ± 20% μsec”.

Fig. 6.7 Full Wave Lightning Impulse

The test arrangement for carrying out lightning impulse test is shown in fig. 6.8. In case
of a three phase transformer, the line terminals of other two phases are earthed directly or
through low impedance such as current measuring shunt. If the winding has a neutral terminal,
the same is earthed directly or through low impedance such as current measuring shunt. The tank
of the transformer is also earthed. The transformer under test is supplied through an impulse
generator. The values of resistors in impulse generator are adjusted so that the desired wave-
shape of impulse can be obtained. The voltage is measured through capacitance voltage divider
and the current is measured through current measuring shunt. The waveforms of impulse voltage
and current are recorded on oscillograph.

Fig. 6.8 Test Arrangement for Lightning Impulse Test

 The test sequence consists of one impulse of a voltage between 50 and 75 percent of the
full test voltage which is used for calibration, and three subsequent impulses at full test voltage.
The value of test voltage is according to table 6.2. If during any of these applications, an external
flashover occurs, or if the oscillographic recording fails, that particular application is disregarded
and a further application is made. The impulse test sequence is applied to each of the line
terminals of the tested winding in succession.
At the end of the test, the oscillographic records obtained for the reduced (50 to 75
percent) impulse and the full test voltage impulse are compared. The absence of significant
difference between voltage and current transients recorded at reduced voltage and those recorded
at full test voltage constitute evidence that the insulation has withstood the test.
2. Chopped Impulse Test:
This is a special test to be carried out on line terminals of a winding. In this test, the
impulse wave generated is chopped after some time after it reaches its peak. The chopping time
for an impulse chopped at the tail, Tc should be (Figure 6.9) between 2....6.

Fig. 6.8 Tail Chopped Lightning Impulse

The test circuit, the value of the test voltage and the connections remain same for this test
as in the case of full impulse test with addition of only a chopping gap in the circuit.
Whenever it is agreed between customer and manufacturer, this test is combined with the
full impulse test and the test sequence is as given below.
1. One reduced full impulse (For calibrating for full impulse testing)
2. One 100 percent full impulse
3. One or more reduced chopped impulses (For calibrating for chopped impulse testing)
4. Two 100 percent chopped impulses
5. Two 100 percent full impulses.
Oscillographic records of impulse voltage and current shall be obtained in the same
manner as the full impulse test. At the end of the test, the oscillographic records obtained for the
reduced (50 to 75 percent) impulse and the full test voltage impulse are compared for both full
impulse test and chopped impulse test. The absence of significant difference between voltage and
current transients recorded at reduced voltage and those recorded at full test voltage constitute
evidence that the insulation has withstood the test.
6e. Switching Impulse Test:
The switching impulse test is applied to confirm the withstand capacity of the
transformer’s insulation against excessive voltages occurring during switching. During switching
impulse voltage test, the insulation between windings and between winding and earth and
withstand between different terminals is checked.

Fig. 6.10 Waveform for Switching Impulse Test

The polarity of the voltage is negative and the voltage waveform should normally be T1/
Td/ T2 given as 20/200/500 µsec as shown in fig. 6.10. The switching impulse voltage is
generated in conventional impulse voltage generators at the laboratories as shown in fig.
6.11 and the waveform is controlled using appropriate value of discharging resistors.

Fig. 6.11 Test Arrangement for Switching Impulse Test

The specified test voltage is applied to one line terminal of the winding and the line
terminals of remaining two windings are connected together and left open. The neutral is earthed.
In case of three phase transformer, with this connection, the voltage developed between line
terminals will be 1.5 times the voltage between line and neutral terminal of the winding under
test i.e. voltage of opposite polarity and about half amplitude appears on the two remaining line
terminals.
The test sequence consists of one impulse of a voltage between 50 and 75 percent of the
full test voltage which is used for calibration, and three subsequent impulses at full test voltage.
The value of test voltage is according to table 6.2. If during any of these applications, an external
flashover occurs, or if the oscillographic recording fails, that particular application is disregarded
and a further application is made. The impulse test sequence is applied to each of the line
terminals of the tested winding in succession.
Due to over-saturation of the core during switching impulse test, a few low amplitude,
reverse polarity (e.g. positive) impulses are applied after each test impulse in order to reset the
transformer core to its starting condition (demagnetized). By this way, the next impulse voltage
waveform is applied.
The test is successful if no sudden collapse of voltage is indicated on the oscillograms.

7. Tan-Delta Test:
Tan Delta, also called Loss Angle or Dissipation Factor testing, is a diagnostic method of
testing cables to determine the quality of the cable insulation.
In a pure capacitor current leads the voltage by 90. When a resistor is introduced in
between the current leads an angle less than 90. In a Dielectric material, when a cavity or
deterioration starts, the life of the material starts deteriorating, as there is a resistance getting
added and hence leakage current increases.

Fig. 7.1 Angle  in a Dielectric Material

Tan Delta is also known as the 'loss angle' or 'dissipation factor'. It is used to test the level
of degradation in insulation materials of electrical machines and power cables. Tan Delta Test,
also called Loss Angle or Dissipation Factor Testing, is a diagnostic method of testing electrical
equipment to determine the appropriateness of the insulation. This is done to try to predict the
remaining life expectancy of the equipment.
The winding insulation of an electrical machine, or a cable free from defects, will act as a
perfect capacitor, i.e. it will only store energy and not dissipate it. In this case, the angle between
voltage and current is 90. However, dielectric losses within the insulation due to deterioration or
other factors, will result in the reduction of the resistance in the insulation. This will in turn
increase the resistive current I r. The phase angle between the current and voltage is now less than
90, and the extent to which this is less than 90 gives the level of degradation in the insulation.
If the angle is , then the tangent of  can be calculated by Ir/Ic.
 The winding or cable whose insulation is to be tested is first disconnected and isolated.
The test voltage is applied from the Very Low Frequency power source and the Tan delta
controller takes the measurements. The test voltage is increased in steps upto the rated voltage of
the cable. The readings are plotted in a graph against the applied voltage as shown in fig. 7.2 and
the trend is studied.

Fig. 7.2 The Change in Tan  with Deterioration of Insulation

A healthy insulation would produce nearly a straight line. However as the equipment is
used over a period of time, its insulation deteriorates due to aging and other factors. Due to this,
during testing, the dissipation factor increases with the increase in voltage. A moderate slope of
the graph indicates healthy insulation whereas a steep slope indicates poor insulation and
corrective actions are required to be taken in this regards.
 8. Short Circuit Withstand Test:
This test is carried out to verify whether the design and construction of the transformer is
suitable for withstand without damage the thermal and dynamic effects of external short circuit.
This test is a special test and is carried out only on demand of customer.
The following three categories for the rated kVA of threephase transformers or three-
phase banks are recognized:
Category 1 - Up to 3 150 kVA
Category 2 - 3151 to 40 000 kVA
Category 3 - Above 40 000 kVA

The rms value of the symmetrical short-circuit current I is calculated for three-phase
transformers as follows:

(1)

Prior to the short-circuit withstand test, the transformer shall be subjected to the routine
tests which are specified in the standard. However, the lightning impulse test is not required at
this stage. If the windings are provided with tappings, the reactance and, if required, the
resistance also has to be measured for the tapping positions at which short-circuit tests will be
carried out. All the reactance measurements have to show a repeatability of better than ±0.2 %. A
report containing the result of the routine tests shall be available at the beginning of shortcircuit
tests.
The test is performed with current holding maximum asymmetry as regards the phase
under test. Test current peak value i^ for two-winding transformers The amplitude i of the first
peak of the asymmetrical test current is calculated as follows:
i^ = I x k x √ 2
where I is given by (1).
The factor k accounts for the initial offset of the test current and √ 2 accounts for the
peak-to-r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal wave. The factor k x √ 2, or peak factor, depends on the ratio
X/R.
where
 X is the sum of the reactances of the transformer and the system (Xt + Xs), in ohms;
 R is the sum of resistances of the transformer and the system (Rt + Rs)in ohms, where Rt
is at reference temperature.
When the short-circuit impedance of the system is included in the short-circuit current
calculation, the X/R ratio of the system, if not specified, shall be assumed equal to that of the
transformer. Table 8.1 specifies the value for the peak factor as a function of the X/R ratio to be
used for practical purposes.
Table 8.1 Values for factor k x √ 2

Unless otherwise specified, the factor k x √ 2for X/R > 14 is limited to 2.55.
In order to check the values i^ and I of the test currents, oscillographic records are
obtained. In order to obtain the maximum asymmetry of the current in one of the phase windings,
the switching on must occur at the moment the voltage applied to this winding passes through
zero. To obtain the initial peak value of current in the phase winding under test, the moment of
switching on is adjusted by means of a synchronous switch. For star-connected windings, the
maximum asymmetry is obtained by switching on when the phase voltage passes through zero.
For three-phase tests on delta-connected windings, this condition is obtained by switching on
when the line-to-line voltage passes through zero.
The frequency of the test supply is normally the rated frequency of the transformer.
Nevertheless, if agreed between the purchaser and the manufacturer, it is permissible to test 60
Hz transformers with a 50 Hz power supply and 50 Hz transformers with a 60 Hz power supply
provided that the prescribed test current values are obtained.
For three-phase transformers, a three-phase supply should be used, as long as the
requirements regarding the test current are met. If this is not the case, a single-phase supply, as
shown in fig. 8.1, may be used.
 Fig. 8.1 Connection Arrangement for Testing 3ø Transformer with 1ø Supply
For delta-connected windings, the single-phase supply is provided between two corners
of the delta and the voltage during the test has to be the same as the voltage between phases
during a three-phase test. For star-connected windings, the single-phase voltage is supplied
between one line terminal and the other two line terminals connected together. The single-phase
voltage during the test shall be equal to &/2 times the voltage between phases during the three-
phase test.
In the absence of any particular specification, the number of tests on three-phase and
single-phase transformers is determined as follows, not including preliminary adjustment tests
carried out at less than 70 % of specified current to check the proper functioning of the test Set-
up with regard to the moment of switching on, the current setting, the damping and the duration.
For single phase transformers, the number of tests shall be three. Unless otherwise
specified, the three tests on a single-phase transformer with tappings are made in a different
position of the tap-changer, i.e. one test in the position corresponding to the highest voltage ratio,
one test on the principal tapping and one test in the position corresponding to the lowest voltage
ratio.
For three-phase transformers, the total number of tests shall be nine, i.e. three tests on
each phase. Unless otherwise specified, the nine tests on a three-phase transformer with tappings
are made in different positions of the tap changer, i.e. three tests in the position corresponding to
the highest voltage ratio on one of the outer phases, three tests on the principal tapping on the
middle phase and three tests in the position corresponding to the lowest voltage ratio on the other
outer phase.
The duration of each test shall be 0.5 sec with a tolerance of ±10%. In order to avoid
injurious overheating, an appropriate time interval shall occur between successive over-current
applications. This time shall be defined by agreement between the manufacturer and the
purchaser.
During each test (including preliminary tests ), oscillographic recording shall be made of
the applied voltage (between line terminals) and the currents
Furthermore, the transformer under test shall be visually inspected.
After each test the oscillograms made during the test are inspected, and also the gas relay.
It is necessary to measure the short-circuit reactance after each test.
After completion of the test, the transformer and the gas relay, if any, shall be inspected.
The results of the short-circuit reactance measurements and the oscillograms made during the
different stages of the tests shall be compared.
Then the transformer is untanked for inspection of the core and windings.
If the results of the tests, measurements and inspection do not reveal any defect, the
transformer shall be re-tanked, and the routine tests performed. The power frequency dielectric
tests shall be made with 75 percent of the original test value. The impulse tests are only repeated
after agreement between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
The transformer shall be deemed to have withstood the short-circuit tests if the
measurements and inspections (untanked or dismantled) show no apparent defects
(displacements, deformations of windings, connections or supporting structures, or traces of
discharge).

9. Temperature Rise Test:

Temperature-rise test is a type test. The oil and winding temperatures are tested whether
they are in accordance with both standards and technical specifications or not. The limits of
temperature rise as per IS-2026 are given in table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Temperature Rise Limits for Transformer
 Unless otherwise agreed between the manufacturer and the purchaser for air-cooled
transformers designed for operation at an altitude greater than 1000 m but tested at normal
altitudes, the limits of temperature- rise given in Table 9.1 shall be reduced by the following
amounts for each 500 m by which the intended working altitude exceeds 1000 m :
a) Oil-immersed, natural air-cooled transformers →2.0%
b) Dry-type, natural air-cooled transformers →2.50%
c) Oil-immersed, forced air-cooled transformers →3.0%
d) Dry-type, forced air-cooled transformers →5.0%
a. Cooling Medium Temperature Measurement
The cooling-air temperature is measured by means of several thermometers arranged at a
level approximately half way up the cooling surface, at a distance of 1 to 2 m from the cooling
surface. They should be protected from draught and abnormal heat radiation. If there is a well
defined flow of air from the surroundings towards the intakes of the coolers, without much
recirculation of warm air, the thermometers should be placed in this intake stream. In this case
also, they should be-far enough away from the tank and cooler surfaces to prevent disturbance by
radiant heating (distance of 1m to 2m).
To avoid errors due to the time lag between variations in the temperature of the
transformer and that of the cooling air, the thermometers are inserted in cups filled with liquid
(normally transformer oil), having a time constant of about two hours.
The value to be adopted for the temperature of the cooling air for a test is the average of
the readings taken on these thermometers at equal intervals of time during the last quarter of the
test period.
 When there is water cooling employed, the cooling water temperature shall be measured
at the intake of the cooler and the temperature shall be taken as the average of at least three
readings taken at approximately equal intervals not greater than one hour.

b. Determination of Winding Temperature

The winding temperatures shall in principle be ascertained using the resistance method.
The temperature of a winding (2) at the end of a test period shall be calculated from its
measured resistance (R2) at that temperature and its measured resistance (R 1) at some other
temperature (1) using the formula:

The resistance (R1) is generally the cold resistance measured in accordance with winding
resistance measurement explained earlier. The resistance (R 2) is measured either after switching
off the supply, or without interruption of the supply by means of the superposition method
which consists of injecting into the winding a dc measuring current of low value superposed on
the load current. When measuring resistance after switching off the supply, corrections must be
applied. This is required in order to obtain the value of resistance, and hence the temperature at
exactly the instance of switching off the supply.
The temperature of the top oil shall be measured by a thermometer placed in an oil-filled
thermometer pocket on the cover or in the outlet pipe to the cooler, but in the case of separate
coolers, it shall be located in the outlet pipe adjacent to the transformer.

c. Procedure for Temperature Rise Test

To determine the temperature-rise of the oil, the sum of the no-load and load losses at the
reference temperature is supplied to the transformer, one of its windings being excited and
anorher short-circuited at its terminals. The top oil temperature-rise and the average oil
temperature-rise are recorded.
This phase of test shall be continued until the requirements of one of the following
methods have been met. The method shall bc chosen by the manufacturer.
Method 1: Evidence is obtained that the highest temperature-rise will not exceed the value given
in Table 9.1, as appropriate. even if the test were continued until thermal equilibrium is reached.
Temperatures shall be taken where possible during operation, as well as when the supply to the
transformer is switched-off. The test is not to be regarded as completed until the temperature-rise
increment is less than 3C in 1 hour. The method shown in Fig. 9.1 is employed for the
determination of the final temperature-rise.
 Fig. 9.1 Method for Determining Final Temperature Rise of Oil
Method 2: It is demonstrated that the top oil temperaturerise does not vary more than 1°C per
hour during 4 consecutive hourly readings. If the test is performed initially with reduced cooling
or without any cooling (This is normally done to reduce the total time taken for the test), it shall
be continued for sufficient time with full cooling to prevent errors in the measurement of the
final oil temperature-rise.
In the second phase, the input is then reduced to a value which results in the circulation of
rated current at rated frequency in the windings, and this value shall be maintained for 1 hour.
The temperature of the windings is then determined by the resistance method as explained
earlier.
For all cooling methods, the average oil temperature in the surroundings of the different
windings shall be calculated according to Fig.9.2 from the resistance R where the straight line L
cuts the ordinate.
 Fig.9.2 Determination of Average Oil Temperature
The temperature-rise of the windings above the average oil temperature, determined in
the second part of the test, added to the average oil temperature-rise, determined in the first part
of the test, shall give the temperature rise of the windings above the cooling medium temperature
for total losses at rated current, rated frequency and rated voltage.
The top oil temperature-rise is obtained by subtracting the cooling medium test
temperature from the measured top oil temperature, the transformer being supplied with the total
losses. The input power is maintained at a steady value. If the total losses (taken as the sum of
the measured load losses, corrected to the reference temperature and the measured no-load loss)
cannot be obtained, different losses, as near as possible to the above losses, but in any case not
less than 80 percent, are supplied and the following correction factor applied to the top oil
temperature-rise so determined:

Winding temperature-rises shall be obtained on all windings by subtracting the external

cooling medium test temperature from the average temperature of the windings as measured by
resistance, after circulating the rated current at rated frequency in the winding under test. If the
rated current cannot be supplied, the tests may be performed with a current not less than 90
percent of the rated current. Alternatively, a current providing the total losses may be supplied.
In either case the following correction factor is applied to the determined temperature-rise of the
windings above average oil temperature:
10. Measurement of Acoustic Noise Level:
Aim of this measurement is to confirm that the sound (noise) level of the
transformer and related equipments meet the customer’s demands and/or standards.
Main causes of transformer noise are explained below:
1) Core noise: Caused by the magnetic forces between magnetositriction and core sheet steel
2) Noise of the transformer’s load (current): Caused by current passing in the windings, and by
electromagnetic forces formed at the magnetic screenings at the tank walls..
3) Noise of the cooling equipments: Caused by fans and pumps of the cooling system.

During noise measurements below precautions are very important to ensure the accuracy
of the results :
 The transformer should be placed in a room with minimum echo properties. It should be
placed on a base with no direct vibrations or should be placed on wheels. All
mechanical components/equipments on the transformer should be fixed to avoid
vibration with the transformer.
 During measurement, the transformer should be supplied at rated voltage and rated
frequency.
Microphone positions:
If the height of the transformer under test is less than 2.5 m, the microphone position
should be at half height.. If the height of the transformer is more than 2.5 m, measurements
should be made at 1/3 and 2/3 heights.
If only the cooling equipments are operating, the microphone position is; at half height
for cooling equipments which are taller than 4 m, at 1/3 and 2/3 height for cooling equipments
which are shorter than 4 m height.
Measurements should be made all around the transformer as shown in fig. 10.1. There
should be maximum 1 m distance between two measurements.

Fig. 10.1 Microphone Locations in Transformers with Cooling Equipment Mounted on Tank
The distance of the microphone from the main radiating surface:

If the coolers of the transformer are not operating or if the coolers are more than 3 m
away from the transformer, the microphone should be 0.3 m away from the main radiation
surface. If the transformer cooling system is operating, the microphone should be 2 m away from
the main radiation surface.
The transformer is energized as below:
1) Only the transformer is energized. The cooling equipments and oil circulation pumps are
out of service.
2) Transformer is energized. The cooling equipments and the oil pumps are in service.
3) Transformer is energized. The cooling equipments are out of service, oil pumps are in
service.
4) Transformer not energized, cooling equipment and any oil pumps in service.

Before starting the measurement procedure, the back ground noise level of the
measurement room should be determined. If there is more than 8 dB difference between back
ground noise level and transformer noise level, no correction of the transformer’s noise level is
required. If the difference is between 3 dB and 8 dB, a correction is required according to
standards.
At the end of the measurement, the noise level should be below the value as demanded by
the customer or as specified in the standards.

For drying out of transformer, refer to page nos. 532 to 536 and page no.
575 of S. Rao.