S.Y.

BBA (Computer
Application)
Course Code: CA-207
Unit 2. Network Models
Unit 2. Network Models
2.1 OSI Reference Model : Functions of each Layer
2.2 TCP/IP Reference Model, Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
Reference Model
2.3 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.4 Addressing
2.4.1Physical Addresses
2.4.2 Logical Addresses
2.4.3Port Addresses,
2.4.4 Specific Addresses
2.5 IP Addressing
2.5.1 Classfull Addressing
2.5.2 Classless Addressing
Network Model

• A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data

from one location to another.
• The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals
from one point of the network to another.
• The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the
services that we expect from a network.
• we give a general idea of the layers of a network. We use the concept
of layers in our daily life.
• As an example, let us consider two friends who communicate through
postal mail The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex
if there were no services available from the post office. Figure 2.1 shows
the steps in this task.
In this chapter, first we briefly discuss the
OSI model, and then we concentrate on
TCPI/IP as a protocol suite.
 THE OSI MODEL
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• OSI model develop by International Standards Organization (ISO)in
year 1984. It was first introduced in the 1970.
• This framework is called as Model for open system interconnection (OSI)
and it is normally referred to as OSI reference model.
• It is called as ISO-OSI reference model because it is designed to deal with
open system i.e. the system which are open for communication with each
other.
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.7
 Network virtual terminal, File transfer, access, and
Application layer management, Mail services, Directory services Application layer

Presentation layer Translation, Encryption, Compression Presentation layer

Session layer Dialog control, Synchronization, Session layer

Transport layer process-to-process delivery, Service-point addressing, Transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly, Connection control,

Network layer Source to destination delivery, Logical addressing, Routing Network layer

Datalink layer Framing, Physical Addressing, Flow Control, Error Control, Datalink layer
Access control

Physical layer Transmission Media, Types of topology, Data rate, Physical layer
Synchronization of bit, Line configuration, Topology,
Transmission mode
physical layer
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit
stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.
Physical layer perform following function-
• The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines
the type of transmission medium.
• Representation of bits
• Data rate- The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each
second-is also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the
physical layer defines the duration of a bit.
• Synchronization of bits- The sender and receiver not only must use
the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
• Line configuration- The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-point
configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several
devices.
• Physical topology- The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network.
• Transmission mode- The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex.
Data Link Layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link.

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node)
to the next.
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
• Framing- The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing- If frames are to be distributed to different systems on
the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame.
• Flow control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is
less than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.
• Error control- The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It
also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
• Access control- When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks.
• the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two
systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
• Logical addressing- The network layer adds a header to the
packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things,
includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
• Routing- When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network,
the connecting devices (called routers) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on a host.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
• Service-point addressing-The transport layer header must therefore
include a type of address called a service-point address (or port
address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly- A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence
number.
• Connection control- The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented.
• Flow control- Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow control.
• Error control- Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for error control.
Session Layer
• The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating
systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
• Dialog control- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
dialog. It allows the communication between two processes to take
place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two
ways at a time) mode.
• Synchronization- The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.
Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics
of the information exchanged between two systems.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

• Translation- The processes (running programs) in two systems are

usually exchanging information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on. The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent format into a common
format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Encryption- To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to
ensure privacy.
• Compression- Data compression reduces the number of bits
contained in the information.
Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

• Network virtual terminal- A network virtual terminal is a software

version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
• File transfer, access, and management- This application allows a
user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer
locally.
• Mail services- This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
• Directory services- This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects
and services.
TCP/IP Model
• The structure TCP/IP model is very similar to the structure of
the OSI reference model. The OSI model has seven layers
where the TCP/IP model has four layers.
• It is also called as the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a collection
of protocols.
• IT is a hierarchical model, i.e.. There are multiple layers and
higher layer protocols are supported by lower layer
protocols.
• The Application layer of TCP/IP model
corresponds to the Application Layer of
Session, Presentation & Application Layer of
OSI model.
• The Transport layer of TCP/IP model
corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI
model.
• The Network layer of TCP/IP model
corresponds to the Network Layer of OSI
model .
• The Host to network layer of TCP/IP model
corresponds to the Physical and Datalink
Layer of OSI model.
The diagram showing the comparison of OSI model and TCP/IP model along with the protocols is as shown below:
Network Access Layer - Physical Layer function

 characteristics of the interface

 Representation of bits
• This layer is a combination of protocols at the physical  Data rate
and data link layers.  Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration
• It supports all standard protocols used at these layers.  Physical topology-
• At the physical and data link layers, TCPIIP does not  Transmission mode
define any specific protocol.
Data Link Layer Function-
• It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.

• physical layer is responsible for carrying individual bits Framing
 Physical addressing
in a frame across the link.  Flow control
• This layer is the group of communication protocols  Error control
that acts as a link to which the host is connected  Access control
physically. It is mainly concerned with the physical
transmission of the data.
Network Layer or Internet Protocol(IP)
• The main responsibility of the network layer is to transport
data packets from the source to the destination host across
the entire network.
• The transmission done by the internet layer is less reliable.
• The network layer is responsible for creating a connection
between the source computer and the destination computer.
• network layer is responsible for host-to-host communication
and routing the packet through possible routes.
• The network layer in the Internet includes the main protocol,
Internet Protocol (IP), that defines the format of the packet,
called a datagram at the network layer.
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is an connection-less & unreliable ARP: ARP is a protocol that
protocol. helps in mapping logical
• IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow addresses to the physical
control, no error control, and no congestion control addresses acknowledged in a
services. local network. IP-- MAC
• IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its source to RARP- The Reverse Address
its destination, which is achieved by each router forwarding Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a
the datagram to the next router in its path. networking protocol that is used to
• In other words, since there is no connection set up map a physical (MAC) address to
between the sender and the receiver the packets find the an Internet Protocol (IP) address.
best possible path and reach the destination. Hence, the MAC --- IP
word connection-less. The Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) is a protocol
• IP is a combination of four protocols: that devices within a network
1. ARP use to communicate problems
with data transmission.
2. RARP
3. ICMP The Internet Group Management Protocol
(IGMP) is a protocol that allows several devices
4. IGMP to share one IP address so they can all receive the
same data. IGMP is a network layer protocol
used to set up multicasting on networks that use
the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the end-to-end
communication and delivery of the non-erroneous data.
• It provides services that include connection-oriented
communication, flow control, reliability, multiplexing.
• This layer is similar to the transport layer of the OSI model.
• Transport layer protocols are responsible for transmission of
data running on a process of one machine to the correct
process running on another machine.
• The transport layer contains three protocols:
• 1. TCP
• 2. UDP
• 3. SCTP
UDP(User Datagram Protocol)
• User Datagram Protocol provides a nonsequential transmission of
data.
• It is a connectionless transport protocol.
• UDP protocol is used in applications where the speed and size of data
transmitted is considered as more important than the security and
reliability.
• User Datagram is defined as a packet produced by User Datagram
Protocol.
• UDP protocol adds checksum error control, transport level addresses,
and information of length to the data received from the layer above
it.
• Services provided by User Datagram Protocol(UDP) are
connectionless service, faster delivery of messages, checksum, and
process-to-process communication.
• Advantages of UDP
• UDP also provides multicast and broadcast transmission of data.
• UDP protocol is preferred more for small transactions such as DNS
lookup.
• It is a connectionless protocol, therefore there is no compulsion to
have a connection-oriented network.
• UDP provides fast delivery of messages.
• Disadvantages of UDP
• In UDP protocol there is no guarantee that the packet is delivered.
• UDP protocol suffers from worse packet loss.
• UDP protocol has no congestion control mechanism.
• UDP protocol does not provide the sequential transmission of data.
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
• TCP protocol provides transport layer services to applications.
• TCP protocol is a connection-oriented protocol.
• A secured connection is being established between the sender and
the receiver.
• For a generation of a secured connection, a virtual circuit is generated
between the sender and the receiver.
• The data transmitted by TCP protocol is in the form of continuous
byte streams.
• A unique sequence number is assigned to each byte. With the help of
this unique number, a positive acknowledgment is received from
receipt.
• If the acknowledgment is not received within a specific period the
data is retransmitted to the specified destination.
• Advantages of TCP
• TCP supports multiple routing protocols.
• TCP protocol operates independently of that of the operating system.
• TCP protocol provides the features of error control and flow control.
• TCP provides a connection-oriented protocol and provides the
delivery of data.
• Disadvantages of TCP
• TCP protocol cannot be used for broadcast or multicast transmission.
• TCP protocol has no block boundaries.
• No clear separation is being offered by TCP protocol between its
interface, services, and protocols.
• In TCP/IP replacement of protocol is difficult.
SCTP(Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
• SCTP is a connection-oriented protocol.
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol transmits the data from sender
to receiver in full duplex mode.
• SCTP is a unicast protocol that provides with point to point-to-point
connection and uses different hosts for reaching the destination.
• SCTP protocol provides a simpler way to build a connection over a
wireless network.
• SCTP protocol provides a reliable transmission of data.
• SCTP provides a reliable and easier telephone conversation over the
internet.
• SCTP protocol supports the feature of multihoming ie. it can establish
more than one connection path between the two points of
communication and does not depend on the IP layer.
Application Layer
• It is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP model. Its functions are
similar to the combination of the application layer, session layer,
and presentation layer.

• It is responsible for user interface specifications.

• It contains communication protocols used in the process to

process communication across an Internet protocol computer
network.

• The Application Layer is a combination of Session, Presentation

& Application Layers of OSI models and define high level
protocols like File Transfer (FTP), Electronic Mail (SMTP), Virtual,
HTTP, TELNET etc.
 HTTP/HTTPS
• HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and HTTPS is the more secured
version of HTTP, that’s why HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure. This protocol is used to access data from the World Wide Web. The
Hypertext is the well-organized documentation system that is used to link
pages in the text document.
• HTTP is based on the client-server model.
• It uses TCP for establishing connections.
• HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means the server doesn’t maintain any
information about the previous request from the client.
• HTTP uses port number 80 for establishing the connection.
 TELNET
• Telnet stands for the TELetype NETwork.
• It helps in terminal emulation.
• It allows Telnet clients to access the resources of the Telnet server. It is
used for managing files on the internet. It is used for the initial setup of
devices like switches. The telnet command is a command that uses the
Telnet protocol to communicate with a remote device or system.
FTP
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
• It is the protocol that actually lets us transfer files.
• It can facilitate this between any two machines using it.
• But FTP is not just a protocol but it is also a program.
• FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computers with reliable and
efficient data transfer.
NFS
• It stands for a Network File System.
• It allows remote hosts to mount file systems over a network and
interact with those file systems as though they are mounted locally.
This enables system administrators to consolidate resources onto
centralized servers on the network.
SMTP
• It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a part of the TCP/IP protocol. Using a process called “store and
forward,” SMTP moves your email on and across networks.
• It works closely with something called the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
to send your communication to the right computer and email inbox.
DNS
• It stands for Domain Name System.
• Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must
translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example,
the domain name www.abc.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.

POP
• POP stands for Post Office Protocol and the latest version is known as
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3).
• This is a simple protocol used by User agents for message retrieval
from mail servers.
• It uses TCP for establishing connections.
 OSI Model TCP/IP model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Organization) Agency Network).

OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing points
interfaces, services, and protocols. between services, interfaces, and protocols.

OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards

TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
and protocols.

OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.

OSI model use two separate layers physical and data link
TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
to define the functionality of the bottom layers.

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and In TCP, physical and data link are both
physical are separate layers. combined as a single host-to-network layer.

Session and presentation layers are not a There is no session and presentation layer
part of the TCP model. in TCP model.

It is defined after the advent of the It is defined before the advent of the
Internet. internet.

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5

Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
bytes.
Addressing:
• Four levels of addresses are used in the TCP/IP protocol: physical
address, logical address, port address, and application-specific
address as shown in Figure:
Physical Address
• The physical address is also known as the MAC (Media Access
Control) address or link address.
• It is the address of a node which is defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is used by the data link layer and is the lowest level of addresses.
• MAC address is the unique address of a device.
• The size of a physical address is 48 bits (6 bytes). Below is the format of
representing a physical address:

XX : XX : XX : YY : YY : YY, where 1 octant = 8 bits.

• For example - 16 : 1A : BB : 6F : 90 : E5
• The first 24 bits of a MAC address XX : XX: XX is decided by OUI
(Organizationally Unique Identifier). It represents the identity of the
manufacturer.
• The next 24 bits of a MAC address YY : YY : YY represents the unique
identity of the device. It is assigned by the manufacturer. They
represent NIC (Network Interface Card).
• Below is a diagram representing the working mechanism of a physical
address:

• Physical address can only be passed in the same network and not in
different networks. The purpose of using Physical address is to
identify devices in the same network.
• Advantages
• Physical address can uniquely identify devices and deliver data
packets accurately.
• We can restrict access to any network by allowing only those devices
which have the authorized MAC addresses to connect. Thus, it can
also be used for network security.
• Disadvantages
• MAC addresses can be easily spoofed. Thus, the devices can easily
gain unauthorized access to a network.
• As physical addresses cannot traverse through the routers therefore
they can only be used in local networks and not between different
networks.
Logical Address
• Logical address also referred to as IP (Internet Protocol) address is an
universal addressing system.
• It is used in the Network layer.
• This address facilitates universal communication that are not
dependent on the underlying physical networks.
• There are two types of IP addresses – IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4- 32 bit long
• Below is a diagram representing the working mechanism of Logical
address:

• This is because logical address can be passed in different networks. The

purpose of using logical address is to send the data across networks.
• Advantages
• Logical address can be used in different networks because they can
traverse through routers.
• They can handle a number devices and networks. Even if the number
of devices and network increases, the logical address is able to handle
all them very easily. Thus, they are highly scalable.
• Disadvantages
• Internet Protocol is vulnerable to attacks such as hacking, phishing
etc. and there can be data loss.
• It lacks privacy. The data which is moving through the packets can be
intercepted, traced and monitored by unauthorized entities.
Port Address
• In computer networking, ports are used to identify specific services or
applications running on a device connected to a network.
• Port is a logical address of a 16-bit unsigned integer that is allotted to every
application on the computer that uses the internet to send or receive data. It
ranges from 0 to 65535.
• A port is a logical construct used by network protocols to identify a specific
process or application running on a device.
• Each port is assigned a unique number called a port address, which is used by
network protocols to route data to the appropriate application or service.
• A port address is a number used by network protocols to identify a specific
application or service running on a device.
• It is a 16-bit number (ranging from 0 to 65535) that is used to identify a
particular port on a device.
• This number is assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
and is used by network protocols to ensure that data is sent to the correct
application or service running on the device.
Types of Port Address
• There are two types of port addresses, which are as follows:
• Well-Known Ports
• These ports range from 0 to 1023 and are reserved for use by well-
known or standard services or applications. For example, port 80 is
used for HTTP traffic, port 25 is used for SMTP traffic, and port 443 is
used for HTTPS traffic. These port numbers are standardized across
different operating systems and are well-known by network
administrators.
• Dynamic Ports
• These ports range from 1024 to 65535 and are used for a wide range
of applications or services. These ports are not standardized across
different operating systems, and their use is left to the discretion of
individual application developers. When an application needs to
communicate over the network, it selects a free dynamic port to use
for communication.
Port number and Protocol
Port Number Used By

80 HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

23 Telnet

25 SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

53 DNS(Domain Name System)

7 Echo

20/21 FTP(File Transfer Protocol)

69 TFTP(Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

443 HTTPS(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure)

22 SSH(Secure Shell)
Application-Specific Addresses
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that
are designed for that specific application.
• Examples include the e-mail address (for
example, [email protected]) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL) (for example,
www.mhhe.com). The first defines the recipient of an
e-mail; the second is used to find a document on the
World Wide Web.
 Transport Layer-

Application HTTPS FTP HTTP SMTP DNS

Transport TCP UDP

IP
Network

802.11 X.25 … ATM

Host-to-Net
WHAT IS AN IP ADDRESS?

• An IP address is a unique address that

identifies a device on the internet or a
local network.

• IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the

set of rules governing the format of data
sent via the internet or local network.

• IP addresses are the identifier that allows

information to be sent between devices on a
network: they contain location information
and make devices accessible for
communication.
 IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely

and universally defines the connection of a device
(for example, a computer or a router) to the
Internet..

Topics discussed in this section:

Classful Addressing
 Classless Addressing
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
IPv4 Address Format (Dotted-decimal Notation)
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for
separation
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal
notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent (see Appendix B).
CLASSES OF IP ADDRESSES
Classful IP Addressing
The classful addressing, groups the IP address into specific sizes called class
A, class B, class C, class D and class E.

Classless IP Addressing
The classless addressing also called Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR), is an improved IP addressing system.
It increases the effectiveness of IP address allocation because of the absence
of class distribution.
Classful IP Addressing
 The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes.
 These are: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E

 Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. The first

octet determines the classes of the IP address.

 The IPv4 address is divided into two parts:

• Network ID
• Host ID

 The class of IP address determines the number of total networks and

hosts possible in that particular class.
Classful IP Addressing
 Engineered for Tomorrow

Classful IP Addressing

• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes:

A, B, C, D, and E.
• Each class occupies some part of the address space
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
TYPES OF IP ADDRESSES
 IP addresses can be classified into two types: public and private.

 Public IP address: A public IP address is assigned to a device by an

Internet Service Provider (ISP) and is unique across the entire internet.
It allows devices to communicate with other devices and servers on the
internet. Public IP addresses are routable and accessible from
anywhere on the internet.

 Private IP address: A private IP address is used within a local network,

such as a home or office network. These addresses are assigned by a
network administrator and are not unique globally. Private IP addresses
are not accessible directly from the internet and are typically used for
internal communication between devices within the same network.
Private IP Address
• Private IP addresses are further divided into different ranges based on the
number of devices they can support.

• The most commonly used private IP address ranges are:

• Class A: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
• Class B: 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
• Class C: 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
Special-use IPv4 Addresses
There are certain addresses that cannot be assigned to hosts-
1.Network and Broadcast Address

2.Loopback-address block 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.225 is used to direct

traffic to themselves.

3.Link Local Address-address block 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 is used

in local host that couldn’t obtain address automatically by DHCP server.

4. TEST-NET Address- address block 192.0.2.0 to 192.0.2.255 used for

teaching and learning process.

5. Experimental Address- address block 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254 used

for research or experimentation purposes.
IPv4 UNICAST, BROADCAST, AND MULTICAST
Unicast
• Unicast transmission is sending a packet to one destination IP address.
• For example, the PC at 172.16.4.1 sends a unicast packet to the printer
at 172.16.4.253.
IPv4 UNICAST, BROADCAST, AND MULTICAST
Broadcast
• Broadcast transmission is sending a packet to all other destination IP addresses.
• For example, the PC at 172.16.4.1 sends a broadcast packet to all IPv4 hosts.
 IPv4 UNICAST, BROADCAST, AND MULTICAST

Multicast
• Multicast transmission is sending a packet to a multicast address group.
• For example, the PC at 172.16.4.1 sends a multicast packet to the multicast
group address 224.10.10.5.
Classless Addressing
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is another name for
classless addressing.

• This addressing type aids in the more efficient allocation of IP

addresses.

• This technique assigns a block of IP addresses based on specified

conditions when the user demands a specific amount of IP
addresses.

• This block is known as a "CIDR block", and it contains the

necessary number of IP addresses.
Difference Between Classful and Classless Addressing
• Classful addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that divides
them into five categories.
• Classless addressing is a technique of allocating IP addresses that is
intended to replace classful addressing in order to reduce IP address
depletion.

• The utility of classful and classless addressing is another distinction.

Addressing without a class is more practical and helpful than
addressing with a class.

• The network ID and host ID change based on the classes in classful

addressing. In classless addressing, however, there is no distinction
between network ID and host ID. As a result, another distinction
between classful and classless addressing may be made.
 Unit 2. Network Models
 2.1 OSI Reference Model : Functions of each Layer
 2.2 TCP/IP Reference Model, Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
 Reference Model
 2.3 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 2.4 Addressing
 2.4.1Physical Addresses
 2.4.2 Logical Addresses
 2.4.3Port Addresses,
 2.4.4 Specific Addresses
 2.5 IP Addressing
 2.5.1 Classfull Addressing
 2.5.2 Classless Addressing