Compiled Notes WEED SCIENCE
Compiled Notes WEED SCIENCE
NOTE: For the introduction to weed science course in this lecture, students are
to read the additional article (Some Thoughts about Weeds by Jack R. Harlan and J.
M. J. deWet) provided. This is very important.
Definition of Weed
The term weed is a human invention and has no scientific basis. Weed as a plant that
is undesirable or simply as a plant out of place. A weed is any type of plant growing
where it is not desirable. Some plants would be considered a nuisance under some
circumstances but hardly a weed at any time. Weed exists as a category of vegetation
because of human ability to select for desirable traits among various members of plant.
Weeds are recognised worldwide as an important type of undesirable economic pest.
The value of any plant is determined basically by the perception of its viewers.
Direct losses
1. Reduction in yield by competing for nutrients, light, carbon dioxide etc.
2. Reduction in quality of produce-contaminate produce, with seed, produce offensive
odours etc.
3. Interfere with the harvesting operations - destroying the machines, causing itch.
4. Reduce the efficiency of irrigation.
Indirect losses
1. They serve as alternative host for pest and diseases - give places for pest to hide.
2. Reduction in land efficiency - you may cultivate less land than you should because
weeding becomes too much. Effort put in production will yield less return because too
much is spent on weeds.
3. Pollution of water for irrigation.
4. They are fire hazards in the dry season
5. Weeds may limit the choice of crop to be grown in an area because some crops do
not compete effectively with the weeds.
BENEFITS OF WEEDS
1. Weed serves as vegetative cover on fallow land by preventing erosion.
2. Weeds recycle plant nutrients and they do these by using the roots to absorb
nutrients that are far from the reach of roots of crops. When these weeds die,
these nutrients are release to the top soil.
3. Weeds add organic matter to the soil when they die and their bodies decompose.
4. Some weeds are palatable
5. Weeds can be used as traditional medicine.
6. Some weeds are effective against insects and are therefore used as insecticides.
7. Weeds serve as sources of genetic material.
8. Some weeds serve as host to beneficial insects
Classification of Weeds
Weeds are classified based on 1. life cycle 2. habitat 3. Growth habit 4. Morphology
and 5. scientific reasons 6. Classification based on climate
Life Cycle - classification of weeds according to their life cycle as annual, biennial
and perennials. Annuals weeds are weeds that complete their life cycle from seed to
seed in less than a year or a season.
Biennials are weeds that live for more than a year but not more than two years.
During the first phase, they develop vegetatively from a seedling into a rosette.
Perennials are are weeds that live for more than 2 years and may reproduce several
times before they die. They are propagated through seeds and vegetative reproductive
organs like rhizomes, suckers, stolons, bulbs and tubers.
(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow
in dry condition e.g. Aristolochia bracteata
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of
various classes of plants e.g. Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds those occur in soils having
good drainage e.g. Leucas aspera
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: e.g. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country come under this group and
most of the weeds are indigenous.e.g. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum
(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other
countries. These weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes
difficult.e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum
Weed Biology
Weed biology is the study of the establishment, growth, reproduction, and life cycles
of weed species and weed societies/vegetation. Weed biology is an integrated science
with the aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well as using and developing the
positive effects, of weeds.
Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and
biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and
survival of perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism.
Vegetative Reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ
such as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in
perennial weeds, such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems
(stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers. Although vegetative structures generally do not
survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small structures can result in a new plant.
Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production.
Vegetative reproduction ensures that a local population is assured more readily.
Weed ecology
Weed ecology is the study of the interaction or relationship between a weed and its
environment (other living organisms as well as abiotic factors). Ecology is concerned
with growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in
the environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by
altering the crop husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or
multicrop culture. For effective weed control, the study on both biology and ecology
of a weed species are important.
Seed Dormancy: Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not
germinated. If all weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be
destroyed. Dormancy allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables
them to grow in flushes over years. In this context, the old gardeners saying “One
year seeding seven years weeding” is very appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been
found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of
dormancy:
(1) Enforced Dormancy: It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during
ploughing of the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3
to 5 cm. Enforced Dormancy is a non-specific character of seed. Cultivation
encounters enforced dormancy by bringing the weeds to surface where they are
exposed to light besides better aeration. High soil temperature and NO3 content of
surface soil may further help in breaking seed dormancy.
(3) Induced Dormancy: Induced dormancy results from some sudden physiological
change in normally non-dormant weed seeds under the impact of marked rise in
temperature and or CO2 content of soil, low O2 pressure, water logging etc.
C. Biotic factors:
In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds are those exerted by the crop as it
competes for available resources. Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of competition offered by the crop and also
the agricultural practices associated with the growing of a crop may encourage or
discourage specific weeds.
e.g. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds, (Sorghum – Striga sp) crop-induced
stimulants are examples of other biotic factors.
Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without
interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of
their competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space which are the principle
factors of production of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth
will decrease one kilogram of crop growth.
However, more technically, competition is one of several types of interference among
species or populations. Interference refers to all types of positive and negative
interaction between species. Such interference can involve physical factors such as
space, light, moisture, nutrients, and atmosphere or some type of chemical interaction.
Competition between weeds and crops is generally associated with a negative
interference involving physical factors that induces decreased growth in both types of
plants because of an insufficient supply of a necessary growth factor (water, nutrients,
etc.). Competition can be both within a species (intra) when two or more plants of
the same species coexist in time and space and between species (inter) when two or
more species coexist as described.
Allelopathy is interference between plants based on a chemical influence.
Amensalism, another type of negative interference, can be defined as the inhibition of
one species by another. However, in contrast to competition, which involves the
removal of a resource, amensalism involves the addition of something to the
environment.
Weeds are considered to compete with crops primarily for soil nutrients, soil moisture,
light, and carbon dioxide. The degree of direct competition can be reduced to some
extent by certain crop cultural practices based on our knowledge of weed biology and
ecology. These methods include planting times, spacing, and herbicide placement.
Another focus of competition research has related to determining the density of weeds
and their effect on crop yields, with the basic goal to establish economic/weed and
action thresholds in order to determine when or if weed control must be employed.
The economic threshold is the weed density at which the value of loss due to weed
competition exceeds the cost of control. Action thresholds may include other factors
such as the effect of weed seed production and its effects on subsequent weed
management.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF CROPS
AGAINST WEEDS
2. Crop density: Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduce
competition until they are self-competitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very
important in determining the quantum and quality of crop environment available for
the growth of weeds. Wide row spacing with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant
population may induce dense weed growth. In this respect, square planting of crops in
which there are equal row and plant spacing should be ideal in reducing intra-crop
plant competition.
3. Type of weeds species: The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences
the competition. Occurrence of a particular species of weed greatly influences the
competition between the crop & weed. For example E. crusgalli in rice, Setaria
viridis in corn and Xanthium sp. in soybean affects the crop yield. Flavaria
australasica offers more competition than the grasses
4. Type of crop species and their varieties: Crops and their varieties differ in their
competing ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is
as: barley, rice, wheat and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is
assigned to its ability to develop more roots that are extensive during initial three
weeks growth period than the others.
5. Soil factors: Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the
crop weed competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the
crop, reducing thus crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase
crop yields to a much lower level than the yield increase obtained when a weed free
crop is applied with fertilizer.
Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and
ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit
crops more than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already
present at the time of irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over
power the crops. If the crop in irrigated after it has grown 15 cm or more in a weed
free environment irrigation could hasten closing in of crop rows, thus suppressing
weeds.
Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition. Specific weed species
suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a specified
range of soil pH.
9. Crop maturity: Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition
between weeds & crop. As the age of the crop increases, the competition for weeds
decreases due to its good establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of
the crop enhances the yield significantly.
The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up
to, which the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest
economical yield. The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early
stages of crop than at later stages. Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first
35 days after sowing should be maintained in a weed free condition. There is no need
to attempt for a weed free condition throughout the life period of the crop, as it will
entail unnecessary additional expenditure without proportionate increase in yield.
Animals
Many weed fruits and seeds are eaten by birds and animals, and after digestion most
of the seeds are passed out with animal excreta which are dropped wherever they
move. This mechanism of weed dispersal is called endozoochory. Ants carry a large
number of certain weeds seeds possessing secretions from one place to another. This
is called myrmecochory. Generally, weed seeds dispersal through animal is called
zoochory and dispersal by birds is called ornithochory.
Characteristics of Seeds dispersed by Animals
These seeds are carried by animals when then they cling (attached) to the fur of
animals, some are dispersed through the droppings of animals. The seeds possess
hook, bristles or barbs. Some possess sticky or mucilagenous substance to be able to
stick to the bodies on animal.
Man
Careless activities of man are greatly responsible for the dispersal of weeds.
Movement of farm implements and automobiles sometimes have weed seeds attached
to them and are deposited in other areas. Weeds mostly mature at the same time with
crops and are usually harvested with them and transported to other areas e.g. Oryzea
bathii with rice. Weed seeds dispersal by humans is called anthropochory.
Water
Aquatic weeds disperse primarily through water. Moving water during the rainy
season or during irrigation disperse weed seeds to new fields. Weed seeds dispersal by
water is called hydrochory.
Characteristics of Seeds Dispersed by Water
1. light, corky structure
2. Air filled bladder e.g gourd cherry
3. Can survive in irrigation water
Dispersal by machinery
Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipments. Seeds move
from field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often
travel on tillage and cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to
start new infestation. Disc-type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative
plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.
Cultural Weed Control: Cultural weed control includes all aspects of good crop
husbandry used to minimize weed interference with crops. These consist of the
following:
i. Hand weeding
ii. Mechanical weeding
iii. Tillage
iv. Mulching
v. Burning
vi. Flooding
vii. Crop rotation
i. Hand weeding
Hand weeding is one of the oldest methods of weed control and consists of hand
pulling, hand slashing, hoeing and mowing of weeds. Most of the drudgery associated
with subsistence farming in the tropics centers around the peasant farmer and his
manual weeding effort.
Problems associated with hand weeding
A lot of drudgery and time consuming.
Limited agricultural productivity because there is a limit to the size of land
area that can be weeded manually.
Organizational and other logistics and supervisory problems associated with
human labour make its use cumbersome.
Hand pulling
Hand pulling is a major weed control method used in crop production in many parts
of the tropics. It is particularly used in controlling weeds in cereal crops such as rice
that are traditionally broadcast seeded.
Advantages of hand pulling
It requires no additional tool.
It is best for controlling weeds in broadcast-seeded crop where chemical
weeding is not practiced.
It is useful in removing weeds that have escaped other weed control measures.
Disadvantages
It is laborious and full of drudgery.
It is expensive when cheap labor is in short supply.
Not suitable for controlling perennial weeds.
Weeds cannot always be completely pulled out of the soil.
ii. Hand hoeing
This is by far the most widely used method of weed control in the tropics. It is a faster
method of weed control than hand pulling and can be used in range of cropping
systems. This method of weed control is used after the weeds have emerged but
before they get too tall to interfere with hoeing operations. Hoe weeding is applicable
to both annual and perennial weeds. Weeding hoes can be broadly grouped into light
and heavy hoes. Generally the short handled hoes are used in the humid part of the
tropics while the long-handled heavy hoes are used mainly in the tropical savanna for
seed bed preparations.
Advantages of hand hoeing
Both annuals and perennial weeds are controlled.
It is an effective weed control measure for crops in rows.
It provide a clean seed bed and loosens the soil.
It is suitable for small farm size.
Disadvantages
Weeds are usually well established in crops before farmers start weeding.
Is labor intensive and could be expensive where cheap labor is in short supply.
It is unsuitable for larger farms.
Predisposes the soil to erosion as a result of clean weeding and loosening up of
the soil.
The propagule of perennial weeds may be buried at depth beyond the reach of
hand hoes, thus making the control of such weeds difficult.
Hand hoeing has a high risk of crop damage in many root and tuber crops.
iii. Hand-slashing
This is another manual method of weed control used mainly in right of way, non-crop
areas, bush clearing and in plantation crops. Hand-slashing is used in food crops for
control of over grown annual weeds. The most widely used tool for manual slashing is
the cutlass, machete and sickle.
Advantages of slashing
It minimizes erosion.
It is more labor efficient than hand hoeing.
Disadvantages of slashing
Rapid regeneration of weeds is a major setback of slashing.
Crop reduction as a result of accidental damage during slashing.
High labor requirement.
Drudgery.
Is not suitable method of weed control in field crops that are under water stress
because the basal portions of the weeds continue to deprive the crop of the
limited water.
vii. Tillage
Cropland has for centuries been cultivated primarily to provide a good seed bed for
seed germination and seedling growth. Other reasons for tillage include weed control.
In addition to routine tillage, farmers usually carry out two distinct types of tillage for
weed control purposes.
Types of tillage for weed control
These are delayed tillage and blind tillage:
Delayed tillage involves preparing the seed bed and waiting until the weeds
emerge before lightly cultivating the soil again and planting the crop. The
purpose of delayed tillage is therefore to destroy the first flush of weeds so
that the subsequently planted crop can grow at a reduced weed pressure.
Blind tillage is when crop seeds are planted after the usual land preparation
and lightly cultivated after weeds have emerged but before crop emergence.
This type of tillage works well if weeds germinate ahead of the crop.
Pre-planting land cultivation
This has the objectives of burying weed seeds and incorporation of organic matter in
to the soil and cut off weeds as close to soil surface as possible. Use of tillage as a
weed control method involving animal-drawn implements is often handicapped by the
inability of animal-drawn cultivators to accomplish deep tillage satisfactorily even on
light soil. Mounds are more desirable in controlling weeds because in giant mounds
the weed seeds are buried deep in the mounds, thereby reducing weed pressure.
viii. Burning
Fire is used as a weed control device in practically all parts of the world, it is used
mostly to prevent weed growth and plant material prior to cropping and also destroy
weed seeds lying close to the surface. Most of burning is done before crops are
planted. There are three types of pre-plant field burning that are carried out in
agricultural land worldwide:
- The uncontrolled
- Controlled burning
- The direct burner-assisted burning.
Uncontrolled burning refers to both the accidental forest (bush) fires and the type of
burning deliberately started in the dry season of the savanna for hunting purposes.
Uncontrolled burning damages the landscape, destroys wild life, homes and property,
vegetation and exposes soil to erosion and may destroy economic trees.
a. Controlled burning
This refers to agricultural fires set by farmers for the purpose of creating a favorable
environment for crop production and getting rid of unwanted vegetation. Controlled
burning is used extensively in forestry to reduce the accumulation of litter and reduce
the risk of wild fires that could destroy forests and property. This type of burning is
done when environmental conditions are favorable and winds optimum. Hard-to kill
weeds such as Imperata cylindrical, Andropogon spp. and Hyparrhenia spp. are often
burned by peasant farmers during the dry season to stimulate new growth, which can
then be fed to livestock before the cropping season begins.
Advantages of controlled burning
It is a cheap way of getting rid of excess vegetation.
It adds nutrients such as P and K to the soil.
It reduces soil acidity.
It destroys animal pests and pathogens that use the fallow vegetation as
alternative hosts.
Destroys weed seeds and soil borne pathogens.
It stimulates re-growth in perennial grasses and may be used to rejuvenate
grass pastures.
It is a cheap and effective way to kill woody perennials.
b. Direct burning
This is a type of controlled burning where special burners (mobile field incinerators,
propane flamers) equipped with propane gas are used for burning plant residues.
Advantages of direct burning
A good chance for complete and environmentally friendlier burning because
there is practically no smoke.
The speed of the operation can be controlled.
ix. Flooding
This is also an effective method of weed control, although its use is mostly limited to
paddy rice. Flooding kills the weeds by depriving them of oxygen. Since many weeds
can survive flooding if they are not completely submerged, it is important the water
level is maintained high enough so that no parts of the weeds are exposed. Generally
several weeks of waterlogging are necessary to destroy the unwanted vegetation.
Advantages of flooding
- Helps to kill some soil-borne fungi and nematodes.
- Anaerobic condition in flooded fields suffocates roots of dry-land plants and kills
weed seeds.
Disadvantages of flooding as method of weed control
It is not effective on well-established aquatic weeds that cannot be submerged.
It requires a terrain that is level or can be levelled.
Could only be used in areas where water is available and can be impounded.
x. Mulching
Mulch is a layer of non-living material placed over the surface of the soil to smother
the weeds and cut them off from direct sunlight. Mulching, in addition to this
favorable effect on soil organic matter, is useful in managing the fragile tropical soil.
- mulching can help to conserve soil moisture.
- protect the soil from erosion
- reduce soil surface temperature
- increase water infiltration
- maintain soil structure
- provide favorable environment for biological activities in the soil.
Limitation of mulching
- It is a labor-intensive activity particularly if the mulch has to be transported.
- Most crops do not generate enough crop residues to provide effective ground cover.
- To be effective, the mulching materials must cover the soil surface and smother
weeds.
- Covering the soil completely by the mulching material may interfere with other
farming operations.
- Mulching materials placed before seedling emergence may interfere with seed
germination or the growth of seedlings.
- Mulching material may serve as a trap for animal pest of crop, including promoting
termite activity.
xi. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is a valuable tool in weed control because many weeds are associated
with certain crops (host specific)
- Rotation play a long term role in weed control by preventing particular weed species
from adapting to the growth cycle of specific crops.
- Rotating cereals with legumes and other trap crops is recommended for reducing
Striga infestations in small holder farms.
- Crop rotation also helps the farmer to rotate his herbicides, thus ensuring that weeds
resistant to a particular herbicide do not take over in a field.
3.4 Biological Methods of Weed Control
Biological method of weed control refers to the control or suppression of weeds by
the action of one or more organisms, through natural means or by manipulation of the
weed, organism, or the environment. The most dramatic instances are those in which
natural enemies of the weed species have been identified and are either introduced or
encouraged. With this approach, the Klamath weed is being controlled in the U.S.A
with parasitic beetles; the prickly pear cactus has been controlled in Australia by the
Argentine moth borer. This approach is, however, most efficacious where single
troublesome weed species is predominant.
Major developments in this area include biological control of weeds with vertebrate
animals (microbial control), use of microorganism such as plant pathogens for weed
control (microbial control) and live mulch. Other areas with potential for biocontrol of
weeds are exploitation of crop canopy, density and the allelopathic effects of both
weeds and crops on weeds.
i. Live mulch
Live mulch is defined as a crop production system in which a food crop is planted
directly in the living cover of an established cover crop without destruction of the
fallow (cover crop) vegetation. Perennial legume cover crops have been evaluated and
found to be suitable for use as live mulch.
Live mulch crop production aims at the following
- Suppresses weeds.
- Reduces weed seeds population in the soil.
- Reduces loss of soil organic matter.
- Provide favorable condition for earth worm activity.
- Protect the soil from erosion.
- Reduces soil compaction.
- As additional fodder for livestock.
Advantages of using live mulch
- Reduces the need to control weeds after harvest.
- It prevents the establishment of those weeds that colonize fallow land.
ii. Biological control with invertebrate animals
This involves the use of insects to control weeds. Example, the Klamath weed is being
controlled in the U.S.A with parasitic beetles; the prickly pear cactus has been
controlled in Australia by the Argentine moth borer. This approach is, however, most
efficacious where single troublesome weed species is predominant.
Advantages of biological control of weeds by insects
- The effect is permanent.
- It can be used in places that are not easily accessible to man.
- It is cheaper in the long run.
- It does not pose any risk of polluting the environment.
Disadvantages of biological control of weeds by insects
- It is not suitable for food crop.
- Unfavorable weather condition or presence of predators may prevent the insects
from adapting to the new environment.
- Inability of the appropriate growth stage of the insect to synchronize with the
susceptible stage of growth of the target weed.
iii. Biological control of weeds with vertebrate animals
Animals have been used for suppressing vegetation for centuries. Pasturing land with
sheep sometimes is an effective method for controlling certain weeds. Sheep are able
to suppress field bindweed on land seeded to sudan grass for pasture. They eat the
bindweed in eating down the weeds. Fish consumed algae in flooded fields.
iv. Microbial weed control
Microbial weed control involves the use of microorganism such as fungi, bacteria,
nematodes and virus. Microbial control of weeds involved the multiplication of
pathogens in a controlled environment and spraying them on the target weed as
mycoherbicides.
v. Allelopathy
Allelopathy is a term used to describe the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates
produced by one living plant species on the germination, growth or development of
another plant species or microorganisms sharing the same habitat.
vi. Plant canopy
The main effect of plant canopy is to shade the weeds and limit their ability to carry
out photosynthesis. Example, melon (Colocynthis citrullis) and sweet potato can
provide early ground cover and shade out weeds when intercropped with other crops.
Chemical Methods of Weed Control
Chemicals that are used for killing or adversely affecting plant growth are known as
herbicides. The practice by which weeds are killed with herbicides is called chemical
weed control.