AGM 256 Weed Science

NOTE: For the introduction to weed science course in this lecture, students are
to read the additional article (Some Thoughts about Weeds by Jack R. Harlan and J.
M. J. deWet) provided. This is very important.
Definition of Weed
The term weed is a human invention and has no scientific basis. Weed as a plant that
is undesirable or simply as a plant out of place. A weed is any type of plant growing
where it is not desirable. Some plants would be considered a nuisance under some
circumstances but hardly a weed at any time. Weed exists as a category of vegetation
because of human ability to select for desirable traits among various members of plant.
Weeds are recognised worldwide as an important type of undesirable economic pest.
The value of any plant is determined basically by the perception of its viewers.

Characteristics of an ideal weed

1. That plant must grow rapidly through vegetative stage to flowering.
2. The germination requirements of weed seeds are met in many environments.
3. Dual mode of reproduction i.e by seed and vegetative reproduction.
4. They also undergo discontinuous germination (dormancy).
5. Continuous seed production for as long as growing condition permit.
6. They employ self-compatibility i.e can interbreed among themselves.
7. They don’t need specialised agents for pollination (cross).
8. They employ seed mimicry.
9. Their seeds are adapted for both long and short distance dispersal.
10. They produce seeds in a wide range of environment conditions.
11. They are very brittle hence cannot be pull easily from the soil.
12. They have adaptation that repel grazing animals e.g thorns and itching chemicals.
13. A weed is difficult to control and it is found everywhere.

Economic Importance of Weeds

Economic importance of weeds refers to both the losses caused by weeds and the
benefits derived from it. Weed control accounts for much of the cost of inter-tilling
row crops, maintaining fallows, preparing the seedbed, and cleaning seed. In some
locations, weeds play a beneficial role in reducing soil erosion, supplying organic
matter to the soil, and furnishing food and protection to wildlife. Losses caused by
weeds could be either direct or indirect.

Direct losses
1. Reduction in yield by competing for nutrients, light, carbon dioxide etc.
2. Reduction in quality of produce-contaminate produce, with seed, produce offensive
odours etc.
3. Interfere with the harvesting operations - destroying the machines, causing itch.
4. Reduce the efficiency of irrigation.

Indirect losses
1. They serve as alternative host for pest and diseases - give places for pest to hide.
2. Reduction in land efficiency - you may cultivate less land than you should because
weeding becomes too much. Effort put in production will yield less return because too
much is spent on weeds.
3. Pollution of water for irrigation.
4. They are fire hazards in the dry season
5. Weeds may limit the choice of crop to be grown in an area because some crops do
not compete effectively with the weeds.
BENEFITS OF WEEDS
1. Weed serves as vegetative cover on fallow land by preventing erosion.
2. Weeds recycle plant nutrients and they do these by using the roots to absorb
nutrients that are far from the reach of roots of crops. When these weeds die,
these nutrients are release to the top soil.
3. Weeds add organic matter to the soil when they die and their bodies decompose.
4. Some weeds are palatable
5. Weeds can be used as traditional medicine.
6. Some weeds are effective against insects and are therefore used as insecticides.
7. Weeds serve as sources of genetic material.
8. Some weeds serve as host to beneficial insects

Classification of Weeds
Weeds are classified based on 1. life cycle 2. habitat 3. Growth habit 4. Morphology
and 5. scientific reasons 6. Classification based on climate
Life Cycle - classification of weeds according to their life cycle as annual, biennial
and perennials. Annuals weeds are weeds that complete their life cycle from seed to
seed in less than a year or a season.
Biennials are weeds that live for more than a year but not more than two years.
During the first phase, they develop vegetatively from a seedling into a rosette.
Perennials are are weeds that live for more than 2 years and may reproduce several
times before they die. They are propagated through seeds and vegetative reproductive
organs like rhizomes, suckers, stolons, bulbs and tubers.

Habitat – Habitat refers to whether the weed grows in a terrestrial or an aquatic

environment.
These plants have structural modification that enable them to live in water. They have
been categorised further as floating, emerged and submerged. Floating weeds rest
upon the water surface while their roots hang freely into the water or sometimes
attach to the bottom of shallow ponds or streams e.g water hyacinth, pistia, salvinia
etc. Emergent weeds are typical of natural marshland and are often found along the
shorelines of ponds and canals. These plants stand erect and are always rooted into
very moist soil e.g Typha, Scirpus etc. Submerged weeds grow completely under
water although a few stems and leaves may exist on the water surface e.g Hydrilla,
Chara etc.

Classification based on growth habit

i. Free living weeds: – these are weed that grow on but compete with crops in the
field for nutrient, moisture, carbon dioxide and space for their growth.
ii. Parasitic weed: – These are weeds that depend on the other plants for nutrient and
moisture for their survival. That is they cannot stand on their own. Parasitic weeds are
grouped into
a. Root parasite: – they attached to the root of crops for their survival e.g. Striga spp,
Orabanche crenata
b. Stem parasite: – they attached to the stem crops for their survival e.g. Cuscuta
australis and Dodder (mistle toes).
Based on morphology
Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
• (a) Grasses: All the weeds which come under the family Poaceae are called as
grasses which are characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The
examples are Echinocloa colonum, Cynodon dactylon.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this
group. The leaves are mostly from the base having modified stem with or
without tubers. The examples are Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad leaf weeds: these are weeds with leaves that are broad and the vein
are characterized by net veination. This is the major group of weeds. All
dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved weeds. The examples are Flavaria
australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens. Most legumes weeds
belong to this group. E.g Mucuna spp.
Scientific reason - this is based on the scientific binomial nomenclature. This places a
weed into kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus and species. Most weeds are
found in the division angiosperms which are further divided into monocotyledons and
dicotyledons.

Classification based on climate

i. Temperate weeds – these are weeds that grow well in temperate climate.
ii. Tropical weeds – these are weeds that grow well in tropical climates.
Classification based on soil pH
Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.

(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weeds e.g. Rumex acetosella

(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds e.g. Taraxacum sp.
(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils e.g. Acalypha indica

Classification based on soil type (Edaphic)

(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow
in dry condition e.g. Aristolochia bracteata
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of
 various classes of plants e.g. Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds those occur in soils having
good drainage e.g. Leucas aspera
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: e.g. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis

Classification based on Origin

(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country come under this group and
most of the weeds are indigenous.e.g. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum
(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other
countries. These weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes
difficult.e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

Weed Biology
Weed biology is the study of the establishment, growth, reproduction, and life cycles
of weed species and weed societies/vegetation. Weed biology is an integrated science
with the aim of minimizing the negative effects, as well as using and developing the
positive effects, of weeds.

Reproduction in weeds could be either by asexual or sexual or in some cases both.

Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires the fertilization of an
egg by sperm, usually in the form of pollen. Pollination of the egg in a flower results
in formation of seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed production varies
greatly among and within weed species in part due to environmental variability
between years, competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability.

Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and
biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and
survival of perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism.
Vegetative Reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ
such as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in
perennial weeds, such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems
(stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers. Although vegetative structures generally do not
survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small structures can result in a new plant.
Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production.
Vegetative reproduction ensures that a local population is assured more readily.

Weed ecology
Weed ecology is the study of the interaction or relationship between a weed and its
environment (other living organisms as well as abiotic factors). Ecology is concerned
with growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in
the environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by
altering the crop husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or
multicrop culture. For effective weed control, the study on both biology and ecology
of a weed species are important.
Seed Dormancy: Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not
germinated. If all weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be
destroyed. Dormancy allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables
them to grow in flushes over years. In this context, the old gardeners saying “One
year seeding seven years weeding” is very appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been
found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of
dormancy:

(1) Enforced Dormancy: It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during
ploughing of the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3
to 5 cm. Enforced Dormancy is a non-specific character of seed. Cultivation
encounters enforced dormancy by bringing the weeds to surface where they are
exposed to light besides better aeration. High soil temperature and NO3 content of
surface soil may further help in breaking seed dormancy.

(2) Innate dormancy: It is a genetically controlled character and it is a feature of

specific weed seeds which fail to germinate even if they are present in the top 3-5 cm
soil and adequate soil moisture and temperature provided to them. The possible
reasons are the presence of:
(i) Hard seed coats e.g., Setaria, Ipomoea, Xanthium spp.
(ii) Immature embryos e.g., Polygonum
In certain weed seeds particularly of Xerophytic origin, presence of inhibitors is
responsible for innate dormancy. It can be overcome with passage of time, or under
the influence of some climatic pressure.

(3) Induced Dormancy: Induced dormancy results from some sudden physiological
change in normally non-dormant weed seeds under the impact of marked rise in
temperature and or CO2 content of soil, low O2 pressure, water logging etc.

PERSISTENCE OF WEEDS (ADAPTATION)

Persistence is an adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in any
environment. In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated
habitat) management practices, determines the persistence of weed species. It is
largely influenced by climatic, edaphic (soil) and biotic factors, which affect its
occurrence, abundance, range and distribution.

Factors Affecting Persistence

Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds which can adapt to a
wide variety of climates. The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall,
wind and humidity.
i) Light:
Light intensity, quality and duration are important in influencing the germination,
growth, reproduction and distribution of weeds. Photoperiod governs flowering time,
seed setting and maturation and on the evolution of various ecotypes within
a weed species. Tolerance to shading is a major adaptation that enables weeds to
persist.
ii) Temperature:
Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and longitudinal
distribution of weeds. Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which
is a major survival mechanism of weeds.
iii) Rainfall:
Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution. More rainfall or
less rainfall determines reproduction & survival.
iv) Wind:
Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds.
B. Soil factors:
Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and cropping
system. Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic
(pH 8.5) which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as
Acidophiles.
Basophiles Acidophiles Neutophiles
Alkaligrass – Puccinalia spp. Cynodon dactylon common weeds
Quack grass – Agrophyron repens Digitaria sanguinalis
Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils. A shift in soil
pH, towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium sulphate as a ‘N’ source
could cause a shift in the weed spectrum.
Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well to
soils of high fertility also. Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition
etc.

C. Biotic factors:

In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds are those exerted by the crop as it
competes for available resources. Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of competition offered by the crop and also
the agricultural practices associated with the growing of a crop may encourage or
discourage specific weeds.
e.g. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds, (Sorghum – Striga sp) crop-induced
stimulants are examples of other biotic factors.

CROP WEED COMPETITION

Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without
interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of
their competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space which are the principle
factors of production of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth
will decrease one kilogram of crop growth.
However, more technically, competition is one of several types of interference among
species or populations. Interference refers to all types of positive and negative
interaction between species. Such interference can involve physical factors such as
space, light, moisture, nutrients, and atmosphere or some type of chemical interaction.
Competition between weeds and crops is generally associated with a negative
interference involving physical factors that induces decreased growth in both types of
plants because of an insufficient supply of a necessary growth factor (water, nutrients,
etc.). Competition can be both within a species (intra) when two or more plants of
the same species coexist in time and space and between species (inter) when two or
more species coexist as described.
Allelopathy is interference between plants based on a chemical influence.
Amensalism, another type of negative interference, can be defined as the inhibition of
one species by another. However, in contrast to competition, which involves the
removal of a resource, amensalism involves the addition of something to the
environment.
Weeds are considered to compete with crops primarily for soil nutrients, soil moisture,
light, and carbon dioxide. The degree of direct competition can be reduced to some
extent by certain crop cultural practices based on our knowledge of weed biology and
ecology. These methods include planting times, spacing, and herbicide placement.
Another focus of competition research has related to determining the density of weeds
and their effect on crop yields, with the basic goal to establish economic/weed and
action thresholds in order to determine when or if weed control must be employed.
The economic threshold is the weed density at which the value of loss due to weed
competition exceeds the cost of control. Action thresholds may include other factors
such as the effect of weed seed production and its effects on subsequent weed
management.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF CROPS
AGAINST WEEDS

1. Density of weeds: Increase in density of weeds and ultimately decrease in yield is a

normal phenomenon. However, it is not linear as few weeds do not affect the yields so
much as other weed does and hence, it is a sigmoidal relationship.

2. Crop density: Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduce
competition until they are self-competitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very
important in determining the quantum and quality of crop environment available for
the growth of weeds. Wide row spacing with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant
population may induce dense weed growth. In this respect, square planting of crops in
which there are equal row and plant spacing should be ideal in reducing intra-crop
plant competition.

3. Type of weeds species: The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences
the competition. Occurrence of a particular species of weed greatly influences the
competition between the crop & weed. For example E. crusgalli in rice, Setaria
viridis in corn and Xanthium sp. in soybean affects the crop yield. Flavaria
australasica offers more competition than the grasses

4. Type of crop species and their varieties: Crops and their varieties differ in their
competing ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is
as: barley, rice, wheat and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is
assigned to its ability to develop more roots that are extensive during initial three
weeks growth period than the others.

5. Soil factors: Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the
crop weed competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the
crop, reducing thus crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase
crop yields to a much lower level than the yield increase obtained when a weed free
crop is applied with fertilizer.
Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and
ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit
crops more than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already
present at the time of irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over
power the crops. If the crop in irrigated after it has grown 15 cm or more in a weed
free environment irrigation could hasten closing in of crop rows, thus suppressing
weeds.
Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition. Specific weed species
suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a specified
range of soil pH.

6. Climate: Adverse weather condition e.g. drought, excessive rains, extremes of

temperature, will favour weeds since most of our crop plants are susceptible to
climatic stresses. It is further intensified when crop cultivation is stratified over
marginal lands. All such stresses weaken crops inherent capacity to fight weeds.

7. Time of germination: In general, when the time of germination of crop coincides

with the emergence of first flush of weeds, it leads to intense Crop-Weed interference.
Sugarcane takes about one month to complete its germination phase while weeds
require very less time to complete its germination.
Weed seeds germinate most readily from 1.25 cm of soil and few weeds can
germinate even from 15cm depth. Therefore, planting method that dries the top 3 to 5
cm of soil rapidly enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their
germination usually postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time
the crop plants are well established to compete with late germinating weeds.

8. Cropping practices: Cropping practices, such as method of planting crops, crop

density and geometry and crop species and varieties have pronounced effects on
Crop-Weed interference.

9. Crop maturity: Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition
between weeds & crop. As the age of the crop increases, the competition for weeds
decreases due to its good establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of
the crop enhances the yield significantly.

Critical period of weed competition

Critical period of weed competition is defined as the shortest time span during the
crop growth when weeding results in highest Economic returns.

The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up
to, which the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest
economical yield. The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early
stages of crop than at later stages. Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first
35 days after sowing should be maintained in a weed free condition. There is no need
to attempt for a weed free condition throughout the life period of the crop, as it will
entail unnecessary additional expenditure without proportionate increase in yield.

Mechanism of seed dispersal.

Weed seed dispersal or dissemination is the physical movement of weed seeds or
vegetative parts from their parent plant to another area. This is achieved through a
number of agents of dispersal or mechanism of weed dispersal of the agents.

Agent of Seed Dispersal

The agents or sometimes called methods of weed seeds dispersal are:
Wind
Some weed seeds possess special organs that keep them afloat e.g include Agerantum
conyziodes which have a parachute like structure and are easily blown by wind. Weed
seeds dispersal through wind is called anemochory.
Characteristics of Seed dispersed by wind
1. small, light in weight e,g striga spp
2. Feathery e.g dandelon
3. Dufts of hair (cotton-like) e.g milkweed
4. Winged appendages e.g. pines
5. Gluey seed coats

Animals
Many weed fruits and seeds are eaten by birds and animals, and after digestion most
of the seeds are passed out with animal excreta which are dropped wherever they
move. This mechanism of weed dispersal is called endozoochory. Ants carry a large
number of certain weeds seeds possessing secretions from one place to another. This
is called myrmecochory. Generally, weed seeds dispersal through animal is called
zoochory and dispersal by birds is called ornithochory.
Characteristics of Seeds dispersed by Animals
These seeds are carried by animals when then they cling (attached) to the fur of
animals, some are dispersed through the droppings of animals. The seeds possess
hook, bristles or barbs. Some possess sticky or mucilagenous substance to be able to
stick to the bodies on animal.

Man
Careless activities of man are greatly responsible for the dispersal of weeds.
Movement of farm implements and automobiles sometimes have weed seeds attached
to them and are deposited in other areas. Weeds mostly mature at the same time with
crops and are usually harvested with them and transported to other areas e.g. Oryzea
bathii with rice. Weed seeds dispersal by humans is called anthropochory.

Water
Aquatic weeds disperse primarily through water. Moving water during the rainy
season or during irrigation disperse weed seeds to new fields. Weed seeds dispersal by
water is called hydrochory.
Characteristics of Seeds Dispersed by Water
1. light, corky structure
2. Air filled bladder e.g gourd cherry
3. Can survive in irrigation water

Dispersal by machinery
Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipments. Seeds move
from field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often
travel on tillage and cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to
start new infestation. Disc-type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative
plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.

Intercontinental movement of weeds

Introduction of weeds from one continent to another is through crop seed, feed stock,
packing material and nursery stock e.g. Parthenium hysterophorus

Crop mimicry dispersal

Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape,
and morphology as crop e.g. barnyard grass bio-type looking like rice escapes hand
weeding and is dispersed with rice. Nightshade fruit (berries) are same size, shape as
dry beans, harvested and dispersed with beans.

Methods of weed seed dispersal

Weed seeds are dispersed in two ways namely space and time.
3.2.1 Seed dispersal in space
Seed dispersal in space involves the physical movement of seeds from one place to
another through the agent of dispersal which include wind, water, glacier, animals,
man birds etc. Different weed seeds have one or more different dispersal agent. Below
are some selected weeds and their mode of dispersal.
Selected weeds and their mode of dispersal

SNo Species of weed Propagules Mode of dispersal

1 Agerantum conyzoides Seed/spikelet Wind, animals
2 Acanthosperm hispidium Seed animal
3 Imperata cylindrical Seed/spilet/rhizomes Wind, human,
water
4 Imperata acquatica Seed water
5 Rotboelia spp Spikelet Animal/shedding
6 Cassia occidentalis Seed shattering
7 Oryza bathii Seed Water, animal

Seed dispersal in time

Seed dispersal in time refers to the capacity of the seed to remain in dormant state for
a period of time. Dormancy is the inability of a viable seed to germinate even when
the necessary conditions for germination are provide. A dormant seed is a seed that
fail to germinate even though it has absorbed water, exposed to temperature and
oxygen. If a seed germinate immediately upon absorption of water without a barrier to
germination, the embryo is a quiescent or non-dormant. Sometimes non proximity to
host plant may leave the portion of the seed bank dormant. Dormancy can be inert,
induced or enforced.
Weed seeds dispersed off from the plant in three ways whether they are dispersed in
space or time:
 A part of it may fall near mother plant
 A part of it may move out of the fields with crop harvest
 The remaining dispersed with agent of dispersal to a short or long distance and
this forms the basis of weed seed dispersal. An effective dispersal of weed
seeds requires two essentials namely; a successful agent and an effective
adaptation.

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

Weeds are unwanted plant growing on our fields and since they are unwanted they
need to be removed from the field to allow wanted or cultivated crops to grow for
man and his animals. In your previous studies, you learned about the general weed
management aspect which gave you a broad idea on how to prevent the spread of
weed. This unit would deal with the different weed control methods for your in-depth
understating on how to control weeds.

Cultural Weed Control: Cultural weed control includes all aspects of good crop
husbandry used to minimize weed interference with crops. These consist of the
following:
i. Hand weeding
ii. Mechanical weeding
iii. Tillage
iv. Mulching
v. Burning
vi. Flooding
vii. Crop rotation
i. Hand weeding
Hand weeding is one of the oldest methods of weed control and consists of hand
pulling, hand slashing, hoeing and mowing of weeds. Most of the drudgery associated
with subsistence farming in the tropics centers around the peasant farmer and his
manual weeding effort.
Problems associated with hand weeding
 A lot of drudgery and time consuming.
 Limited agricultural productivity because there is a limit to the size of land
area that can be weeded manually.
 Organizational and other logistics and supervisory problems associated with
human labour make its use cumbersome.

Hand pulling
Hand pulling is a major weed control method used in crop production in many parts
of the tropics. It is particularly used in controlling weeds in cereal crops such as rice
that are traditionally broadcast seeded.
Advantages of hand pulling
 It requires no additional tool.
 It is best for controlling weeds in broadcast-seeded crop where chemical
weeding is not practiced.
 It is useful in removing weeds that have escaped other weed control measures.

Disadvantages
 It is laborious and full of drudgery.
 It is expensive when cheap labor is in short supply.
 Not suitable for controlling perennial weeds.
 Weeds cannot always be completely pulled out of the soil.
ii. Hand hoeing
This is by far the most widely used method of weed control in the tropics. It is a faster
method of weed control than hand pulling and can be used in range of cropping
systems. This method of weed control is used after the weeds have emerged but
before they get too tall to interfere with hoeing operations. Hoe weeding is applicable
to both annual and perennial weeds. Weeding hoes can be broadly grouped into light
and heavy hoes. Generally the short handled hoes are used in the humid part of the
tropics while the long-handled heavy hoes are used mainly in the tropical savanna for
seed bed preparations.
Advantages of hand hoeing
 Both annuals and perennial weeds are controlled.
 It is an effective weed control measure for crops in rows.
 It provide a clean seed bed and loosens the soil.
 It is suitable for small farm size.

Disadvantages
 Weeds are usually well established in crops before farmers start weeding.
 Is labor intensive and could be expensive where cheap labor is in short supply.
 It is unsuitable for larger farms.
 Predisposes the soil to erosion as a result of clean weeding and loosening up of
the soil.
 The propagule of perennial weeds may be buried at depth beyond the reach of
hand hoes, thus making the control of such weeds difficult.
 Hand hoeing has a high risk of crop damage in many root and tuber crops.

iii. Hand-slashing
This is another manual method of weed control used mainly in right of way, non-crop
areas, bush clearing and in plantation crops. Hand-slashing is used in food crops for
control of over grown annual weeds. The most widely used tool for manual slashing is
the cutlass, machete and sickle.
Advantages of slashing
 It minimizes erosion.
 It is more labor efficient than hand hoeing.
Disadvantages of slashing
 Rapid regeneration of weeds is a major setback of slashing.
 Crop reduction as a result of accidental damage during slashing.
 High labor requirement.
 Drudgery.
  Is not suitable method of weed control in field crops that are under water stress
because the basal portions of the weeds continue to deprive the crop of the
limited water.

iv. Mechanical weeding

In mechanical weeding, a farmer channels energy produced by machines or animals
into weeding operations. He gets more work done with the use of this type of energy
than in hand weeding, when he not only produces the energy but also directs its use.
The plough and harrows are most often used to control weeds before the crop is
planted and between the rows of growing crop. During ploughing, weed seeds that
have remained buried in the soil are brought to the surface. They then begin to
germinate and if shallow tillage is done shortly afterwards the weed seedlings are
destroyed. This is a particularly good method for controlling annual weeds. For
perennials, repeated tillage at relatively short intervals may be necessary. Each tillage
operation destroys the top growth, and forces the weed plant to produce new growth
at the expense of underground reserves. Eventually these reserves are exhausted and
the plant dies.
Tillage should be aim at destroying the weed plant before they reach the stage of
setting seeds. For this reason, even fallow or uncropped fields should be subjected to
occasional tillage as a method of controlling weeds. The point here is that if the weeds
are permitted to produce seeds on fallow fields such seeds can easily be dispersed to
the cropped fields. Those that are not dispersed may remain viable for several years
and pose a problem when that particular field is eventually cropped.
Advantages of mechanical weeding
 Increase productivity.
 Increase economic returns, consequently improving the farmer‟s welfare.
 Reduces drudgery.
 Increases timeliness and precision in operations.
 More areas of land could be cultivated.

Managing animals or machines is less problematic than managing human labor.

Disadvantages of mechanical weeding
  The initial cost of machines is high beyond the reach of most peasant farmers
in tropical Africa.
 It requires highly trained experts to maintain the machines.
 Availability and cost of fuel may affect the cost of running the machines.
v. Animal drawn weeders
The use of animal-drawn weeders in the tropics is limited due to presence of tsetse fly
which transmits the parasite trypanosome spp. to cattle in many humid and sub humid
tropics. They are widely used throughout the arid and semi-arid savanna tropics.
Advantages of using Animal drawn weeders
 Low capital investment on source of power.
 Low cost of maintenance as draft animals are fed on forages available to other
animals.
 Droppings from the animal serve as rich source of soil organic matter.
 No specialized training is required to operate the tool and guide the animal.
 Weeding implements is within the technological competence of most tropical
farmers.
 Animal-drawn cultivators and weeders fit into the cropping patterns and
farming systems of most farmers in many grassland regions of the tropics.
 These implements can be used in both small and large farms.

Disadvantages of Animal-drawn weeders

 Productivity of the system and work output of the animals depends on the state
of their health and expertise of the handler.
 Precise cultivation and planting cannot always be obtained because of
difficulty in controlling the animals.
 The presence of tsetse fly and animal diseases makes it impossible to use
animals in some parts of the tropics.
 Religious beliefs and local customs of some parts of the tropics may make
farming with animal difficult to practice.
vi. Machine-powered weeders
Machine-powered weeding refers to all weeding operations where the power used for
removing weeds is derived from machines which in turn are using fossil fuel as source
of energy.
Advantages of machine-powered weeders
 Weeding can be done more timely, reliably and cheaply than in manual or
animal-drawn implements.
 Weeding can be done in less time and large farm land can be weeded.
 The same engine power can be used for other farm related activities such as
tillage, planting, harvesting and transportation of farm produce.
 The use of machines eliminates drudgery and reduces risk of labor
uncertainties.

Disadvantages of machine-powered weeders

 It is unsuitable where crops are not grown in rows.
 Heavy capital investment is required to buy and maintain the machines and
equipment.
 Service maintenance and availability of spare parts are serious problems
facing machine-powered agricultural operations throughout the tropics.

vii. Tillage
Cropland has for centuries been cultivated primarily to provide a good seed bed for
seed germination and seedling growth. Other reasons for tillage include weed control.
In addition to routine tillage, farmers usually carry out two distinct types of tillage for
weed control purposes.
Types of tillage for weed control
These are delayed tillage and blind tillage:
 Delayed tillage involves preparing the seed bed and waiting until the weeds
emerge before lightly cultivating the soil again and planting the crop. The
purpose of delayed tillage is therefore to destroy the first flush of weeds so
that the subsequently planted crop can grow at a reduced weed pressure.
 Blind tillage is when crop seeds are planted after the usual land preparation
and lightly cultivated after weeds have emerged but before crop emergence.
This type of tillage works well if weeds germinate ahead of the crop.
Pre-planting land cultivation
This has the objectives of burying weed seeds and incorporation of organic matter in
to the soil and cut off weeds as close to soil surface as possible. Use of tillage as a
weed control method involving animal-drawn implements is often handicapped by the
inability of animal-drawn cultivators to accomplish deep tillage satisfactorily even on
light soil. Mounds are more desirable in controlling weeds because in giant mounds
the weed seeds are buried deep in the mounds, thereby reducing weed pressure.

viii. Burning
Fire is used as a weed control device in practically all parts of the world, it is used
mostly to prevent weed growth and plant material prior to cropping and also destroy
weed seeds lying close to the surface. Most of burning is done before crops are
planted. There are three types of pre-plant field burning that are carried out in
agricultural land worldwide:
- The uncontrolled
- Controlled burning
- The direct burner-assisted burning.
Uncontrolled burning refers to both the accidental forest (bush) fires and the type of
burning deliberately started in the dry season of the savanna for hunting purposes.
Uncontrolled burning damages the landscape, destroys wild life, homes and property,
vegetation and exposes soil to erosion and may destroy economic trees.
a. Controlled burning
This refers to agricultural fires set by farmers for the purpose of creating a favorable
environment for crop production and getting rid of unwanted vegetation. Controlled
burning is used extensively in forestry to reduce the accumulation of litter and reduce
the risk of wild fires that could destroy forests and property. This type of burning is
done when environmental conditions are favorable and winds optimum. Hard-to kill
weeds such as Imperata cylindrical, Andropogon spp. and Hyparrhenia spp. are often
burned by peasant farmers during the dry season to stimulate new growth, which can
then be fed to livestock before the cropping season begins.
Advantages of controlled burning
 It is a cheap way of getting rid of excess vegetation.
 It adds nutrients such as P and K to the soil.
 It reduces soil acidity.
  It destroys animal pests and pathogens that use the fallow vegetation as
alternative hosts.
 Destroys weed seeds and soil borne pathogens.
 It stimulates re-growth in perennial grasses and may be used to rejuvenate
grass pastures.
 It is a cheap and effective way to kill woody perennials.

Disadvantage of controlled burning

 It results in rapid loss of soil organic matter.
 Loss of non-metal elements e.g. sulphur and nitrogen as gases.
 Soil temperature, generated during burning is often not high enough and of
long enough duration to ensure complete destruction of partially buried weed
seeds and nematodes.

b. Direct burning
This is a type of controlled burning where special burners (mobile field incinerators,
propane flamers) equipped with propane gas are used for burning plant residues.
Advantages of direct burning
 A good chance for complete and environmentally friendlier burning because
there is practically no smoke.
 The speed of the operation can be controlled.

Disadvantages of direct burning

 It is expensive to buy special burners.
 Is slower than controlled burning.

ix. Flooding
This is also an effective method of weed control, although its use is mostly limited to
paddy rice. Flooding kills the weeds by depriving them of oxygen. Since many weeds
can survive flooding if they are not completely submerged, it is important the water
level is maintained high enough so that no parts of the weeds are exposed. Generally
several weeks of waterlogging are necessary to destroy the unwanted vegetation.
Advantages of flooding
- Helps to kill some soil-borne fungi and nematodes.
- Anaerobic condition in flooded fields suffocates roots of dry-land plants and kills
weed seeds.
Disadvantages of flooding as method of weed control
 It is not effective on well-established aquatic weeds that cannot be submerged.
 It requires a terrain that is level or can be levelled.
 Could only be used in areas where water is available and can be impounded.

x. Mulching
Mulch is a layer of non-living material placed over the surface of the soil to smother
the weeds and cut them off from direct sunlight. Mulching, in addition to this
favorable effect on soil organic matter, is useful in managing the fragile tropical soil.
- mulching can help to conserve soil moisture.
- protect the soil from erosion
- reduce soil surface temperature
- increase water infiltration
- maintain soil structure
- provide favorable environment for biological activities in the soil.
Limitation of mulching
- It is a labor-intensive activity particularly if the mulch has to be transported.
- Most crops do not generate enough crop residues to provide effective ground cover.
- To be effective, the mulching materials must cover the soil surface and smother
weeds.
- Covering the soil completely by the mulching material may interfere with other
farming operations.
- Mulching materials placed before seedling emergence may interfere with seed
germination or the growth of seedlings.
- Mulching material may serve as a trap for animal pest of crop, including promoting
termite activity.
xi. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is a valuable tool in weed control because many weeds are associated
with certain crops (host specific)
- Rotation play a long term role in weed control by preventing particular weed species
from adapting to the growth cycle of specific crops.
- Rotating cereals with legumes and other trap crops is recommended for reducing
Striga infestations in small holder farms.
- Crop rotation also helps the farmer to rotate his herbicides, thus ensuring that weeds
resistant to a particular herbicide do not take over in a field.
3.4 Biological Methods of Weed Control
Biological method of weed control refers to the control or suppression of weeds by
the action of one or more organisms, through natural means or by manipulation of the
weed, organism, or the environment. The most dramatic instances are those in which
natural enemies of the weed species have been identified and are either introduced or
encouraged. With this approach, the Klamath weed is being controlled in the U.S.A
with parasitic beetles; the prickly pear cactus has been controlled in Australia by the
Argentine moth borer. This approach is, however, most efficacious where single
troublesome weed species is predominant.
Major developments in this area include biological control of weeds with vertebrate
animals (microbial control), use of microorganism such as plant pathogens for weed
control (microbial control) and live mulch. Other areas with potential for biocontrol of
weeds are exploitation of crop canopy, density and the allelopathic effects of both
weeds and crops on weeds.
i. Live mulch
Live mulch is defined as a crop production system in which a food crop is planted
directly in the living cover of an established cover crop without destruction of the
fallow (cover crop) vegetation. Perennial legume cover crops have been evaluated and
found to be suitable for use as live mulch.
Live mulch crop production aims at the following
- Suppresses weeds.
- Reduces weed seeds population in the soil.
- Reduces loss of soil organic matter.
- Provide favorable condition for earth worm activity.
- Protect the soil from erosion.
- Reduces soil compaction.
- As additional fodder for livestock.
Advantages of using live mulch
- Reduces the need to control weeds after harvest.
- It prevents the establishment of those weeds that colonize fallow land.
ii. Biological control with invertebrate animals
This involves the use of insects to control weeds. Example, the Klamath weed is being
controlled in the U.S.A with parasitic beetles; the prickly pear cactus has been
controlled in Australia by the Argentine moth borer. This approach is, however, most
efficacious where single troublesome weed species is predominant.
Advantages of biological control of weeds by insects
- The effect is permanent.
- It can be used in places that are not easily accessible to man.
- It is cheaper in the long run.
- It does not pose any risk of polluting the environment.
Disadvantages of biological control of weeds by insects
- It is not suitable for food crop.
- Unfavorable weather condition or presence of predators may prevent the insects
from adapting to the new environment.
- Inability of the appropriate growth stage of the insect to synchronize with the
susceptible stage of growth of the target weed.
iii. Biological control of weeds with vertebrate animals
Animals have been used for suppressing vegetation for centuries. Pasturing land with
sheep sometimes is an effective method for controlling certain weeds. Sheep are able
to suppress field bindweed on land seeded to sudan grass for pasture. They eat the
bindweed in eating down the weeds. Fish consumed algae in flooded fields.
iv. Microbial weed control
Microbial weed control involves the use of microorganism such as fungi, bacteria,
nematodes and virus. Microbial control of weeds involved the multiplication of
pathogens in a controlled environment and spraying them on the target weed as
mycoherbicides.
v. Allelopathy
Allelopathy is a term used to describe the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates
produced by one living plant species on the germination, growth or development of
another plant species or microorganisms sharing the same habitat.
vi. Plant canopy
The main effect of plant canopy is to shade the weeds and limit their ability to carry
out photosynthesis. Example, melon (Colocynthis citrullis) and sweet potato can
provide early ground cover and shade out weeds when intercropped with other crops.
Chemical Methods of Weed Control
Chemicals that are used for killing or adversely affecting plant growth are known as
herbicides. The practice by which weeds are killed with herbicides is called chemical
weed control.

Criteria used to classify herbicides

- The time when they are normally applied.
- Whether they are selective or not.
- Whether they normally act through the shoot or the root.

1. Classification of herbicides based on time of application

There are generally three distinct times when herbicide may be applied.
i. Pre-planting application
Pre planting application is done before the crop is planted. A pre-plant herbicide may
be applied broadcast on the foliage to kill fallow vegetation such as paraquat or it may
be the type, such as trifluralin, that is incorporated into the soil during tillage
operations.
ii. A pre-emergence herbicide application
This is the application that is done after planting but before the crop emerged. The
weeds may or may not have emerged by the time of pre-emergence application. If the
weeds have not emerged, then a herbicide such as diuron or ametryne that acts on
un-emerged seedlings can be used. If the weeds have emerged already, paraquat can
be used to kill the emerged weeds
iii. A post emergence herbicide application
This is the application of herbicide that is done after the crop has emerged. Again
weeds may or may not have emerged at the time of herbicide application. Example of
post emergence herbicides are 2,4-D propanil, paraquat etc. A post emergence
herbicide must find a way to avoid herbicide damage to the emerged crop.

2. Classification of herbicide based on type of plants killed

All herbicides kill plants either selectively or non-selectively:
i. Nonselective herbicides are those herbicides that exert toxic effects on all plants
that may come in contact with them. Example, diquat, glyphosate, paraquat and
sodium chlorate.
ii. Selective herbicides are those that will preferentially kill certain plants species at
recommended rates but will not harm other plants that they come in contact with.
Example, 2,4-D, diclofop-methyl, fluometuron and metolachor.

3. Classification of herbicides based on movement in plants

i. Contact herbicides
These are herbicides that kill the tissues they touch. Contact herbicides commonly in
used in the tropics include the following: paraquat, propanil, oryzalin and diquat.
ii. Systemic herbicides
These are those herbicides that are transported in the xylem or phloem vessels of the
treated plants. Examples of systemic herbicides are atrazine, dalapon and glyphosate.
Systemic herbicides are particularly useful in controlling perennial weeds because
underground perennating organs and roots are killed in addition to the shoot.
iii. Soil-acting herbicides
They are those herbicides which act primarily in the soil. They are usually applied to
the soil where they retard or inhibit the germination of weed seeds. Such herbicides
usually have long residual action so that they can prevent the growth of weeds for a
substantial part of the cropping season.
3.6 Preventive Methods of Weed Control
Preventive weed control refers to those measures necessary to prevent the
introduction of new weed species into a given geographical area as well as
multiplication and spread of existing weed species. Preventive weed control includes
all sanitation measures that should be routinely used in the farm, including the
vigilance that keeps a farmer alert to the presence of a strange plant on his farm land.
Its generally accepted wisdom that it is easier to prevent the spread of a weed to a new
site than to get rid of it after it is well established.
i. Fallowing
This is an effective method of suppressing annual grasses and troublesome perennial
weeds such as speargrass. Although fallowing has been used for controlling weeds,
proper management of fallows can be used to prevent weeds from going to seed and
reduce weed population in a given ecology. An example of preventive weed
management by bush fallowing is the live mulch cropping system. In this system the
living cover of legumes such as Centrosema pubescens and Mucuna pruriens provide
complete cover, smother weeds, prevent erosion and return organic matter to the soil.
ii. Preventing weeds from setting seeds
Annual weeds and simple perennials produce large quantities of seeds that end up in
the seed bank already in the soil. Late germinating weeds in the field crops are the
main sources of weed seeds in newly harvested field because these weeds usually
complete their life cycle after crop harvest.
Methods of preventing weeds from going to seed
a. Post- harvest weed control will be necessary to prevent these weeds from going to
seed (producing seeds).
b. Enlightening the farmers on the adverse effects that seeds produced by these
volunteer weeds will have on their subsequent use of the land.
c. Repeated mowing and hand-slashing can be used to deplete the food reserve in the
storage organs of perennial weeds there by reducing their competitiveness.
Preventing the spread of weeds and their propagules by
a. Use of clean seeds for planting.
b. Weed spread through the use of contaminated crop seeds can be prevented by
keeping crop plants in the field weed-free.
c. By thoroughly cleaning the seeds intended for planting in the following cropping
season.
d. Planting weed-free crop seeds is one way of avoiding the introduction of new weed
seeds to the newly cleared crop land.
e. Cultivating tools play a role in spreading weed seeds and vegetative perennating
organs. Routine sanitary measure involving careful cleaning of farm machinery
immediately after use is an important preventive measures for weed control.
f. Seeds of many weeds are spread by animals. Care should be taken by the farmer to
organize carefully the transfer of farm animals between fields.
g. Preventive weed control can also be achieved by screening irrigation canals to
prevent weed seeds from being transported from infested fields to clean areas.
h. Well-decomposed manure is unlikely to contain viable weed seeds but poorly
prepared manure which is a potential source of weed seeds, therefore, should be
avoided.
i. Strict enforcement of quarantine laws is necessary to prevent the accidental
introduction of noxious weeds through seeds and propagules.
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Integrated weed management (IWM) is neither a method nor a system of weed control,
but a philosophy whose goals is to use all available knowledge in weed science to
manage weeds so that they do not cause economic loss to humans and subsequently
minimizing hazards to the environment.
Reasons that made IWM desirable
i. Inability of any one method of weed control to completely solve the weed problem
of a given crop at all times and without adverse effect.
ii. The ability of weeds to develop resistance to a herbicides that is frequently used.