CE257 Data Communication and

Networking

Presented by: Dr. Ritesh Patel

CE Dept, CSPIT, CHARUSAT
[email protected]

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CE257 Data Communication and Networking

Week 2 – Session 2

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STUDENTS WILL LEARN

 Effect of distance, attenuation and noise on

signals
 Importance of frequency in communication

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DATA AND SIGNALS

Analog Data Analog Signal

Telephone

Digital Data Analog Signal

Modem

Analog Data Digital Signal

Codec

Digital Data Digital Signal

Digital
transmitter

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SWITCHING LIGHT

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MEASURING VOLTAGE AT 200 MTR DISTANCE

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VOLTAGE ACROSS WIRES AT 200 METER DISTANCE

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Q.
 There is a delay before the voltage rises at the
voltmeter when it is 200 m along the wire. How
much of a delay?

 The voltage rises when the time is equal to 2

microseconds. The switch was closed at a time
equal to 1 microsecond, so there is one-
microsecond delay between the switch being
closed and the voltage changing 200 m along the
wire.

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ANSWER

 The voltage rises when the time is equal to 2

microseconds.
 The switch was closed at a time equal to 1
microsecond, so there is one-microsecond delay
between the switch being closed and the voltage
changing 200 m along the wire.
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LIGHT ON AND OFF: FOR 2 MICROSECOND

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Q.
 How fast is the pulse travelling? (Measure in
meters per second)
 Ans
 The pulse travels 200 meters in 1 microsecond.
 1 microsecond is one-millionth of a second
= 1 million
 So in 1 second it would travel 200×1 million
meters=200 million meters or 2×108 meters.
 The speed is therefore 2×108 m/s.

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Q.

 Assuming that the pulse continues to travel at

the same speed, draw a graph of voltage
against time for measurements taken 600
meters from the switch.

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ACTUAL RECEIVED SIGNAL
 Attenuation and Noise

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ATTENUATION

 Attenuation reduces the height of the pulse, so

that it does not reach 1.2 volts any more.

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NOISE

 Distortion alters the pulse, rounding the

corners and generally changing the shape.

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FOR LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION

 Attenuation and distortion become worse as

the pulse travels further.
 What is solution?
 Amplifiers

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FOR LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION

 Successive regeneration for long-distance

transmission

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EQUATION

 Distance covered by signal

 Distance = propagation time X speed
d =t*v
 If you know the distance travelled and speed
but want to calculate the propagation time you
use:

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19
Q
 For a communications satellite to be in a geostationary orbit it has to
be about 36,000 km above the Earth. How much delay will be
introduced to a radio signal by having to go up to and back down from
the satellite? Radio signals travel at the speed of light (3×108 m/s),
and you should assume that the signals go straight up and straight
down. Note that this assumption – straight up and straight down –
simplifies the calculation, and means that you get a value that would
be an underestimate to the delay, for all cases except where the
communication really is straight up and down

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ANSWER
 We first write the distance and speed in consistent
units.
 The speed is in units of meters per second
(3×108 m/s) but the distance is in kilometers
(36,000 km).
 The multiplier 'kilo' is ×1000, so in meters the
distance is 36,000×1000 m=36,000,000
m=3.6×107 m.
 This is the distance to or from the satellite. One
'hop' – up and down – is twice this distance,
7.2×107m.

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Q. 1

 What is propagation time of signal from your

home to google server?
 You can make some assumption.

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 We need location of google server
 Find out IP address of google server
 Find out location of IP address

 Find out distance of your home to google

server.

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Q. 2

 What is propagation time of signal from your

home to charusat.ac.in?

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IMPORTANCE OF FREQUENCY IN COMMUNICATION

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PERIODIC SIGNALS

 A periodic signal completes a pattern within a

timeframe, called a period
 A signal x(t) is periodic if and only if

x(t) = x(t+T) - < t < 

value
period

time

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SINE WAVES
 Simplest form of periodic signal
signal strength

period
T = 1/f
peak
amplitude

time

 General form: x(t) = A×sin(2ft + ) phase / phase shift 32

CONCLUSION

 High frequency, low range, (potentially) high

bandwidth.
 Low frequency, high range, low bandwidth.

 As frequency increases, the signal is absorbed

more by physical objects (atmospheric
moisture, trees, buildings, etc). Hence you need
more power to make up for the signal loss

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CONCLUSION
 Low frequency(LF) is longer than High
Frequency (HF) signals, hence it has less
penetration power. So, when it comes to
sending information signals to larger distance,
LF fails. (Which means LF can carry less
information).
 While HF has high penetration power, thus it
can easily send information to large distance.
(Which means HF carries more information).

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VARYING SINE WAVES
3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 A = 1, f = 1,  = 0 -3 A = 2, f = 1,  = 0

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 A = 1, f = 2,  = 0 -3 A = 1, f = 1,  = /4

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TIME VS. FREQUENCY DOMAINS

 Consider the signal

1
x(t ) = sin(2  t ) + sin(2  3t )
3

1.5 1.5 1.5

1 1 1

0.5 0.5 0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
+ 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
= 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-0.5 -0.5 -0.5

-1 -1 -1

-1.5 -1.5 -1.5

Demo: sine.py 36
LINE CODING

 Process of converting binary data to digital

signal

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Figure A sine wave
Figure Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Table Units of period and frequency
 Example 1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:
 Example 2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).
 FREQUENCY

• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to

time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
Figure Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
 Example 3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Figure Wavelength and period
Figure The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
 Example 7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, Next Figure shows three
sine waves, each with different amplitude and
frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
Figure 3 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
SIGNALS AND COMMUNICATION

 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in

data communications
 We need to send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any composite
signal is a combination of simple sine waves
with different frequencies, amplitudes, and
phases.
COMPOSITE SIGNALS AND PERIODICITY

 If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals with
discrete frequencies.
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of sine
waves with continuous frequencies.
 Example 4

Next Page Figure 3 shows a periodic composite signal

with frequency f. This type of signal is not typical of
those found in data communications. We can consider it
to be three alarm systems, each with a different
frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal
 3.59
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
TIME VS. FREQUENCY DOMAINS

signal strength signal strength

1 1

0 0
2 4 time 2 4 frequency

-1 -1

Time Domain Representation Frequency Domain Representation

→ plots amplitude as a function → plots each sine wave’s peak
of time amplitude against its frequency

Demo: Equalizer 60
 3.61
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Example

Figure on next page shows a nonperiodic composite

signal. It can be the signal created by a microphone or a
telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this
case, the composite signal cannot be periodic, because
that implies that we are repeating the same word or
words with exactly the same tone.
Figure The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
 BANDWIDTH AND SIGNAL FREQUENCY

 The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in
that signal.
Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies
of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum
amplitude of 10 V.

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz.

What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all
frequencies of the same amplitude.

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A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies
have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.

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Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an
FM radio station.
In the United States, each FM radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.

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Example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal received by an old-
fashioned analog black-and-white TV. A TV screen is made up of pixels
(picture elements) with each pixel being either white or black. The screen is
scanned 30 times per second. (Scanning is actually 60 times per second, but
odd lines are scanned in one round and even lines in the next and then
interleaved.) If we assume a resolution of 525 x 700 (525 vertical lines and
700 horizontal lines), which is a ratio of 3: 4, we have 367,500 pixels per
screen. If we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is 367,500 x 30 =
11,025,000 pixels per second.
The worst-case scenario is alternating black and white pixels. In this case,
we need to represent one color by the minimum amplitude and the other
color by the maximum amplitude. We can send 2 pixels per cycle.
Therefore, we need 11,025,000/2 =5,512,500 cycles per second, or Hz. The
bandwidth needed is 5.5124 MHz. This worst-case scenario has such a low
probability of occurrence that the assumption is that we need only 70
percent of this bandwidth, which is 3.85 MHz. Since audio and
synchronization signals are also needed, a 4-MHz bandwidth has been set
aside for each black and white TV channel. An analog color TV channel has
a 6-MHz bandwidth.
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FOURIER ANALYSIS

 Any periodic signal can be represented Joseph Fourier

as a sum of sinusoids (1768-1830)

 known as a Fourier Series

 E.g., a square wave:
=

+ + + +…

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FOURIER ANALYSIS

 Every periodic signal consists of

 DC component
 AC components
 Fundamental frequency (f0)
 Harmonics (multiples of f0)

fundamental 3rd harmonic 5th harmonic

frequency

DC component

AC components
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BANDWIDTH OF A MEDIUM
gain (low-pass channel)
1

freq

...
Transmission medium
0 f0 3f0 5f0 7f0 9f0 f 0 f0 3f0 5f0 f

t t

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DIGITAL SIGNALS

 Properties:
 Bit rate – number of bits per second
 Bit interval – duration of 1 bit
amplitude
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

...
time
bit interval

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Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

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The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

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Baseband transmission

 Baseband transmission
→ Sending a digital signal over a channel without
changing it to an analog signal

 Baseband transmission requires a low-pass

channel

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Note

A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.

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Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

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DIGITAL VS. ANALOG

 Using one harmonic

Digital Analog

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 sec

Bit rate = 6 f=0

Digital Analog

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Bit rate = 6 f=3

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DIGITAL VS. ANALOG

 Using more harmonics

 Adding 3rd harmonic to improve quality
Digital Analog

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Bit rate = 6 f0 = 3, fmax = 9

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DIGITAL VS. ANALOG BANDWIDTH

 Digital bandwidth
 Expressed in bits per second (bps)
 Analog bandwidth
 Expressed in Hertz (Hz)

Bit rate and bandwidth are proportional to each other

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LOW-PASS AND BAND-PASS CHANNELS

 Low-pass
gain
channel

f1 frequency

 Band-pass
gain
channel

f1 f2 frequency

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Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass channel

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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise

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SIGNAL ATTENUATION

 Attenuation  Loss of energy

 Signal strength falls off with distance
Transmission medium

 Attenuation depends on medium

 Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency
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RELATIVE SIGNAL STRENGTH
 Measured in Decibel (dB)
dB = 10 log10 (P2/P1)

 P1 and P2 are signal powers at points 1 and 2,

respectively
Point 1 Point 2

 Positive dB → signal is amplified (gains strength)

 Negative dB → signal is attenuated (loses strength)

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 Example

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power

in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm =
−30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

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 Example

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per

kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as

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SIGNAL DISTORTION

 Distortion  Change in signal shape

 Only happens in guided media
 Propagation velocity varies with frequency

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NOISE
 Noise  Undesirable signals added between
the transmitter and the receiver

 Types of noise
 Thermal
 Due to random motion of electrons in a wire

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NOISE
 Types of noise (cont’d)
 Crosstalk
 Signal from one line picked up by another

Wire 1

Wire 2

 Impulse
 Irregular pulses or spikes
 E.g., lightning
 Short duration
 High amplitude

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SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

Powersignal
SNR =
Powernoise

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 Example

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the

noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

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DATA RATE: NOISELESS CHANNELS

 Nyquist Theorem
Bit Rate = 2 × Bandwidth × log2L

Harry Nyquist
(1889-1976)

 Bitrate in bps
 Bandwidth in Hz

 L – number of signal levels

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 Example

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
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DATA RATE: NOISY CHANNELS

 Shannon Capacity
Capacity = Bandwidth × log2(1+SNR)

 Capacity(maximum bit rate) in bps

 Bandwidth in Hz Claude Elwood Shannon
(1916-2001)
 SNR – Signal-to-Noise Ratio

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 Example

A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000. The

signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. Calculate the
theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line.

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
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 Example

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, use the Shannon capacity

followed by the Nyquist formula

6 8

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Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.

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NETWORK PERFORMANCE

 Bandwidth
 Hertz

 Bits per second (bps)

 Throughput
 Actual data rate
 Latency (delay)
 Time it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination

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LATENCY

 Composed of
 Propagation time
 Transmission time

 Queuing time

 Processing
Entire time
message

propagation
time

transmission
time
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LATENCY
Sender Receiver

First bit leaves

Propagation time
First bit arrives

Data bits
Last bit leaves Transmission time

Last bit arrives

Time Time
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BANDWIDTH-DELAY PRODUCT

 The link is seen as a pipe

 Crosssection = bandwidth
 Length = delay

 Bandwidth-delay product defines the number of

bits that can fill the link

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Figure Filling the link with bits for case 1

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SUMMARY
 Data need to take form of signal to be
transmitted
 Frequency domain representation of signal
allows easier analysis
 Fourier analysis
 Medium's bandwidth limits certain frequencies
to pass
 Bit rate is proportional to bandwidth
 Signals get impaired by attenuation, distortion,
and noise

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Thank you
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