sustainability

Review
Sustainable Valorization of Waste and By-Products from
Sugarcane Processing
Nicoleta Ungureanu 1 , Valentin Vlădut, 1,2, * and Sorin-S, tefan Biris, 1, *

1 Department of Biotechnical Systems, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 006042 Bucharest, Romania

2 National Institute of Research—Development for Machines and Installations Designed for Agriculture and
Food Industry—INMA, 013813 Bucharest, Romania
* Correspondence: [email protected] or [email protected] (V.V.); [email protected] (S.-S, .B.)

Abstract: Sugarcane is a lignocellulosic crop and the juice extracted from its stalks provides the raw
material for 86% of sugar production. Globally, sugarcane processing to obtain sugar and/or ethanol
generates more than 279 million tons of solid and liquid waste annually, as well as by-products;
namely, straws, bagasse, press mud, wastewater, ash from bagasse incineration, vinasse from ethanol
distillation, and molasses. If not properly managed, this waste will pose risks to both environmental
factors and human health. Lately, valorization of waste has gained momentum, having an important
contribution to the fulfillment of policies and objectives related to sustainable development and
circular bioeconomy. Various technologies are well-established and implemented for the valorization
of waste and by-products from sugarcane processing, while other innovative technologies are still in
the research and development stage, with encouraging prospects. We propose a sustainable sugarcane
processing flow and present an analysis of the physico-chemical characteristics of generated wastes
and by-products. We emphasize the available possibilities of valorizing each waste and by-product,
considering that they are important biomass resources for obtaining biofuels and a wide range of
other products with added value, which will contribute to the sustainability of the environment,
agriculture, and human health worldwide.

Citation: Ungureanu, N.; Vlădut, , V.;

Keywords: biomass; pretreatment; cogeneration; bioethanol; bio-hydrogen; compost; fertilizer; wastewater
Biris, , S.-S, . Sustainable Valorization of
Waste and By-Products from
Sugarcane Processing. Sustainability
2022, 14, 11089. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su141711089 1. Introduction
Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum L. (Poaceae), a perennial plant with thick and fibrous
Academic Editor: Antonio Zuorro
stems, is traditionally cultivated in more than 110 countries in the tropical and temperate
Received: 10 August 2022 regions of the world [1], occupying a production area of 27 million hectares [2]. In the
Accepted: 1 September 2022 period 2000–2019, the sugarcane crop accounted for 21% of global crop production [3].
Published: 5 September 2022 Simultaneously, with the worldwide increase in the areas cultivated with sugarcane, there
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral is also an increase in the demand for products derived from this sugar plant.
with regard to jurisdictional claims in Sugarcane crops provide the raw material for 86% of the sugar produced globally (the
published maps and institutional affil- remaining 14% being mostly obtained from sugar beet crops) [4]. In 2020, 1869.7 million
iations. tons of sugarcane were harvested worldwide, of which there were 757.1 million tons in
Brazil, 370.5 million tons in India, 108.1 million tons in China, 81 million tons in Pakistan,
75 million tons in Thailand, 54 million tons in Mexico, 32.7 million tons in the USA, and
30.3 million tons in Australia [5]. The percentage distribution of sugarcane production by
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. the top five major producing countries is as follows: 40% in Brazil, 20% in India, 7% in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. China, 6% in Thailand, and 5% in Africa [6].
This article is an open access article
From a physical point of view, sugarcane is made up of four major fractions (Figure 1);
distributed under the terms and
namely, fiber, insoluble solids, soluble solids, and water, and their relative size depends on
conditions of the Creative Commons
the agro-industrial process of sugar extraction. The fibers are composed of the organic solid
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
fractions originally found in the cane stem and are very heterogeneous. Insoluble solids (the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
fraction that cannot be dissolved in water) are mainly constituted by inorganic substances
4.0/).

Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141711089 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 2 of 28

Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 2 of 27

solid fractions originally found in the cane stem and are very heterogeneous. Insoluble
solids (the fraction that cannot be dissolved in water) are mainly constituted by inorganic
substances (rocks,
(rocks, soil, soil,foreign
and other and other foreign
materials) andmaterials)
depend on and depend onconditions
the agricultural the agricultural
of cane con-
ditions
processing, such as the type of cutting practiced and the type of harvesting. Soluble harvesting.
of cane processing, such as the type of cutting practiced and the type of solids
Soluble solids (the
(the fraction that fraction that can in
can be dissolved be water)
dissolved in water)
are mainly are mainly
composed composed
of sucrose and of sucrose
may
andcontain other chemical
may contain components
other chemical in smaller proportions
components in smaller (such as wax).(such as wax).
proportions

Figure 1. 1.Chemical
Figure Chemicalcomposition of sugarcane;
composition of sugarcane;organics
organics include
include starch,
starch, wax,wax,
amino amino
acids,acids,
organicorganic
acids, phenolic
acids, phenoliccompounds, etc.;inorganics
compounds, etc.; inorganics include
include SiOSiO
2 , K22, K
O,2O,
P OP
2 5 ,
2 O
Fe5 , Fe
O
2 3 ,
2 O ,
etc.
3 etc. (adapted
(adapted from from
[7]). [7]).

Sugarcanecontains
Sugarcane contains 53.6%
53.6% juice
juice(wet
(wetbasis) and
basis) and26.7%
26.7%fiber (dry(dry
fiber basis) [8]. It[8].
basis) is aItplant
is a plant
rich in sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), amino acids, and organic
rich in sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), amino acids, and organic acids [9]. acids [9].
Sugarcane crop is harvested manually or mechanically every 6 months, then it is
Sugarcane crop is harvested manually or mechanically every 6 months, then it is cut
cut into pieces and transported to the processing plants, which are usually located in the
into pieces
vicinity of and transported
sugarcane fields, asto the
the processing
crop plants, which
begins to deteriorate areday
the next usually located in[8].
after harvesting the vi-
cinity of sugarcane
Sugarcane fields,
processing as thecan
factories crop begins tointo
be classified deteriorate the next
three categories dayfactories
[10]: after harvesting
that
[8].only
Sugarcane
produceprocessing factories
raw table sugar; plantscan beproduce
that classified into
only three categories
ethanol; [10]: factories
integrated plants, which that
only produce
produce bothrawrawtable
sugarsugar; plants that
and ethanol produce
(these accountonly ethanol;
for 80% integrated
of the plants). The plants,
juicewhich
extracted by pressing the stems is used in most cases to obtain table
produce both raw sugar and ethanol (these account for 80% of the plants). The juice sugar and less to ex-
obtain ethanol [11]. In Brazil, the country with the largest sugarcane production,
tracted by pressing the stems is used in most cases to obtain table sugar and less to obtain 90% of
the harvested
ethanol [11]. In sugarcane
Brazil, theiscountry
used to produce
with theboth sugar
largest and ethanol,
sugarcane while only90%
production, 7% ofofthe
the har-
crop is used to produce only ethanol and 3% to produce only sugar [12].
vested sugarcane is used to produce both sugar and ethanol, while only 7% of the crop is
used to produce onlyofethanol
2. Characterization andStems
Sugarcane 3% to produce only sugar [12].
At maturity, the sugarcane plant can reach 3–4 m in height, and its stem, with a
2. Characterization
diameter of about 5 of
cm,Sugarcane Stems75% of the entire plant. The chemical composition
constitutes about
of sugarcane stalks
At maturity, theissugarcane
variable, but typically
plant a mature
can reach 3–4stalk
m inis height,
composed of its
and 11–16%
stem,fibers,
with a di-
12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% non-sugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water.
ameter of about 5 cm, constitutes about 75% of the entire plant. The chemical composition
of sugarcane stalks is variable, but typically a mature stalk is composed of 11–16% fibers,
12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% non-sugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 3 of 27

The cell wall of the stem is composed of 32.4–44.4% cellulose, 24.2–30.8% hemicel-
lulose, and 12–36.1% lignin, and in smaller proportions it also contains ash (2.4–7.8%)
and extractive substances (2.5–10.6%) such as minerals, sugars, proteins, and other com-
pounds [13]. Other studies show similar values of the sugarcane cell wall components:
48.6% cellulose, 31.1% hemicellulose (mainly xylose and galactose), 19.1% lignin, and 1.2%
ash [14]; respectively, 43.3% cellulose, 23.8% hemicellulose and 21.7% lignin, 0.8% ash, and
10.4% other extractives [8].
Cellulose is the most widespread polysaccharide in nature and is found in the primary
and secondary cell walls of plants, giving them mechanical strength and elasticity. More
than 65% of the cellulosic fraction of biomass is protected against degradation by a matrix
of polymers that include lignin and hemicellulose [15] and is not accessible to water or other
solvents. The cellulosic fraction can be transformed into glucose by enzymatic hydrolysis
using cellulases, or chemically using acids (such as sulfuric acid), and the glucose can then
be fermented to obtain ethanol [16].
Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide with a lower molecular weight than cellulose, and
its highly branched structure differs substantially from the structure of cellulose in that it
has a lower degree of polymerization [15], and that it is amorphous, which makes it easier
to hydrolyze. The hemicellulosic fraction can be removed from lignocellulosic materials by
acid hydrolysis [17] or by hydrothermal pretreatment [9], and the released sugars (mainly
xylose) can be subsequently fermented to ethanol.
Lignin is a complex aromatic macromolecule, with heterogeneous and globular struc-
ture, with amorphous regions, insoluble in water. Lignin forms an impenetrable physical
barrier around cellulose and hemicellulose [18], thus providing the plant with resistance
against microbial attack. The content of lignin and its distribution in the cell wall of the
plant determines the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic materials to enzymatic hydrolysis
(limits the accessibility of enzymes), being necessary various delignification processes that
have the role of improving enzymatic hydrolysis [19]. Sugarcane lignin is mainly used as
a fuel, but it can be chemically modified for use as a chelating agent, for the removal of
heavy metals from wastewater, or as a precursor material for the production of value-added
products (activated carbon, surfactants, adhesives, etc.) [7].

3. Waste and By-Products Generated in Sugarcane Processing

3.1. Waste and By-Product Generation Flow in Sugarcane Processing Factories
In any sector of the food industry, food production is carried out with significant energy
consumption, and relatively large amounts of waste result from the technological processes.
Thus, major issues related to food technologies are energy and waste management.
In the sugar industry, approximately 279 million metric tons of sugarcane waste
are generated annually worldwide [20]. From the global amount of sugarcane waste,
South Africa has an annual share of over 1.353 million metric tons, of which more than
50% are recovered in cogeneration facilities [21]. The uncontrolled disposal of sugarcane
waste can generate major problems on the environmental factors and, by consequence, on
human health.
These wastes are of a solid, semi-solid, and liquid nature and can be classified into
two categories: waste from the harvesting operation, represented by leaves and cane tips;
and waste from the cane processing stream (Figure 2), including bagasse, ash from bagasse
incineration, press mud (sludge from juice settling and residual cake from juice filtration),
wastewater, vinasse, and molasses.
Sustainability 2022, 14,2022,
Sustainability 11089
14, 11089 4 of 27 4 of 28

Figure 2. Sustainable
Figure 2. Sustainabletechnological flowofofcane
technological flow cane sugar
sugar production,
production, highlighting
highlighting the generated
the generated waste waste
and and
by-products.
by-products.

Typically, crushing a ton of sugarcane yields about 280–300 kg of bagasse (wet basis)
Typically, crushing a ton of sugarcane yields about 280–300 kg of bagasse (wet basis
with 50% moisture content, 30 kg of press mud (wet basis), and 41 kg of molasses [22].
with 50% Themoisture content,
energy content 30 ton
of one kg ofofsugarcane
press mud (wetMJ,
is 6560 basis), and 41
distributed as kg of molasses
follows: 2110 MJ [22].
inThe
280 energy content
kg of leaves of one
and tops (50%ton of sugarcane
moisture), 2110 MJ isin 6560
280 kgMJ, distributed
of bagasse as follows: 2110
(50% moisture),
MJ in
and280 kgMJ
2340 ofinleaves
140 kgand tops[23].
of sugar (50% moisture), 2110 MJ in 280 kg of bagasse (50% mois
Currently,
ture), and 2340 MJ theinglobal
140 kgpriority is not[23].
of sugar only to mitigate the environmental impact already
caused
Currently, the global priority is notbutonly
by human and industrial activities, also to
to respond
mitigate to the
theneed to produce more
environmental impact al
food and energy for a population estimated to exceed 10 billion people by 2050.
ready caused by human and industrial activities, but also to respond to the need to pro
In this context, the valorization of waste and by-products from the sugar industry
duce more food
contributes and energy
to economic, for and
social, a population
environmentalestimated to exceed
sustainability. Waste10 billion people
valorization is alsoby 2050
anInopportunity
this context, the valorization
to implement of waste
the principles and by-products
of bioeconomy and circularfrom the sugar
economy, whichindustry
contributes to economic,
aims to transform waste intosocial, and [24]
resources environmental
and contributes sustainability.
to the unificationWaste valorization is
of production
alsoand
an consumption
opportunityactivities. In this the
to implement way,principles
the environmental footprint would
of bioeconomy be greatly
and circular economy
reduced, but at the same time, what is considered waste today will be
which aims to transform waste into resources [24] and contributes to the unification oan important source
of raw materials in the future.
production and consumption activities. In this way, the environmental footprint would
Lately, in order to contribute to sustainable development, more and more factories
be greatly reduced,
are trying but at the
to find solutions same
to put intotime, what
practice the is considered
principles of thewaste today
circular will be an im
bioeconomy
portant source
concept, of refers
which raw materials in the of
to the production future.
energy, food, chemicals, and other biomaterials
Lately, in order to contribute to sustainable development, more and more factories
are trying to find solutions to put into practice the principles of the circular bioeconomy
concept, which refers to the production of energy, food, chemicals, and other biomaterials
and compounds from biomass in a sustainable and integrated/cascaded way (biorefinery
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 5 of 27

and compounds from biomass in a sustainable and integrated/cascaded way (biorefinery)

while generating zero waste.
Currently, multiple technologies for the recovery of waste from the sugar industry
are being implemented on a large scale, and others are currently in the research and
development stage, but the prospects for the future are encouraging.
This work aims to analyze, both from the point of view of the quantities generated
and the physico-chemical characteristics, each type of waste and by-product generated on
the technological flow of sugarcane processing in sugar factories. Furthermore, we review
recent reports in the literature and highlight some of the current methods by which these
wastes and by-products are recycled and valorized for sustainability in countries that grow
and process the sugarcane.

3.2. Sugarcane Leaves and Tops (Straws)

Sugarcane leaves and tops (also called straws or sugarcane litter) are lignocellulosic
materials whose chemical composition varies depending on the stage of development
and variety of the plant, place of collection, and climatic conditions. According to [25],
these wastes have an approximate composition of 40% cellulose, 25% hemicellulose, and
18–20% lignin.
From one ton of sugarcane, between 270–280 kg of leaves and tops remain as harvesting
waste [23,26]. Sugarcane straws can contain up to 5% m/m impurities (sand and other
debris) due to transport and harvesting operations [27]. If these impurities would reach the
cane processing plant, they would cause wear of the mill rolls [28].
Many times, these wastes are conventionally disposed by direct burning in the
field [23,29]. Moreover, when traditional manual harvesting is used, farmers set fire to
the sugarcane plantations before harvesting to burn off the sharp leaves and facilitate
the manual cutting of the stalks. This practice contributes to severe air pollution with
suspended particles, the occurrence of severe respiratory diseases in the affected area, and
greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formed during
incineration will pollute both the soil and water.
The valorization of cane leaves and tips is practiced on some plantations. If the
sugarcane crop is harvested while it is still green, the cane leaves and tips are left as such in
the field as a vegetable mulch, to control weeds, reduce water evaporation from the soil,
and return carbon and nutrients to the soil [6], thus contributing to the improvement of soil
properties [30]. This waste can also be collected manually or mechanically and briquetted
or pelletized for incineration for energy purposes [31]. In laboratory experiments, second-
generation ethanol with a yield of 156 L/t was obtained from cellulose and hemicellulose
mixtures extracted from sugarcane tops and leaves, thermochemically treated by alkaline
catalysis, and subjected to simultaneous saccharification and fermentation [6].

3.3. Sugarcane Bagasse

3.3.1. Characterization of Sugarcane Bagasse
Bagasse is the primary industrial fibrous residue obtained after pressing (crushing)
of sugarcane stalks in order to extract the juice. When processing one ton of sugarcane,
between 0.25–0.30 tons of bagasse are obtained [32]. In factories in Brazil, 0.28 tons of
bagasse are typically generated [33]. According to other studies, 0.14 tons of bagasse (dry
mass) and 0.14 tons of straw (stems) are obtained from one ton of sugarcane [13,23].
It is also estimated that over 700 million tons of bagasse are produced annually
worldwide [34], i.e., between 40–50% of the total weight of sugarcane produced annually in
the world [35]. In only the top ten countries in terms of sugarcane production, more than
540 million tons of bagasse are generated annually [36].
The chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse varies with plant variety, cultivation
conditions, harvesting practices, and processing methods. Sugarcane bagasse contains
45–50% water, 2–5% dissolved sugars and 40–45% fiber [37], and 60–80% carbohydrates [38].
Like any natural vegetable fiber, sugarcane bagasse has a fibrous structure consisting of
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 6 of 27

cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [39], with different values of these components being
presented in the literature (Table 1).

Table 1. Chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse.

Other Extractive Polysaccharides (Sucrose,

Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) Ash (%) Reference
Substances (%) Pentosans etc.) (%)
42.2 27.6 21.6 2.84 5.63 [2]
41.6 25.1 20.3 4.8 8.2 – [8]
36 – 20 2.2 – 26 [37]
40 30 20 – – – [40]
43.8 28.6 23.5 1.3 2.8 – [41]
50 25 25 – – – [42,43]
33–36 28–30 22 – – – [44]
42.19 27.6 21.56 2.84 5.63 [45]
42 28 20 2.4 – 7.6 [46]
47–52 25–28 20–21 – – – [47]
40–45 20–25 25–30 – – – [48]
44 27 13 4 – – [49]
40–50 25–35 20–30 – – – [50]
37.61 21.87 20.6 – – – [51]
32–45 20–32 17–32 1–9 – – [52]

3.3.2. Uncontrolled Disposal of Sugarcane Bagasse

A significant amount of bagasse is disposed of uncontrollably in the form of waste
piles directly on open land [53], which inevitably leads to environmental pollution due to
the release of unpleasant odors that attract insects and other pests, and sometimes due to
accidental occurrence of self-igniting fires.
Even the temporary storage of excess bagasse remaining on the technological flow,
which can represent up to 50% of the bagasse produced in the sugar factory [54], has
negative consequences on the environment. Uncontrolled disposal and landfills are the
most unsustainable option for managing sugarcane wastes.

3.3.3. Valorization of Sugarcane Bagasse

In large sugarcane-growing countries, bagasse is an important type of waste that can be
recovered [55], and there are currently more than 40 different uses for it [56]. Approximately
58–76% of the wet mass of bagasse is composed of polysaccharides that can be hydrolyzed
into monosaccharides (glucose and xylose) and then transformed by microbial fermentation
into biofuels, enzymes, proteins, lipids, feed, and other biochemical substances [57].

Incineration of Sugarcane Bagasse for Energy Recovery

Sugarcane bagasse with a moisture content of approximately 48% has a calorific value
of 8021 kJ/kg [58] and is usually valorized as fuel in cogeneration plants to produce thermal
energy (steam) and electricity [59,60]. These energy products can provide the necessary
thermal and electrical energy for the operation of the sugar factory [61,62], and the eventual
energy surplus is transferred to the national electrical network [63,64].
For example, India annually generates between 75–90 million tons of bagasse (wet
mass) [65], which it mainly uses through incineration with cogeneration (electricity and
heat generation) in medium and large sugar factories. In Brazil, the energy recovery of one
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 7 of 27

ton of bagasse generates 12 kWh of electrical energy, 330 kWh of thermal energy (steam),
and 16 kWh of mechanical energy [66].
In sugar mills, thermal energy and mechanical energy obtained by bagasse incinera-
tion are used to drive milling equipment, and electrical energy is used to drive rotating
equipment in the factory during the harvest season [8].
Bagasse incineration is, however, associated with large volumes of CO2 emissions that
contribute significantly to the global warming faced by all of humanity today [33,67].

Biofuels Obtained from Sugarcane Bagasse

Currently, the energy and transport systems, which are mainly based on fossil en-
ergy carriers, cannot be considered a sustainable system. The worldwide decrease of
conventional energy resources, as well as the restrictive legislation regarding the level of
environmental pollution, have created premises for the identification and exploitation of
new, economic, and non-polluting sources of energy.
Thus, concerns have arisen for the manufacture of biofuels from renewable raw
materials (biomass). The use of renewable energy sources can contribute to the reduction
of conventional energy consumption, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and,
therefore, the prevention of dangerous climate change.
Biomass is a valuable renewable resource that can be used on both a small and large
scale [68] as an alternative to fossil fuels because its energy can be transformed into a variety
of energy forms, such as heat, steam, electricity, and hydrogen, as well as biofuels, which are
considered substitutes for fossil fuels. Biomass is transformed into bioenergy through me-
chanical (densification), biochemical (aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, fermentation),
and thermochemical processes (pyrolysis, gasification, incineration, liquefaction).
Thus, biowastes from sugarcane processing are important ecological and cheap re-
sources for obtaining densified biofuels (briquettes and pellets), biogas, ethanol, synthesis
gas, and more recently, biohydrogen.
However, due to the high lignin content of sugarcane bagasse, various pretreatment
methods are necessary to extract one of the hemicellulose or lignin fractions, or even both
fractions [48].
Different methods are currently available for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic
biomass, each method having its own specificity regarding the mechanism of action on
the cell wall components of the biomass and the conditions of application. Among the
pretreatment methods, there are [52,69]: physical pretreatment, which can be achieved by
shredding, grinding, ultrasound, and microwaves; chemical pretreatment, which includes
the use of acids and alkalis, ionic liquids, organic solvents, oxidizing agents, hot water
hydrothermolysis, steam explosion, and fiber expansion with ammonia; biological pretreat-
ment, which involves the use of a range of microorganisms and enzymes that degrade
lignin; and different combinations of these methods.

Bioethanol from Sugarcane Bagasse

Ethanol is an excellent alternative fuel for use in modern internal combustion engines.
Due to the huge amounts generated in the sugar industry and its high cellulose content,
sugarcane bagasse has become an important raw material for bioethanol production [70,71].
The bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into ethanol consists of four stages
(Figure 3). (1) The pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is applied to degrade lignin
and/or hemicellulose by microbial enzymes in order to release the cellulose [72,73]. Bagasse
quality and pretreatment processes decisively influence the final ethanol yield [74–76].
(2) Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose is mainly carried out by cellulase
and hemicellulase that splits the glycosidic bonds and converts them into glucose [73,77].
Bacteria such as Celulomonas, Bacillus, Thermonospora, Erwinia, etc., and the fungi Trichoderma,
Fusarium, Phanerochaete, etc., produce enzymes useful in the production of cellulase [78].
Several biological and physico-chemical factors, including substrate concentration and
type, temperature, pH, oxygen level, and types of microorganisms, affect the enzymatic
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 8 of 28
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 8 of 27

conversion of sugarcane bagasse to value-added products. (3) Fermentation of sacchari-

conversion
fied biomass of sugarcane bagasse
is carried out to value-added
to obtain bioethanolproducts. (3) Fermentation
using microorganisms of saccharified
such as Saccharo-
biomass is carried
myces cerevisiae outZymomonas
and to obtain bioethanol using microorganisms
mobilis, efficient such as Saccharomyces
in fermenting hexoses and pentoses cere-
into
visiae
ethanol Zymomonas
and[79]. mobilis,of
(4) Distillation efficient
ethanolinisfermenting hexoses
the final stage, and
after pentoses
which into ethanol
the ethanol [79].
will reach
(4) Distillation
a purity of ethanol
of about 95% dueis the
to final stage, afterofwhich
the formation the ethanol
a low-boiling will reach a azeotrope
water-ethanol purity of
about 95%
[80,81]. due to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol azeotrope [80,81].

Figure3.
Figure 3. Bioconversion
Bioconversion of
of lignocellulosic
lignocellulosic waste
wasteinto
intoethanol
ethanol(adapted
(adaptedfrom
from[15]).
[15]).

In
In the
the manufacturing
manufacturing process
process ofof first-generation
first-generation ethanol,
ethanol, 50%
50% ofof the
the sugarcane
sugarcane juice
juice
extracted
extracted fromfrom sugarcane
sugarcane isis used
used inin ethanol
ethanol production
production and 50% in sugar production [81].
The
Themain
mainraw raw material
material for
for ethanol
ethanol production
production in in factories
factories in
in Brazil
Brazil is sugarcane
sugarcane juice [82],
and
and inin factories
factories ininThailand,
Thailand,ethanol
ethanolisisobtained
obtainedfromfromsugarcane
sugarcanemolasses
molasses[83].
[83].
Sugarcane
Sugarcane can accumulate up to 42% of the dry weight of the plant in sucrose
can accumulate up to 42% of the dry weight of the plant in sucrose [84].
[84].
The
The theoretical yield of ethanol is 617 L/t sucrose, but the actual yield in ethanol distilleries
theoretical yield of ethanol is 617 L/t sucrose, but the actual yield in ethanol distilleries
is
is 510–530
510–530 L/t L/tsucrose.
sucrose.TheThe average
average yield
yield of ethanol
of ethanol obtained
obtained in factories
in factories in Brazil
in Brazil is
is 82–85
82–85 L/t of freshly crushed sugarcane
L/t of freshly crushed sugarcane [85]. [85].
Various
Variousstudies
studiesinvestigated
investigatedthe theproduction
production ofofbioethanol
bioethanol from
frombagasse
bagasse using different
using differ-
pretreatment
ent pretreatment methods and provided details of the process parameters to enable scale-
methods and provided details of the process parameters to enable scale-
up.
up. The
The conversion
conversion methods,
methods, the the microorganisms
microorganisms involvedinvolved inin the
the fermentation,
fermentation, and and the
the
second-generation
second-generationbioethanol
bioethanolyields
yieldsobtained
obtainedare arepresented
presentedin inTable
Table2.2.
Bioethanol produced from sugarcane bagasse can be distributed through already
Table 2. infrastructures
existing Summary of experimental
and used studies
as a fuelonfor
obtaining bioethanol vehicles
light commercial from sugarcane
(ethanol bagasse.
hydrate) or
as an additive in gasoline (anhydrous ethanol) [6], and the ethanol-gasoline mixture can be
Details on the
usedConversion
in combustionProcess Bioethanolfrom
engines. Furthermore, bioethanol Yieldsugarcane Unit
waste isReference
one of the
Fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (enzyme loading of 100
most suitable alternatives for partial replacement of fossil fuels, as it provides renewable
4.88 g/L [20]
U/g), at 39
energy and °Cis less carbon intensive than gasoline. In addition, the use of bioethanol as such
Pretreatment by hydrolysisorwith
mixedNaOHwithsolution
gasolineand
contributes
anthraqui-to mitigating climate change [7] by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions.
none, at 130 °C; fermentation with Scheffersomyces stipitis and 157–225 L/t [22]
Spathaspora passalidarum
Pretreatment by delignification with NaOH and cellulose enzyme
11.81 g/L [52]
Trichoderma reesei; and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 9 of 27

Table 2. Summary of experimental studies on obtaining bioethanol from sugarcane bagasse.

Details on the Conversion Process Bioethanol Yield Unit Reference

Fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (enzyme loading of 100 U/g), at 39 ◦C 4.88 g/L [20]
Pretreatment by hydrolysis with NaOH solution and anthraquinone, at 130 ◦ C;
157–225 L/t [22]
fermentation with Scheffersomyces stipitis and Spathaspora passalidarum
Pretreatment by delignification with NaOH and cellulose enzyme Trichoderma reesei;
11.81 g/L [52]
and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Pretreatment by steam explosion at different temperatures (200 ◦ C, 215 ◦ C and 230 ◦ C)
56.3 g/L [86]
for 5 min; simultaneous saccharification and fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Pretreatment by soaking in aqueous ammonia; simultaneous saccharification and
57.2 g/L [87]
fermentation with Candida tropicalis
Alkaline pretreatment with NaOH with concentrations from 0.1 to 0.5 M for 1 to 4 h;
saccharification with wild xylose and fermentation with Scheffersomyces shehatae 0.34 g/g [88]
UFMG-HM 52.2, in column-type bioreactor; productivity 0.18 g L/h
Pretreatment by dilute acid H2 SO4 at concentrations of 0%, 1%, 2%, 3% or 4% (v/v), at
3.70 g/L [89]
121 ◦ C for 30, 60 and 90 min; fermentation with Pichia stipitis

Biohydrogen from Sugarcane Bagasse

Biohydrogen is a colorless and odorless, clean-burning fuel with a calorific value of
122 kJ/kg, which is almost three times higher than the calorific value of other hydrocarbon-
containing fuels [90].
Biohydrogen is obtained through ecological technologies and is the only fuel that does
not emit CO2 as a by-product (its combustion produces water as a by-product) when used
in fuel cells for the production of electricity and does not pollute the air. Thus, biohydrogen
is increasingly promoted as an alternative energy carrier for a sustainable future.
Therefore, biohydrogen contributes to the achievement of the objective of climate
neutrality provided for in the European Green Deal, established for the year 2050. By 2050,
hydrogen could supply up to 24% of total energy demand, corresponding to 2251 TWh
of energy in the EU + UK [91]. Although the current production of hydrogen is mainly
based on fossil fuels, for ecological reasons, the use of biomass resources is preferred, which
includes sugarcane bagasse.
Unlike bioethanol and biodiesel technologies, which are already well-developed,
biohydrogen production is still at an early stage of development, but there are a variety of
technologies available for converting sugarcane bagasse, as well as other types of biomass,
for the production of biohydrogen (Figure 4).
Although sugarcane bagasse is available in large quantities, its lower conversion
efficiency, current deficiencies in bioreactor design, high costs for hydrogen purification,
and storage systems are only some of the issues that need to be resolved before biohydrogen
from bagasse can be obtained on a large scale.
Table 3 presents the conversion methods, the microorganisms involved in the fermen-
tation, and the biohydrogen yields obtained in different experimental studies.
Sustainability 2022, 14,
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089
11089 10of
10 of 27
28

Figure 4. Methods for biohydrogen production from

from biomass
biomass resources
resources (adapted
(adapted from
from[92]).
[92]).

3. Summary
TableTable of experimental
3 presents studiesmethods,
the conversion on obtaining
thebiohydrogen from sugarcane
microorganisms involvedbagasse.
in the fer-
mentation, and the biohydrogen yields obtained in different experimental studies.
Details on the Conversion Process Biohydrogen Yield Unit Reference
Pretreatment with 2.3% of H2 SO ◦ C;
4 for 3.
Table 114.2 min at 115
Summary fermentation
of experimental with
studies on obtaining biohydrogen from sugarcane bagasse.
520 g/L [93]
Thermoanaerobacterium aotearoense.
Details on the Conversion Process
Pretreatment by steam explosion and alkaline delignification; fermentation by
Biohydrogen Yield Unit Reference
Pretreatment with 2.3%
thermophilic microbial of H2SOformed
consortium 4 for 114.2 min at 115
by Clostridium °C;Tepidimicrobium,
and fermenta-
5201.2 mol H2 /g
g/L [94]
[93]
at 55 ◦ C in a batch reactor
tion with Thermoanaerobacterium aotearoense.
Pretreatment by steam
Pretreatment explosion
by hydrolysis withand
H2 SOalkaline delignification;
4 ; dark-fermentation withfer-
1000 ml/L [95]
Enterobacter
mentation by thermophilic aerogenes
microbial MTCC 2822
consortium formed by Clostrid- 1.2 mol H2/g [94]
ium and Tepidimicrobium,
Pretreatment by hydrolysis withat H
552 SO
°C4 ;in a batch reactor with
dark-fermentation
755 ml/L [95]
Rhodopseudomonas BHU 01
Pretreatment by hydrolysis with H2SO4; dark-fermentation with En-
1000 ml/L [95]
terobacter aerogenes MTCC 2822
Pretreatment by hydrolysis with HThe 2SOresults
4; dark-fermentation with Rho-
of the experimental research carried
755out in this fieldml/L
are encouraging,
[95] but
dopseudomonas BHUstill
the processes 01 need to be optimized before raising them to a large scale.

The results of the experimental research carried out in this field are encouraging, but
the processes still need to be optimized before raising them to a large scale.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 11 of 27

Other Options for Valorization of Sugarcane Bagasse

Bagasse is a valuable raw material in the field of biotechnologies. It can be used for
synthesis of sugars and oligosaccharides such as glucose and prebiotic xylooligosaccha-
rides [96,97]; a series of acids (citric, lactic, gluconic, succinic) [98,99]; industrial enzymes
(xylanase, cellulase, α-amylase, lipase) [100,101]; furfural and xylitol [102,103], but here it
should be noted that the processes of obtaining them generate some toxic compounds [104],
and subsequent purification processes have high costs; and as a substrate for the fermenta-
tion of compounds with a coconut-like aroma [105,106].
Sugarcane bagasse is a beneficial growth medium for edible mushrooms; different
studies proved that compared with other biomass substrates (rice straws, wheat straws,
corn cobs, and saw dust), mushrooms grown on bagasse contained the highest amount
of proteins because sugarcane bagasse has higher concentrations of nitrogen [107,108].
Furthermore, bagasse is an important carbon source for the cultivation of microalgae from
which biomass and oils can be obtained and converted to biofuels [109].
Bagasse can be transformed into biochar, an ecological product that has many practical
applications, including the removal of organic and inorganic compounds [110], the removal
of ammonium and phosphate ions in aqueous solutions [111], and it can also be used against
the leaching of nitrates from the soil [112]. Additionally, in environmental applications,
bagasse can be transformed into cheap adsorbent materials for the removal of pesticides
from the environment [113].
Some studies highlight the usefulness of bagasse in the field of nanotechnology. For
example, they can be obtained for carbon-based nanomaterials [114], cheap cellulosic
nanofibers [115], nanostructured films [116], or other types of bioadsorbents for the removal
of heavy metals (copper, cadmium, lead, nickel, selenium, zinc etc.), and removal of
phenols and dyes in wastewater [117–121]. The authors of study [117] reported that
charred xanthated sugarcane bagasse has high adsorption efficiencies of heavy metals from
aqueous solutions: 1.95 mol/kg for Cd(II), 2.91 mol/kg for Cu(II), 2.52 mol/kg for Ni
(II), 1.58 mol/kg for Pb(II), and 2.40 mol/kg for Zn(II). Other experiments conducted in
aqueous environments showed that bagasse treated with citric acid (C6 H8 O7 ) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) had a maximum copper ion adsorption capacity of 31.53 mg/g, proving
that it is a waste that can be successfully used in the treatment of wastewater [118], while
the adsorption capacity of Cd2+ ions from an aqueous solution at a temperature of 25 ◦ C
and initial pH of 7 units was 96% [119].
Renewable hydrogel was obtained from the lignin contained in bagasse mixed with
silane and/or acetyl groups. Compared with hydrogels obtained from other raw materials,
the one obtained from this mixture showed superior mechanical characteristics and swelling
capacity [122]. The hydrogels obtained from bagasse can be exploited in environmental
applications but also in agriculture because they have a high capacity to store water, being
especially useful in arid and semi-arid areas.
Bagasse fibers and ash are used as additives in products made of clay, glass, and
ceramics [123,124]. In the construction materials industry, there are manufactured ecological
products from bagasse, including agglomerated panels [125,126] and other composite
materials obtained from fibers extracted from bagasse [34]; bagasse can be incorporated as
reinforcement material in cement composites [127–129] and different materials for roofs of
ecological buildings [130], and for ceramic tiles [131].
Bagasse is also used for obtaining recyclable and biodegradable composite mate-
rials from which some components in the automotive industry can be made, such as
polypropylene reinforced with natural fibers extracted from sugarcane bagasse that can
be used as a new substitute for polypropylene filled with talc [41] and as a substitute for
glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene [132], but also as material in components for acoustic
protection [133].
Fibers extracted from bagasse can be used in textile industry [134]. A very common
field for the valorization of bagasse is that of manufacturing of paper pulp [135], hard-
board, wrapping paper, and toilet paper [25,136,137], thus contributing to the reduction of
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 12 of 28
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 12 of 27

of deforestation. There is an emerging market for disposable cups, plates, glasses, and
deforestation. There is an emerging market for disposable cups, plates, glasses, and cutlery
cutlery made from biodegradable materials like sugarcane bagasse [138,139]—a sector
made from biodegradable materials like sugarcane bagasse [138,139]—a sector that started
that started to develop especially since packaging and single-use plastic products were
to develop especially since packaging and single-use plastic products were banned, as well
banned, as well as other value-added products.
as other value-added products.
Bagasse has a high content of nutrients and is used as fodder for cattle [52,140], but
Bagasse has a high content of nutrients and is used as fodder for cattle [52,140], but if it
if it is not pretreated, due to its high lignin content [141], the ruminal digestion of hemi-
is not pretreated, due to its high lignin content [141], the ruminal digestion of hemicellulose
cellulose and cellulose will be inhibited, which will lead to a lower nutritional value [52].
and cellulose will be inhibited, which will lead to a lower nutritional value [52]. On the
On the
other otherbagasse
hand, hand, bagasse pretreated
pretreated by mechanical
by mechanical pretreatment
pretreatment by shredding,
by shredding, chemi-
chemical pretreat-
cal pretreatment
ment with urea andwith urea and[142],
ammonia ammonia [142], pretreatment
pretreatment with alkalinewith alkaline peroxide
hydrogen hydrogen[143],
per-
oxide [143], hydrolysis [144], biological pretreatment by fermentation with fungi
hydrolysis [144], biological pretreatment by fermentation with fungi [145], or co-digestion [145], or
co-digestion with poultry manure [146,147] has a higher nutritional value
with poultry manure [146,147] has a higher nutritional value [148]. It does not interfere [148]. It does
not interfere
with withof
the activity the activity ofbacteria
cellulolytic cellulolytic bacteria
in the rumen inof
thecattle
rumen of cattle
[144], [144], anditthere-
and therefore does
fore it does not compromise the digestibility
not compromise the digestibility of fodder [149]. of fodder [149].

3.4. Residual Ash from Bagasse Incineration

3.4.1. Characterization of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Figure 5 shows
showsaasimplified
simplifiedproduction
productionflowflowinin
thethe sugar
sugar factory.
factory. After After extracting
extracting the
the sugary juice from the sugarcane, the sugarcane bagasse remains
sugary juice from the sugarcane, the sugarcane bagasse remains as waste. Bagasse as waste. Bagasse
repre-
represents approximately
sents approximately 50%50% of the
of the composition
composition of of
thethe sugarcaneand
sugarcane andis,is,ininmost
most factories,
factories,
incinerated for energy
incinerated for energy purposes. After its
purposes. After its incineration, bagasse ash
incineration, bagasse ash (consisting
(consisting of of fly
fly ash
ash
and
and bottom
bottom ash)
ash) will
will remain
remain asas the
the final
final waste
waste from
from the
the sugar
sugar production
productionstreamstream[150].
[150].

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Typical generation flow
Typical generation flow of
of bagasse
bagasse ash
ash in
in aa cogeneration
cogeneration plant
plant sugar
sugar factory.
factory.

Following the incineration of a ton of sugarcane bagasse, between 25–45 kg of ash is

generated [151], of which fly ash represents only 5–6.6 kg [152]. In Brazil, approximately
148 million tons of bagasse are produced annually, annually, generating
generating 3.6 million tons of bagasse
ash, considering that for each ton of processed sugarcane, around 250 kg of bagasse are
obtained, whose
whose combustion
combustionresults
resultsinin6 6kgkg
of of ash.
ash. In China,
In China, between
between 1.25–2
1.25–2 million
million tons
tons of sugarcane
of sugarcane bagasse
bagasse ashproduced
ash are are produced annually
annually [153],
[153], and and Australia
Australia generates
generates overover
230
230 thousand
thousand tonstons of bagasse
of bagasse ash ash
[62].[62].
Ash from
fromthe theincineration
incinerationof bagasse
of bagasse contains between
contains 70–90%
between inorganic
70–90% compounds,
inorganic com-
mainly silica [154], with different structures, including crystalline, glassy,
pounds, mainly silica [154], with different structures, including crystalline, glassy, and amor-
and
phous [155], with aluminum, iron, and calcium oxides, as well as unburnt carbon [156–158]
(Table 4).
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 13 of 27

Table 4. The chemical composition of bagasse ash (Reprinted with permission from Ref. [156]).

Chemical Compound % Weight Chemical Compound % Weight

SiO2 65.03 MgO 3.26
AlO3 0.49 Na2 O 0.06
Fe2 O3 0.49 K2 O 1.73
TiO2 0.08 Cl 0.12
P2 O5 1.14 Combustion losses 24.84
CaO 2.75

Bagasse ash is managed either by final disposal in landfills (the least desirable method,
but very often practiced in India) [159], or by valorization with economic and environmental
benefits (the ideal method, applies mostly in Brazil and China).

3.4.2. Valorization of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

The utilization of bagasse ash can be achieved, at the present time, through
different possibilities.
Bagasse ash can be applied as an amendment for agricultural land [25], although it
does not contain a sufficient concentration of mineral nutrients and will therefore be a
fertilizer with low nutritional value. To increase its nutrient content, ash can be mixed
with sludge from cane juice filtration or vinasse from ethanol distillation. Another problem
related to the utilization of ash as fertilizer in agriculture is its content of heavy metals
(aluminum, chromium, lead) and total phenol, whose values exceed the levels allowed
by many national standards [151,153]. These chemical pollutants accumulate in the soil
(from where they are transferred to the food chain) and can also pollute groundwater, thus
triggering potentially serious problems from an agronomic, environmental, and human
health point of view.
Solid fuels were obtained by briquetting bagasse ash [150,160,161] in the presence of
binders or additives. The additives also come from biomass waste or ecological materials,
so the use of these solid biofuels contributes to reducing the carbon footprint and protecting
the environment. The briquettes obtained in study [150] were starch, obtained from flour
of tropical root cassava used as a binder, and presented good mechanical and thermal
properties, having an average density of 1.12 g/cm3 and an average calorific value of
25.551 kJ/kg. By carbonizing sugarcane bagasse, ecological coal was obtained which
was then added with clay and sugarcane molasses to obtain ecological briquettes for
household use, whose combustion does not generate smoke and unpleasant odor, with the
following characteristics: 36.4% ash content, 27.2% volatile matter, and 4.390 Kca/g calorific
energy [160]. In a study [161], a mixture of bagasse with kraft lignin was briquetted at a
temperature of 140 ◦ C and a pressure of 17 MPa for 8 min. It was shown that the addition of
kraft lignin improved the characteristics of the briquettes, such as resistance and durability.
These characteristics are especially important during the storage and transport of operations
because briquettes with low durability crumble easily, generating dust that affects human
health; additionally, they can self-ignite if they are stored at high temperatures or they can
absorb moisture, which will decrease their calorific value.
In the construction materials industry, bagasse is used as a substitute for sand [151],
and additive in the manufacturing of bricks [162], cement [62,127,163], mortar, and con-
crete [123,164,165]. Cement-based materials in which bagasse ash have been incorporated
have superior mechanical performance [166]. In addition, this type of ash utilization can
help reduce greenhouse gases produced in cement factories, as it is known that the cement
industry contributes 8% to the total CO2 emissions from anthropogenic sources [167]. In ad-
dition, utilization of bagasse ash in the cement industry decreases the costs of construction
materials, alleviates the pressure of the final disposal of waste (storage costs are increasing),
and prevents soil and air pollution.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 14 of 27

In the rubber industry, bagasse ash and also raw bagasse and fibers extracted from
bagasse are used as alternative reinforcements mixed with natural rubber, to obtain eco-
friendly composite materials with improved mechanical properties (hardness and resistance
to compression, deformation, and friction) [154].
Bagasse was also used as a raw material in the manufacture of ceramic membrane
filters, with pore sizes in the range of 1–10 µm, and these filters can be used in gas-solid and
solid-liquid separation operations [168], or for the separation of sludge from wastewater
treatment in membrane bioreactors [169]. These filters have better physical stability at
extremes of pH and temperature [156] and longer relative lifetime, but they are ten times
more expensive than filters made of polymer membranes [25].

3.5. Vinasse from Ethanol Distillation

3.5.1. Characterization of Sugarcane Vinasse
From the ethanol distillation stage, vinasse results as waste, i.e., the fermented liquid
medium without ethanol content, considered to be a severe environmental pollutant.
Vinasse represents a flow of acidic wastewater (with pH = 3.5–5), dark brown in color,
with an unpleasant odor [170], a high chemical oxygen demand (COD), and high salt
content [171]; it also contains suspended organic solids, minerals, yeast, sugarcane proteins,
and phenolic structures [172]; it has high concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium) [173,174], heavy metals (zinc, copper, barium, and chromium) [175], residual
sugar, and some volatile compounds.
For each liter of ethanol produced from sugarcane, between 10–15 L of vinasse are
generated [175]. It is estimated that by 2024 the production of vinasse will reach 1742 billion
liters [171].

3.5.2. Valorization of Sugarcane Vinasse

Due to its large generation volumes and still limited fields of application, vinasse is
successfully treated mainly by anaerobic digestion [173,176,177]. Anaerobic digestion of
vinasse contributes to the reduction of pollution because its polluting load with organic
compounds is considerably reduced by biological treatment, and the obtained biogas is
a renewable biofuel. Due to the high concentration of sulfides in the vinasse, the biogas
obtained will also have high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, a highly corrosive gas that,
if not removed quickly, will attack the pipes of the installations. Technologies for obtaining
third-generation biodiesel and hydrogen from vinasse are currently in the development
stage [178].
Because of the low concentration of fermentable carbon in vinasse, it can be mixed
with carbohydrate sources (such as molasses) to allow the production of larger amounts
of hydrogen.
The vinasse can also be temporarily stored in lagoons where treatment by oxidation
takes place under natural conditions, to be later applied as liquid organo-mineral fertil-
izer [174,179,180], by sprinkling systems, on the sugarcane fields in the vicinity of the
ethanol distilleries, thus contributing to higher agricultural productions. The phosphorus
content of vinasse can fully cover the requirements of agricultural crops. Like any other
type of fertilizer, it must be mentioned that the application of vinasse must be done at the
times and rates required by the characteristics of the crop and the soil. If applied in excess,
it will lead to reduced productivity and late maturation of the sugarcane crops, which will
have a low sucrose content; additionally, excess vinasse causes environmental problems
such as soil pollution with heavy metals, soil acidification and salinization, processes that
disturb the soil biota, and salt leaching to groundwater.
On a laboratory scale, due to its high content of micronutrients, vinasse was used as
a growth medium for filamentous fungus Neurospora intermedia, and as a substrate for
obtaining unicellular products (proteins, lipids, enzymes, organic acids, alcohols). The
obtained biomass contained 45% protein and important essential amino acids [181].
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 15 of 27

3.6. Press Mud (Cake)

3.6.1. Characterization of Sugarcane Press Mud
Press mud (cake) is the dark, spongy solid residue left after the juice extracted from
sugarcane has been clarified and filtered. Processing one ton of cane yields 0.03 tons
of press mud [182], which is rich in fiber, crude protein, crude wax, sugar, fat, and ash
Therefore, press mud has a complex composition: 15–30% fibers, 5–15% crude proteins,
5–15% sugars, 5–14% crude wax, 9–10% total ash, 4–10% SiO, 1–4% CaO, 1–3% PO, and
0.5–1.5% MgO [183].
Press mud is an insoluble material, whose decomposition in natural conditions takes a
long time, generates an acid leachate [184], emits unpleasant odors that attract insects and
other pests, but also intense heat [185] and poses risks of self-ignition [184] when exposed
to direct sunlight.

3.6.2. Valorization of Sugarcane Press Mud

Being a waste rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and organic matter [186], press
sludge can be used as soil fertilizer [187,188]. Its usefulness in reducing soil degradation
through crusting, cracking, erosion, and compaction has been demonstrated [28].
Press sludge can be composted as such [189] or mixed with wastewater or residual
vinasse from ethanol distillation [190], with animal manure and bagasse [25], or with other
types of vegetable waste [191]. It can also be vermicomposted [53], in the presence of
earthworm species such as Eisenia fetida or Eudrillus eugeniae. A drawback of composting is
that it is a slow process that requires large spaces and infrastructure for turning, aeration,
and watering the furrows or piles of organic matter. On the other hand, excessive applica-
tion of press sludge to the field for long periods will result in soil contamination, due to
accumulation of heavy metals (zinc, copper, lead) [22,192], and in negative effects on plant
growth [193].
Other domains in which press sludge is used include aquaculture [194]; biosorbent for
some metal ions and dyes from liquid solutions [195]; the production of hydrocarbons and
chemicals [196]; the production of cement, paints, and foaming agents [182]; the production
of biofuels, such as ethanol, biobutanol, and biogas [22] and of biofuel briquettes obtained
from cane straws, bagasse, bagasse ash, and press sludge [197].

3.7. Wastewater from Sugarcane Processing

3.7.1. Characterization of Wastewater from Sugarcane Processing
Wastewater represents the most common waste of the food industry, and in most of the
unitary operations of food product technologies taking place in an aqueous environment
or requiring significant amounts of fresh water.
The sugar industry is one of the main users of fresh water at all stages of the techno-
logical stream, and consequently among the largest generators of wastewater.
In sugarcane factories (mills), wastewater is mainly generated from the washing
operations of floors and equipment on the process stream, in evaporators (condensate
water), by cane juice leaks at improperly attached taps of pipelines, from syrup and
molasses generation stages, and from dewatering of press mud or of other solid waste [198]
(Figure 6).
Sustainability 2022,
2022, 14,
14, 11089
11089 1616of
of 28
27

Figure 6. Operations
Operations in
in sugarcane
sugarcane processing using fresh water and generation of wastewater (taken
with permission
with permission from
from Elsevier,
Elsevier, from
from [199]).
[199]).

example,processing
For example, processingone onetontonof of sugar
sugar beet
beet requires
requires about
about 20 m203 ofmfresh
3 of fresh
waterwater
[200].
As a comparison,
[200]. As a comparison, crushing a ton ofasugarcane
crushing typically
ton of sugarcane consumes
typically consumes 1.5–2 m31.5–2
betweenbetween of fresh
m3
water
of freshand generates
water an average
and generates 1 m3 of of
anofaverage wastewater [190,201]. Some
1 m3 of wastewater sugarcane
[190,201]. Some processing
sugarcane
plants in India
processing plantsproduce between
in India produce0.2–1.8 m3 of 0.2–1.8
between wastewater m3 ofper ton of sugar
wastewater perproduced.
ton of sugar
Wastewater from sugarcane factories has the following characteristics: pH between
produced.
4–7 units, chemical
Wastewater oxygen
from demand
sugarcane (COD) between
factories 1800–3200characteristics:
has the following mg/L, biochemical oxygen
pH between
demand
4–7 units,(BOD
chemical5 ) between
oxygen 720–1500
demand (COD) mg/L,between
solids total at 3500
1800–3200 mg/L,
mg/L, total nitrogen
biochemical oxygen at
1700
demandmg/L, (BOD and total phosphorus
5) between 720–1500 at 100 mg/L
mg/L, [202].atAccording
solids total 3500 mg/L,tototal other studies,atthese
nitrogen 1700
wastewaters
mg/L, and total have aphosphorus
COD between at 2300–8000
100 mg/L mg/L, [202]. BOD 5 between
According to 1700–6600
other studies,mg/L,theseand
total suspended solids at 5000 mg/L [203], and high ammonium
wastewaters have a COD between 2300–8000 mg/L, BOD5 between 1700–6600 mg/L, and content, respectively [198].
total Wastewater
suspended from solidssugar factories
at 5000 mg/Lalso contains
[203], carbohydrates,
and high ammonium nutrients,
content,sulfates, chlo-
respectively
rides,
[198]. heavy metals [204], oils and fats from different equipment [205], pesticides, herbicides,
and pathogens
Wastewater from contaminated
from surfaces
sugar factories or contains
also materials carbohydrates,
[206]. These wastewaters
nutrients,have high
sulfates,
concentrations of organic and inorganic substances, including gaseous
chlorides, heavy metals [204], oils and fats from different equipment [205], pesticides, and solid pollutants.
If they are
herbicides, andnotpathogens
properly treated,
from wastewaters
contaminated from sugarcane
surfaces or processing
materials have[206].negative
These
effects on the environment [207]. After only a week of storage
wastewaters have high concentrations of organic and inorganic substances, including in the raw state, they gas-
will
turn black and emit
eous and solid pollutants. unpleasant odors due to the generation of hydrogen sulfide [190].
In orderare
If they to not
meet the principles
properly treated,ofwastewaters
sustainable development,
from sugarcane modern
processingsugarcane mills
have nega-
aim
tive to reduce
effects on their water consumption
the environment to zero,
[207]. After onlywhich
a weekinvolves water
of storage reuse,
in the recycling,
raw state, they and
will
regeneration. One of the ultimate goals of wastewater management is to eliminate any
turn black and emit unpleasant odors due to the generation of hydrogen sulfide [190].
potential current and future threats of pollutants to living organisms, the environment, and
In order to meet the principles of sustainable development, modern sugarcane mills
human health. Therefore, the proper treatment of wastewater is very important.
aim to reduce their water consumption to zero, which involves water reuse, recycling, and
To achieve different levels of pollutant reduction and removal, wastewater treatment
regeneration. One of the ultimate goals of wastewater management is to eliminate any
processes must be combined in a variety of high-efficiency systems. Wastewater from sugar
potential current and future threats of pollutants to living organisms, the environment,
mills is generally subjected to conventional treatment, which consists of sieving, equaliza-
and human health. Therefore, the proper treatment of wastewater is very important.
tion, sedimentation, coagulation, oxidation in aerated ponds, and serial biofiltration [206],
To achieve different levels of pollutant reduction and removal, wastewater treatment
but there are also ideal situations where conventional purification is complemented by
processes must be combined in a variety of high-efficiency systems. Wastewater from
advanced purification processes such as precipitation, separation (filtration) through mem-
sugar mills is generally subjected to conventional treatment, which consists of sieving,
branes, adsorption and biosorption [208], ion exchange, chemical coagulation, biochemical
equalization, sedimentation, coagulation, oxidation in aerated ponds, and serial biofiltra-
oxidation, and electrochemical oxidation [198,209].
tion [206],
In situbut there are
treatment ofalso ideal situations
wastewater wheretoconventional
allows water be reused and purification is comple-
recycled within the
mented by advanced purification processes such as precipitation,
sugarcane processing plant, and thus contributes to reducing the freshwater requirements separation (filtration)
through
and membranes,
the amounts adsorption
of generated and biosorption [208], ion exchange, chemical coagula-
wastewater.
tion, biochemical oxidation, and electrochemical oxidation [198,209].
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 17 of 27

3.7.2. Valorization of Wastewater from Sugarcane Processing

Wastewater from the manufacture of sugar and ethanol from sugarcane, as the vinasse
(the liquid residue resulting from the distillation of ethanol) can be used for a variety
of purposes.
Due to their content of organic matter and sugars, the wastewater from sugar industry
quickly undergoes fermentation. Thus, it can be used in the generation of bioenergy: anaer-
obic digestion to obtain biogas, bioethanol, and biohydrogen production, etc. Additionally,
sugarcane wastewater can be used as a culture medium for algae from which lipids can be
extracted to obtain biodiesel [10].
These wastewaters can be used in other fermentation processes to obtain products
with added value, such as organic acids (lactic, butyric, acetic) and enzymes (cellulase and
laccase) [210].
Another possibility for valorizing wastewater consists of concentrating it through
evaporation (incineration in boilers), a process from which the steam can be recovered to
be used as a heating agent, and the condensate resulting from evaporation can be treated
and utilized in the factory [10].
Wastewater, like vinasse, contains useful nutrients and therefore it can be applied
as liquid fertilizer [175,180], which is an efficient way of valorization provided that the
wastewater is properly treated and applied under the conditions specific to the culture and
soil type. In addition to providing nutrients, applying wastewater to agricultural fields can
support agriculture in non-irrigated and water-scarce areas where freshwater availability is
very limited [211], on top of the fact that it can reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and
the cost of irrigation water.
However, special attention should be paid to excessive fertigation, which can lead to
adverse effects over time such as absorption of heavy metals into the soil, soil salinization,
decreased yields of agricultural crops, as well as the emergence of risks for the health of
farmers and people who consume crops from the lands irrigated with these waters.

3.8. Sugarcane Molasses

3.8.1. Characterization of Sugarcane Molasses
Molasses is the most important by-product of the sugar industry and is obtained
from sugar crystallization. Molasses is a viscous substance similar to honey and contains
35% sucrose, 20% water, 9% fructose, 7% glucose, 3% reducing sugars, 4% carbohydrates,
4.5% nitrogenous compounds, 5% non-nitrogenous acids, 12% ash, and 5% other sub-
stances [212].
According to [213], sugarcane molasses has the following composition (values in g/kg):
between 735–875 total solids, 447–587 total sugars, 157–469 sucrose, 97–300 sugars reduc-
ing agents, 0.25–1.5 nitrogen, 0.3–0.7 phosphorus, 19–54 potassium, 6–12 calcium, and
4–11 magnesium. It has an acidic pH (5–7 units), mineral and ash content between 8–13%,
and its salt content between 2–8% contributes to the buffering capacity, flavor stabiliza-
tion, and prevention of hydrolysis [214]. Molasses has a chemical oxygen demand of
862.842–935.62 g/L and a biological oxygen demand of 486.35–618.46 g/L [215].

3.8.2. Valorization of Sugarcane Molasses

Sugarcane molasses is usually exploited on industrial scale in the production of: bio-
gas, with the mention that the anaerobic digestion of molasses is limited by high values of
its chemical oxygen demand and ion concentration, as well as melanoidin content [215];
ethanol, with the mention that molasses no longer requires the pretreatment step before
fermentation [216]; and bioethanol [217–220], but also ethyl alcohol, butanol, and ace-
tone [221].
Molasses is also used as a raw material to obtain some food products. It is a major con-
stituent of commercial fine brown sugar but is also used to sweeten and flavor foods [222],
as well as in the alcoholic beverage industry such as rum [223], vodka, and sometimes
beer [224]. Unlike highly refined sugars, molasses also contains significant amounts of
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 18 of 27

vitamin B6 and minerals, including calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese, so it is also
an important dietary supplement.
Molasses is widely used as a supplement in animal feed, as a soil fertilizer, as a
culture medium for the production of microbial transglutaminases [225], as a substrate
for fermentation processes (production of acids: citric, lactic, succinic; alcohols; vitamins;
monosodium glutamate; fructo-oligosaccharides) [60,226,227], and even as a raw material
in cosmetic products (for example, moisturizing hair masks).

4. Conclusions
This paper reviewed the potential for sugarcane processing by-products and waste
to contribute to environmental sustainability and bioeconomy. To meet the increasing
demands of sugar for food and ethanol, the areas cultivated with sugarcane grow from
year to year. Starting with the harvesting of sugarcane, and also on the processing flow,
large volumes of waste and by-products are generated. If they are improperly managed,
they quickly decompose, polluting the environment, and affecting human health. Due
to the concerns about reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the dependence on fossil
fuels, technologies have been developed for the utilization of biomass waste. Bioenergy
is renewable and can be obtained by biochemical and thermochemical methods. Sugar-
cane waste contains different amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignocellulose and
after pretreatment, biogas, bioethanol, biobutanol, synthesis gas, or bio-hydrogen can be
obtained. The largest amount of solid waste from sugar factories is represented by bagasse.
In addition to energy recovery, there are technological options for the valorization of sug-
arcane bagasse as a raw material or additive in obtaining a wide range of products, from
growth media and substrate fermentation, nanomaterials, bioadsorbents, paper, biopoly-
mers, biodegradable household products, construction materials, etc. Liquid waste, which
includes the vinasse from ethanol distillation and wastewater from sugarcane processing
stages, are used to obtain bioenergy, but also as organic fertilizers for agricultural land, with
agricultural and environmental benefits, provided that the wastewater is properly treated
to eliminate dangerous pollutants. Molasses can be used for biofuels without requiring
pretreatment, as a raw material in the food industry (human and animal foods), or in
the cosmetics industry. Although there is a wide range of value-added products that can
be obtained from the by-products and waste of the sugarcane processing stream, not all
technologies are commercially available yet. Thus, efforts are still needed to implement
clean technologies and ecological alternatives for recycling and valorization of waste from
the sugar industry and beyond. Research perspectives will focus on processes optimization
to achieve technological maturity and to allow up-scaling, especially for the valorization
of waste in the fields of biotechnologies and biofuels, so that both the used installations
and the obtained value-added products become commercially available. This study can
represent a starting point for young researchers who address the problem of waste from
the sugar industry and who aim to contribute to mitigating the energy crisis and protecting
the environment.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.U.; methodology, N.U. and V.V.; validation, N.U. and
S.-S, .B.; formal analysis, S.-S, .B.; investigation, N.U.; resources, V.V.; data curation, S.-S, .B.; writing—
original draft preparation, N.U.; writing—review and editing, N.U., V.V. and S.-S, .B.; visualization,
V.V.; supervision, V.V. and S.-S, .B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania, within the PubArt Program.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 11089 19 of 27

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a grant of the Romanian Research and Innova-
tion Ministry, through Programme NUCLEU—PN 19 10 01 05 “Integrated management of works in
agricultural, vineyard and fruit farms”, contract no. 5N/2019.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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