1.

1 Introduction

Environment consists of surroundings which includes abiotic and biotic environment.

Environment refers to sum of all i.e., water, air and land, along with their inter-relationships
among themselves and also other living organisms. Environment can be studied by
interpreting the knowledge from all the disciplines. Global environment constitutes important
segment i.e., atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen and argon are major
gases which account for 99% of air. Hydrosphere consist of sea, ocean, rivers, glaciers, lakes,
reservoirs, polar ice caps, and shallow water ground bodies and about 70% of earth’s surface
covered with water. In the modern era, human beings have exploited natural resources
making the use of latest techniques in fields of information technology, genetic engineering,
and others technologies for enhancing productivity and income which may lead to brighten
our future. Over exploitation of natural resources may lead to starvation for resources and can
create an environment which is not suitable for living organisms. So there is a need to keep
the balance to sustain production level and maintain environment. Polluted air, water, and soil
have negative impact on health and economic opportunities for the humans. Polluted
environment gives birth to harmful biological and chemical agents which have direct or
indirect threats to human health. To face these threats, there is a growing realization at
national and international that proper utilization of environmental endowments of life support
systems such as air, water and soil is a must for sustainable development. Environmental
problems created by large population of human beings may due to individual or collective
actions influence the environment greatly, so there is need to identify environment problems
and to find solution. Individuals should be involved in the process of improving the
environment.

Academic disciplines are created to help us understand the universe better. While nature can
be understood using the disciplines, but not be ‘divided’ into disciplines. For instance, a
certain phenomenon may be referred to as a chemical change while another as a physical one.
But these categories are only perceptions. ‘Environmental studies’ is study about the
environment. Environment cannot be studied from the point of view of any one particular
discipline, but understanding of the interlinks between the complex ways in which one
phenomenon; how one action is connected to another, how the same thing can be understood
from different perspectives, perspectives often rooted in different disciplines.

There is need to create an consensus at national level to give emphasis to environment

science involving the application of scientific and technical information to understand,
manage and conserve the environment and its resources.

1.2 Definitions

Some of the frequently used terms in study of environment are defined as follows:

1.2.1 Environment

• The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’, which
means surrounding. Thus, Environment can be defined as the combined
interaction of physical, chemical and biological conditions affecting an
individual or community in the complex of social and cultural conditions.
1.2.2 Environmental science
 • Environmental science is a systematic study of our environment under
different micro climatic conditions and it is multi disciplinary in nature.
• Environmental science can also be defined as the application of scientific
principles to understand environmental issues by studying the impact of
interaction between different parameters of environment. Many times,
environmental science is related to other sciences like ecology, environmental
education and engineering.
• A relatively new field, environmental science has evolved from integrated use
of many disciplines which include important topics of modern civilization and
applied aspects of environmental science need the basic knowledge of physics,
chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineering, anthropology, sociology,
economics, management, ecology, etc.
• Environmental science integrates natural sciences, social sciences with
environmental ethics, environmental impact and planning.
• Environmental science has emerged as a multi-disciplinary field of study to
access the impact of interaction of living beings and micro environments in
which they live.
1.3 Environmental Science As a Multi Disciplinary Field

Environmental Science is interconnected to many branches of sciences. Some of these are:

1.3.1 Environmental science and biology

• Biology mainly deals with life and environment factors have affect on living
organisms. Interaction between living things and different components of
environment will affect the efficiency and combined effect can be known as
environmental biochemistry.
• Biological processes in nature profoundly influenced by chemical species
existing and these processes will determine the nature of species, their
degradation, and synthesis, both in the aquatic and soil environments. Study of
such phenomena are the basis of biochemistry of environment
1.3.2 Environmental science v/s chemistry

• Chemistry deals with chemical processes occurring in nature. When these

processes are studied in the shape of reaction which affects the existence of
different species, with special reference to air, soil and water environment, this
relationship is termed as environmental chemistry.
• One of environmental chemistry’s major challenges is the determination of the
nature and quantity of specific pollutants in the environments
1.3.3 Relationship between environment and economics

• Economic environment refers to all factors or forces, which contribute to

economic impact on the man, his activities and his region.
• Resources such as agriculture, dairying, fisheries poultry, horticulture,
floriculture and machinery help to improve economic condition. Economic
conditions, internal and external factors such as export and import balances
create favourable economic environment for fast development of the country.
1.3.4 Social system and environment
 • Social environment of the society indicate the mental makeup of man’s
activities and helps the individual to decide his occupation and use of
resources for his development. Infrastructure such as roads, buildings,
settlements, communication setup plantation of horticulture and cropped fields
are major component which helps to create social environment.
• Using the combination of tools of modern technology indigenous technical
knowledge (ITK) can help to fasten the change of physical environment into
cultural environment.
1.3.5 Impact of population on environment

• Work force is a major factor to fasten the role of individual in socio-economic

environment of a country. Population density can have significant effect on
natural environment. It can be observed that high population density have
negative effects on environment.
• The world population, which is growing at alarming rate (annually 1.7 %) has
damaged the environment significantly. The growing trend which is likely to
continue for another three to four decades, which may further damage
physical, social and economic environment at both global and national level.
On the other hand, negative growth rate of population in developed countries
is likely to hamper the development. Many policy makers are considering the
availability of young work force in India asset for development in this changed
scenario.
1.3.6 Political climate and environment

Main political institutions such as Legislature, executive and judiciary which constitutes the
political setup of any country can help to provide visionary leadership. Political decisions by
policy makers can have a direct effect on development and control of various human
activities, which includes formulation of laws related to increase the productivity, income and
town planning. The executives are pillars of policy implementation decided by legislature. A
stable and dynamic political setup is pre requisite for development of the nation. Stable
government can guide the nation by taking firm decisions. In a democratic setup, the
executive should function in public interest and within the boundaries of the constitution.

1.4 Importance

Earth’s living components establish equilibrium with their environment. Environmental

science helps to understand the scientific basis to establish different standards which help to
keep the equilibrium in the ecosystem.

Majority of environmental scientists are of the view that if environmental pollution i.e. air,
water and soil continued at the present rate the change will be irreversible and may cause
damage to ecological cycles and balances in the ecosystem which is may harm the life of
living organisms on the earth.

To maintain the ecological balance in the ecosystems, drastic changes have to be inculcated
in the human behaviour .There is well known fact that universe does not have infinite
resources to support the future generation. Earth’s limited resources must be conserved and
reused where ever possible. Policy makers at global level must devise new strategies to
protect natural ecosystem, keeping balance with economic growth. Future growth of
developing nations depends upon the development of sustainable conservation methods that
protect the environment, while also meeting the basic needs of citizens.

An environmental study is the subject in which we examine important issues relating to

environment as they affect our lives. It is an exploratory description of issues. Each issue can
be probed more deeply.

Many a time development and economic growth cannot go hand on hand. Development
activities are inversely related to environment because development leads to industrialisation
for employment which leads to depletion of natural resources and affect the standard of living
of the citizens. Developing nations are compromised with environment for fast growth in
different sectors to produce goods for domestic use and export which in turn pollute the
environment at the expense of development.

It is hard fact that consumption levels of the consumer life-style of humans is directly related
to environmental problems. Therefore, living habits attitude and ethical standards are the
areas of concern to keep the ecological balance intact.

The government and their agencies, the non-governmental organizations, the judiciary and
now the corporate sector also express a great concern on matters relating natural environment
and ecosystem. Many environmental problems such as depletion of ozone layer, global
warming, destruction and extinction of species, decreasing water table, contamination and
depletion of ground water and problem of increasing population can be solved by educating
the future generations about the impact of development activities on environment.

1.5 Objectives of Environment Education

The objectives of Environmental Education are classified as follows:

• Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals, gain a variety of

experiences and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its
associated problems.
• Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and
sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.
• Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals to acquire a set of values and
promote a feeling of concern for the environment and provide motivation for
actively participating in environmental improvement and protection.
• Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to
be actively involved at all levels, working towards the resolution of
environmental problems.
• Skills : to help social groups and individual to acquires the skills for
identifying and solving environmental problems
• Evaluation Ability: to evaluate environmental measures and education
programs in terms of ecological, economic, social and aesthetic factors.
The overall goal of environmental education can be expressed in another form as three
principal objectives (UNESCO, 1977a).

1. To foster clear awareness and concern about economic, social, political and
ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas.
2. To create new patterns of behaviors of individuals, groups and society as a
whole towards the environment.
 3. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,
attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the
environment
1.6 Scope

The wide spread use of chemicals in agriculture and industry has introduced new dimensions
to sustain eco balance in the system. This possesses potential threat to human health through
the spread of pollutants through water and soil, as well as through food chain. The need for
use of environment science is drawing the intention of policy makers for pollution control to
sustain the life and nature. Study of environmental science helps us to understand the various
components of environment and disturbing factors and helps to find solution to overcome the
negative effect of these factors. The industrial waste which contains highly toxic elements
like lead, mercury and arsenic is discriminately discharged into the rivers. The water used for
drinking, irrigation and other purposes from these contaminated sources is a serious threat to
the human health. Study of environment science has helped in manufacturing pollution
control equipment, sewage and effluent treatment plants, and biomedical waste treatment.
The essence of environmental science is multidisciplinary in nature and helps to identify
environmental issues which are directly or indirectly concerned with environment. College
and university students, corporate houses can prove leaders to protect the environment and
conservation of natural resources by understanding the multidisciplinary nature of
environment studies. Policy makers from various government organisations can play an
important role to protect and conserve environment by understanding the nature of
environmental issues facing the country. Natural resources of any country are either
renewable or non renewable. Most countries are exploiting their resources at fast rate.
Increased population is creating stress on these resources. India, being in the phase of
development is exploiting its resources at a fast rate. Increasing industrialisation,
deforestation, soil erosion, increased mode of transformation and adoption of high intensity
agriculture has contributed to degradation of environment .Our ecosystem which is
constituted of air, soil and water cannot survive for long, unless efforts are made to protect
the environment from pollutants. Without suitable habitat, living organisms cannot survive.
With increased level of living standards, rate of consumption and disposal of waste has
created problems due to enhanced activities for product manufacturing, marketing, and
management, etc. Changed environment doesn’t affect only the poor but also affects the rich
people. Environmental studies has lot of scope in the areas like control of environment
pollution, conservation and management of natural resources, balance disturbance in ecology
and biodiversity ,control and education of human population and systematic development
with keeping eye on environment pollution .Environmental science is problem oriented and
seeks knowledge about the natural environment and its impact on living organisms. So there
is a need of best idea and information to deals success fully with environmental problems

1.7 Need for Awareness

Life on earth emerged approximately 2.6 billion years ago and since then planet is being
affected by number of species of organisms which flourished and died. Men acquired the
capacity to change the environment faster than any other organisms on this planet. For his
comfort he has exploited soil for agriculture industry, for manufacturing goods , transport and
communication, which has lead to disturbing the ecological balance due to degradation of life
supporting system including air ,water and land. It is the need of the hour that humans are
educated about the effect of degraded environment on human health. Degraded environment
is going to affect both developed and developing countries alike. Following steps can be
initiated to educate the masses about the pathetic state of environment and to improve the
environment for future generations.

1. Environmental science knowledge should be used to educate the masses about

the problems being faced by present generation as well as the problems to be
faced by future generation. Government of India, particularly ministry of
agriculture in cooperation with ministry of environment and forest can launch
campaigns, so that people can be educated about the importance of
environment healthy plantation. State governments should activate the
machinery to generate awareness about the impact of forest in maintaining
ecological balance. At global level world environment day celebrated on 5th
June every year which can be undertaken as plantation day.
2. Multimedia can play leading role for dissemination of information by using
different tools like advertisements, group discussion, feature films, video
conferencing, and website and internet services.
3. Printing media can initiate the campaigns regarding impact of degraded
environment on living organisms by publishing articles through newspapers,
magazines, newsletters.
4. Awareness campaign can be launched through displaying several holdings,
posters at prominent places and organising exhibitions, face to face
interaction, online e-mail service, SMS service throughout the country.
5. Individual actions can inspire large number of people. Therefore individual
efforts can significantly influence the environment. Individuals can involve
themselves in different activities for improving environment.
6. Social and political movement, environmentalism (code of conduct for
achieving better environmental management) can have significant effect to
save the ecosystem for future generations.
Lot of people talk about degradation of environment and preach for clean environment, but
only selective people have clear vision about this scope and need of safe guarding the interest
to keep balance between development and degradation of environment. There is a need to use
the experience of experts to implement the developmental projects. Many times environment
awareness campaign have been exploited for political propaganda rather than educational
programmes to educate the people about actual impacts of the project, for example the issue
of Enron Power Project (Dabhol Power Project) now called Ratnagiri Power Project in
Konkan area of Maharashtra, was much politicized and the environmental issues were put
forth as political propaganda.

Awareness regarding the state of environment is must for every human being living on this
planet. Already world is surrounded by several environmental problems, the effect of which
is directly felt by its inhabitants. Nobody can escape the wrath if fallen, may it be the people
of developing countries or those from the developed ones.

Looking at the present pathetic state of environment and the knowledge people have about it,
it has become evident for every country to educate their masses, so that they could start
understanding the problems that they are facing at present and would have to face in future.
In fact, almost all nations of world have geared up in creating awareness in their people.

The media is playing a leading role in this process. Several means are being employed to
educate the masses. Various advertisements, documentaries, feature films etc. are being made
to be telecasted on the video media. Newspapers and other magazines are publishing out lot
of articles on this subject.

Government with its separate ministry - Ministry of Environment and Forest has also
launched many campaigns like displaying several hoardings, posters etc. throughout the
country. The state ministries are also playing important roles in generating awareness in
masses.

Plantation of several trees on various occasions, especially on World Environment Day which
falls on 5th June is undertaken on large scale.

The complex link between human activities and the loss of biodiversity is rapidly coming to
light. Loss of habitats and poaching of wildlife is more obvious now a day. But more
complex and unsuspected links are being thrown up as scientists go deeper into the subject.
For example, the recent study suggest that rapid decline of species of vultures in South Asia
could be result of a veterinary drug given to cattle which is eventually passed on to vultures
when they feed one of the carcasses of these animals. This particular observation and many
much more complex observations are based on deep study that is being done in field of
Environment Sciences.

Similarly, while atmospheric science and chemistry may seem distantly related subjects, it
was the study of CFCs (chloro fluoro carbon) and their impact on ozone that finally led to an
understanding of the ozone ‘hole’ and the Montreal Protocol (a commitment by governments
to phase out the use of CFCs), which has been one of the success stories of a global response
to a global problem.
 INTRODUCTION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM

2.1 Introduction

The term ecosystem is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all the living
and non-living factors of the environment. The terms biocoenosis, microcosm, biocoenosis or
geobiocoenosis, holocoen, biosystem, bioinert body and ecocosm, respectively are used to
express similar ideas. However, the term ecosystem is most preferred, where eco refers the
environment, and system implies an interacting and interdependent complex. The organisms
of any community besides interacting among themselves always have functional relationship
with the environment. This structural and functional system of communities and environment
is called ecological system or ecosystem. It is the basic functional unit in ecology, since it
includes both biotic and abiotic environment, influencing each other for maintenance of life.

An ecosystem may, in its simplest form, be defined as a self-sustained community of plants

and animals existing in its own environment. An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of
pond water (microecosystem) or as large as ocean. It can be of temporary nature, e.g., a fresh
pool or a field of cultivated crops, or permanent e.g., a forest or an ocean. A balanced
aquarium may be thought of as an artificially established self-sustained ecosystem.

2.2 Characteristics of Ecosystem

According to Smith (1966), the ecosystem has the following general characteristics:

1. It is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. Its structure is related to its species diversity; the more complex ecosystems
have high species diversity and vice versa.
3. Its function is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within
the system.
4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its
structure. The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to
maintain itself.
5. It matures by passing from fewer complexes to more complex states. Early
stages of each succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively
high energy flow per unit biomass. Later (mature) stages have less energy
accumulation and its flow through more diverse components.
6. Both the environment and the energy fixation in any given ecosystem are
limited and cannot be exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects.
7. Alternations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the
population to which it must adjust. Organisms which are unable to adjust to
the changed environment must necessarily vanish.
2.3 Kinds of Ecosystems

Artificially ecosystems may be classified as follows:

2.3.1 Natural ecosystems

These operate under natural conditions without any major interference by man. On the basis
of the type of habitat these may be further divided as:
a) Terrestrial

Forest, grassland, desert, etc.

b) Aquatic

1. Fresh water - which may be lotic (e.g., running water as spring, stream or
rivers) or lentic (e.g., standing water as lake, pond, pools, puddles, ditch,
swamp, etc.).
2. Marine - such deep bodies as ocean or shallow ones as seas or an estuary, etc.
2.3.2 Artificial (Man - engineered) ecosystems

These are maintained artificially by man whereby addition of energy and planned
manipulation, natural balance is disturbed regularly, e.g. cropland ecosystem.

In addition to above types, some other types such as spacecraft and microecosystem have also
been recognised.
An outline of classification of the ecosystems is in
A detailed account of the various major ecosystems may follow in the later part of this
chapter.

2.4 Structure of the Ecosystem

All ecosystems, whether terrestrial, fresh water, marine or man-engineered, consist of

following major components:

1. Species components
2. Stratification
3. Trophic organisation—relationship of food between various layers
4. Nutrients—required for living organisms
2.4.1 Biotic (living) components

This comprises of all the living organisms. On the nourishment (or trophic) standpoint, they
may be divided into two categories:

The autotrophs (autotrophic = self nourishing)

These are green plants and certain photosynthetic or chemosynthetic bacteria which can
convert the light energy of sun into potential chemical energy in the form of organic
compounds needed by plants for their own growth and development. Oxygen is produced as a
by-product of photosynthesis, needed by all living organisms for respiration. These green
plants are also known as producers because they produce food for all the other organisms.

The heterotrophs (heterotrophic = other nourishing)

They are dependent directly or indirectly upon the autotrophs for their food. The organisms
involved are also known as consumers because they consume the materials built up by
producers. These may be subdivided into two kinds:

Macroconsumers (or Phagotrophs, Phago = to eat)

These are organisms which ingest food and digest it inside their bodies. They may be
herbivores (plant eating), carnivores (= animal eating), or omnivores (= eating all kind of
food). The herbivores are primary consumers. For example, insects like grass hopers, chew
up stems and leaves, animals like goat, cow, deer and rabbit eat up entire aerial portion of
green plants, and man eats up plant products, are all primary consumers. Frog, a carnivore, is
a secondary consumer as it eats the herbivores, the snake that eats the frog is a tertiary
consumer, there is also a class of top consumers, which are not killed and eaten by any other
animals e.g. lion, tiger, leopard, vulture, etc.

Microconsumers (Saprotrophs, sapro = to decompose, or osmotrophs, osmo = to pass through

a membrane)
These are the organisms which secrete digestive enzymes to breakdown food into simpler
substances and then absorb the digested food. They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic
bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. They are also known as decomposers because of their role
in decomposition of dead organic matter. However, the parasites are not decomposers and
also some consumers (e.g. insects and such small animals) also which help in decomposition
by breaking down the organisms into small bits. Keeping this in view, Wiegert and Owens
(1970) suggested the classification of heterotrophs into two categories, biophages (= feeding
on living organisms) and saprophages (= feeding on dead organic matter). Decomposers
breakdown the complex compounds of dead or living protoplasm, absorb some of the
decomposition products and release inorganic nutrients which are cycled back to the soil and
the atmosphere from where they are once again made available to the primary producers.

Such a division of organisms based on the type of nutrition gives rise to the trophic structure
of the ecosystem and the energy source used which is one kind of producer-consumer
arrangement, where each food level is known as trophic level. The amount of living material
in different trophic levels or in a component population is known as the standing crop, a term
applicable to both, plants as well as animals. The standing crop may be expressed in terms of
organism’s mass, which can be measured as living weight, dry weight, ash-free dry weight or
carbon weight or calories or any other convenient unit suitable for comparative purposes.

In nature simple food chains occur only rarely. There are several food chains linked together,
and intersecting each other to form a network known as food web.

2.4.2 Abiotic components

Structurally abiotic components include -

1. Climate regime: Precipitation, temperature, light, and other physical factors.

2. Inorganic substances: Elements such as C, N, H, O, P, S, etc., involved in
material cycles.
3. Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances
that link the abiotic components with the biotic components (for details see
any elementary book on ecology).
The minerals and atmospheric gases keep on cycling. They enter into biotic systems and after
the death and decay of organisms return to the soil and atmosphere. This is known as
biogeochemical cycle. This circulation of materials involves trapping of the solar energy by
the green plants which are ultimately lost by the organisms in several ways. The amount of
abiotic materials present in an ecosystem is called standing stage.
2.5 Functions

The function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of materials which
ensures stability of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological processes
including interaction between the abiotic environment and the communities. For the sake of
convenience, the ecosystem dynamics may be analysed in terms of the following: (i) food
chains, (ii) food pyramids, (iii) energy flow, (iv) nutrient cycles, (v) development and
evolution of ecosystem, and (vi) homeostasis and stability of ecosystem.
 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM AND ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

3.1 Ecosystem Functioning

To understand clearly the nature of the ecosystem, its function must be thoroughly
investigated. The function of the ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of
materials which ensures stability of the system and continuity of life. These two ecological
processes including interaction between the abiotic environment and the communities may be
considered as the ‘heart’ of the ecosystem functioning. For the sake of convenience, the
ecosystem dynamics may be analysed in terms of the following: (i) food chains, (ii) food
pyramids, (iii) energy flow, (iv) nutrient cycles, (v) development and evolution of ecosystem,
and (vi) homeostasis and stability of ecosystem.

3.2 Ecological Energetics

In ecological energetics one is mainly interested in the (i) quantity of solar energy reaching
an ecosystem, (ii) quantity of energy used by green plants in the process of photosynthesis
and (iii) the quantity and path of energy flow from producers to consumers.

In the earth’s atmosphere about 15 X 108 calories m-2 yr-1 of solar energy is received
(Phillipson, 1966). The fate of solar radiations upon its incidence on earth’s surface is shown
in . About 34% of the solar radiations reaching the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back into
space by clouds and the suspended dust particles in the atmosphere; 9% is further held by
ozone, water vapour and other atmospheric gases. Remaining 47% reaches the earth’s
surface. In fact, only 1 to 5% of the energy reaching the ground is converted by green plants
to chemical energy, and 42 to 46% is absorbed as heat by ground, vegetation or water. Water
budget showed that 45% of the incoming radiation was dissipated by transpiration of 370 t
ha-1 of water from the crop. The quantity of solar radiation received at any place not only
depends upon the clarity of the atmosphere, but also on the latitude of the area. The equatorial
region receives maximum solar radiation followed by other regions of the tropics. The
quantity of energy goes on decreasing with increase in latitude both in the northern and
southern hemispheres.

3.2.1 Energy flow in the ecosystem

The behaviour of energy in ecosystem can be conveniently termed as energy flow because of
unidirectional energy transformations. Total energy flow that constitutes the energy
environment has already been dealt in detail, and now we take up the study of that portion of
the total energy flow that passes through the biotic components of the ecosystem. Entrance of
energy, its retention within the ecosystem and dissipation into space, are governed by two
laws of thermodynamics. According to the first law, the law of conservation of energy, in a
closed system, no energy comes in or escapes out and not created or destroyed but may be
altered from one form to another. The second law of thermodynamics, the law of entropy,
states that there is always a tendency for increase in entropy or degradation from a
concentrated (non-random) to a dispersed (random) form leading to dissipation of heat. All
the energy entering the earth’s surface can be accounted for. Some energy is used in
photosynthesis; the rest is used in converting the water into vapours or heating the soil and
air. Ultimately the energy reflected back to outer space as heat. Out of the amount of energy
so fixed by green plants, some is released again in respiration. The fixed energy, in the form
of food, then passes from plant source through herbivores to carnivores. At each stage of food
transfer, potential energy is released, resulting in further loss of a large part of energy. The
energy flow, thus follows the second law of thermodynamics.

3.3 Biogeochemical Cycles

The absorption and utilization of elements by organisms is compensated by their recycling

and regeneration back into the environment by the breakdown of these organic compounds
again. The more or less cyclic paths of these elements in the biosphere from environment to
organisms and into the environment back are called biogeochemical cycles (Bio - living
organisms, Geo - rock, soil, air, water).

Many elements enter living organisms in the gaseous state from the atmosphere or as water
soluble salts from the soil. As the flux of these elements through an ecosystem gives some
measure of its continuity and productivity, the analysis of exchange of various components of
the biosphere is essential. Furthermore, society depends upon this life-support system of the
earth for sustained and increased production of food, fodder, fibre and fuel.

These biogeochemical cycles may be categorized into three global types:

1. The hydrological cycle, involving the movement of water.

2. The gaseous cycle of carbon, oxygen and nitrogen
3. The sedimentary (non-gaseous) cycle of remaining nutrient elements e.g.
phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. Sulphur is to extent intermediate, since
H2S or SO2, formed under some circumstances, adds a gaseous component to
its normally sedimentary cycle. These elements normally do not cycle through
the atmosphere in the absence of a gaseous phase. The elements concerned in
the sedimentary cycle are earthbound and follow a basic pattern of flow
through erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity and
biological transport (e.g. through the excreta of marine birds). Sedimentary
cycles are much less perfect than gaseous in that some of the element may get
stuck in certain phase of the cycle.
3.3.1 Hydrologic (Water) cycle

The important cycle among all the materials is that of water. Water is by far the most
important substance necessary for life. It is very important ecological factor that determines
the structure and function of the ecosystem, and regulates the plant environment to a large
extent. The cycling of all other elements is also dependent upon water as it provides the
solvent medium for their uptake. It provides H+ for reduction of CO2 in photosynthesis. It has
moderating effect on the temperature of the surrounding area by virtue of its heat absorbing
ability. Protoplasm the very basis of life is made up of 85 to 95% of water. The content varies
in different tissues of the organism and in different plants and animals. Human blood is 90%
water. Water cycle involves an exchange of water between the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere via precipitation and evapo-transpiration. Water covers about 75% of the earth’s
surface, occurring in lakes, rivers, seas, oceans, etc. The ocean occupies 70% of the surface
and contains 97% of all the water on earth. Much of the remainder is frozen in the ice caps
and glaciers. The water in rivers and lake is comparatively small. Less than 1% is in the form
of ice-free fresh waters in rivers, lakes and aquifers. Yet this relatively negligible portion of
the planet’s water is crucially important to all forms of terrestrial and aquatic life. There is
also a large underground supply of water. Soils near the surface also serve as reservoirs for
enormous quantities of water.
Every year 4.46 G of water comes in the form of rainfall of which 3.47 G precipitates over
the ocean’s surface. About 1 G rainfall occurs over land mass of which 0.2 G runs away and
0.6 G evaporates again, and only a small quantity (0.2 G) is stored as underground water.
0.13 G water moves in the form of water vapour and clouds from ice caps present on South
and North poles and on the top of high mountains. Only about 0.004% (~10 G) of the total
water is all the time moving in the cycle as much of earth’s water is in cold storage. Glaciers
and the ice caps cover 11% of the world’s land area; permanent frozen ground holds another
10% area in its grip, while 30 to 50% of the land is covered with snow at any given time.
Icebergs and pack ice occupy 25% of the ocean area. Therefore of all fresh water is locked up
as ice, mostly in Antarctica and Greenland.

3.3.2 Carbon cycle

Carbon is present in atmosphere, mainly in the form of carbon dioxide, and thus it cycles in
this gaseous phase. Though it is a minor constituent of the atmosphere (0.032% v/v), as
compared to oxygen (~21% v/v) and nitrogen (~79% v/v), yet without carbon dioxide no life
could exist, for it is vital to the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis in plants,
the basic building blocks for other organic compounds needed in metabolic synthesis and
incorporation of the carbon with the protoplasm. Fig. 10.3 illustrates the global carbon cycle.
Carbon from atmospheric pool moves to green plants (producers), then to animals
(consumers), and finally from these to bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms
(decomposers) that return it to the atmosphere, through decomposition of dead organic
matter. Some of this is also returned to the atmosphere through respiration at various levels in
the food chain. It is estimated that half of the carbon fixed is subsequently returned to the soil
in the form of decomposing organic matter. Fig. 10.3 illustrates the global cycle of carbon
indicating the quantities involved at various levels. The atmospheric pool (711 X 109 tons) is
very small as compared to that of carbon in ocean (39,000 X 109 tons) and in fossil fuels
(12,000 X 109 tons). Before the onset of industrial revolution flows among atmosphere,
continents and oceans were balanced, but with industrialization and urban development this
equilibrium appears to be disturbed. Fossil fuel burning, forest fire, deforestation and
agriculture are some of the important sources of new input. On the contrary, forests are
important carbon “sinks” as forest biomass is estimated to contain 1.5 times and forest humus
4 times the amount of carbon in the atmosphere.

There are two main sources of carbon in the abiotic world:

1. The rocks containing carbonates such as lime stone in the earth’s crust.
2. The carbon dioxide of the air and that dissolved in water.
In addition, there is present large amounts of carbon in fossil fuel (coal, petroleum, natural
gas, etc.) but this is not available to the plants until and unless it is burned to produce carbon
dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is released from carbonate rocks by acids resulting from geological action
and also by acids formed during fermentation and by bacteria that produce nitric acid and
sulphuric acid. An insignificant amount of carbon dioxide is also produced by activity by
bacterium Carboxydismonas oligocarbophila which oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas for aerobic organisms including man) is not of
common occurrence in nature but may be produced due to partial combustion of fossil fuel.
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, some of it reacts to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
which immediately produces carbonate (CO2-3) and bicarbonate (HCO-3) ions.
The richest source of stored carbon today is in the ocean, and in the form of these ions. The
oceans contain about 50 times more carbon dioxide than in the atmosphere. This regulates
atmospheric carbon dioxide than in the atmosphere. This regulates atmospheric carbon
dioxide content level to 0.03% despite photosynthetic uptake. Thus, there is a continuous
exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and organisms on the one hand and
between the atmosphere and sea on the other hand. However, the majority of ocean-dissolved
CO2 (HCO-3) is below the thermocline and inaccessible for rapid exchange with the
atmosphere. The immediate source of CO2 for exchange is thus restricted to relatively small
quantity of epilimnic CO2. The sea water being rich in calcium and being alkaline (NaOH)
helps in accelerating the process of carbonate decomposition. About 48 ml l-1 CO2 occurs as
carbonate in sea water. Such deposits in the form of coral reefs and calcium carbonate rocks
are common in the tropical regions of the oceans. In warm climates, high temperatures and
greater salinity and alkalinity favour the process of carbonate decomposition, and it is also
reflected in thicker, shells of moluscs

The carbon dioxide has the unique property of absorbing infra-red radiations. While the small
quantities of carbon dioxide are helpful in keeping the earth warm, the enhanced atmospheric
carbon dioxide results in rise in the temperature of the atmosphere much in the same way as
glass houses do (i.e. they permit the radiations to pass through and strike the earth, but once
converted into heat and reflected upwards, the heat waves are absorbed by carbon dioxide
rich atmosphere and cause rise in temperature) and in turn, causes rise in ocean level shows
the carbon cycle in an ecosystem.

3.3.3 Oxygen cycle

Oxygen which is in abundance (20.9476% v/v) in the atmosphere is another indispensable

material for life. According to Broecker (1970), each square metre of the earth’s surface is
covered by 60,000 moles (about a ton) of oxygen gas. Terrestrial, aquatic and marine plants,
during photosynthesis release about 8 moles of oxygen annually for each square metre of the
earth’s surface. Nearly all of this gaseous oxygen is utilized in the process of respiration by
plants, animals and bacteria with the result that the amount of oxygen consumed is almost
equal to that of released in the atmosphere. However, there is a small net addition of oxygen
to the atmosphere (about 1 part in 15 million parts of the oxygen present), which probably
does not bring about any change in the oxygen content, as much of this is utilized in the
oxidation of carbon, iron, sulphur and other minerals during the normal process of
weathering.

Oxygen in bound state, occurs as oxides of carbonates in rocks, and in water. Oxygen
dissolved in water is the main source of oxygen for aquatic plants, which may act as one of
the limiting factors in their growth and development. Another important phase of oxygen is
the ozone layer (oxygen acted on by short-wave radiation to produce ozone), of the outer
atmosphere, which by shielding out the deadly ionizing short-wave ultraviolet radiations,
protects the life. Oxygen is thus present in atmosphere in sufficiently large quantities and
there is no possibility of oxygen deficiency on global scale even if all the earth’s organic
matter including the fossil fuel is burnt.

3.3.4 Nitrogen cycle

Gaseous nitrogen is the most abundant element of the atmosphere (78.084% v/v), and seems
to have a highly complex nutrient cycle in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This
substance is very important for plants and animals as an essential, constituent component of
chlorophyll and proteins. Despite its immense value and indispensable nature it is never taken
directly from the atmosphere by animals or higher plants. Atmospheric nitrogen is rather inert
and does not readily participate in any reaction. A generalized nitrogen cycle is shown in.

The chief sources of nitrogen for plants are nitrates in the soil. The atmospheric nitrogen is
fixed symbiotically as well as asymbiotically by a variety of microorganisms. The chief
nitrogen fixers are bacteria belonging to the genus Rhizobium found in root nodules of
legumes. Asymbiotic nitrogen fixers are some blue green algae, like Anabaena and Nostoc,
aerobic bacteria like Azotobacter, and anaerobic bacteria like Clostridium. Certain
photosynthetic bacteria like Rhodospirillum are also nitrogen fixers. Some proportion of
atmospheric nitrogen is fixed during lightening also. The fixed atmospheric nitrogen reaches
the soil as nitrates, which are taken up by plants for manufacture of complex nitrogenous
compounds which in turn, are eaten by animals. The dead organic matter formed due to death
of plants and animals is decomposed by various types of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi
occurring in soil and water. This releases nitrogen either in free stage or as ammonia gas in
the atmosphere. Ammonia gas may reach the soil as nitrates through the activity of nitrifying
microbes, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. Some nitrates of soil due to activity of denitrifying
microbes, Pseudomonas, may also be converted to free nitrogen gas returning to the
atmosphere. This inorganic nitrogen is again recycled into the organic system upon
absorption by higher plants. It is presumed that the fixation of nitrogen by microorganisms is
generally in equilibrium with denitrification.

But in recent years there has been high quantity of atmospheric nitrogen fixation by Industrial
process (Haber’s process). Nitrogen so fixed is not readily and fully denitrified so as to cause
accumulation of nitrates or ammonia in water and soil. The accumulation of nitrates in water
causes eutrophication. NO2 from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel in automobiles
further pollute the environment. It appears that through photochemical and electrical fixation
2.5 x 107 ty-1 and through biological fixation 5-(6)x 109 ty-1 of nitrate is formed. Industrial
nitrogen fixation including oxides of nitrogen formed during fossil fuel combustion is 8 x
107 ty-1. Nitrogen fixed by microorganisms is 1-(2) x 108 ty-1, which is presumed almost
equal to that of denitrification. A tiny fraction of annual N-fixation is lost to fossilization in
sediments because the anaerobic sedimentary environment is favourable to denitrifying
bacteria.

3.3.5 Sulphur cycle

Sulphur is a component of sedimentary cycle. It is found in the gaseous forms (H2S, SO2,
etc.) in the atmosphere, and as sulphates, sulphides and organic-sulphur in the soil. SO2 gas
present in the atmosphere is produced volcanically, by burning of vegetation, and now in
copious quantities by oxidation of sulphides and organo-S in fossil fuels. H2S and dimethyl
sulphide are commonly formed by the activity of anaerobic bacteria. The elemental and
organic sulphur, and SO42- are formed through oxidation of H2S. SO2 and H2S from the
atmosphere are returned to the soil through precipitation. Sulphur in the form of sulphates
(SO42-) is the principal available form that is reduced and incorporated into proteins by
autotrophs. Sulphur is an essential constituent of certain amino acids (cysteine, cystine, and
methionine), the peptide glutathione and certain vitamins or enzyme cofactors (thiamine,
biotine, and thiotic acid). It is the mercaptan, containing the thiol (-SH, or sulphydryl) group,
and as the corresponding oxidized disulfide form that sulphur is most reactive in the plant.

The sulphur cycle links air, water and soil, where microbes play a key role. The sulphur is
incorporated in the tissues of autotrophs as -SH in the proteins. It passes through the grazing
food chain and excess of it is released through the faeces of animals. Within the detritus food
chain the decomposition of proteins releases sulphur. Under aerobic conditions Aspergillus
and Neurospora and under anaerobic conditions the bacteria like Escherichia and Proteus are
largely responsible for the decomposition. In anaerobic soils and sediments H2S is formed by
sulphate reducing bacteria like Desulphonovibrio desulfuricans which utilize the oxygen in
the sulphate molecule to obtain energy and in turn reduce the sulphate in deep sediments to
H2S gas:

In iron-rich materials, much of this H2S is scavenged by ferrous iron to produce the very
insoluble, black FeS. Many photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria play an important
role in sulphur metabolism. Chemoautotrophic colourless bacteria like Beggiatoa, Thiothrix
and Thiobacillus occurring in H2S containing water oxidizes H2S to S or S to SO42- when the
H2S supply is exhausted.

Thiobacillus thiooxidans under highly acidic conditions (up to pH 0.6) may convert sulphur
to sulphuric acid of 10% concentration and thus strongly acidify the soil. There are also green
sulphur (e.g. Chlorobium) and purple-sulphur (e.g. Chromatium) photosynthetic bacteria that
use the H2S as the source of hydrogen in reducing CO2.
Light

Green bacteria are able to oxidize H2S only to elemental sulphur, whereas the purple one can
carry oxidation to sulphate stage. Sulphur cycle plays a key role in the metabolism of other
nutrients like iron, copper, cadmium, zinc, cobalt etc. For example, when iron is precipitated
as sulphide, phosphorus is converted from insoluble to soluble form and thus becomes
available to organisms.

3.3.6 Phosphorus cycle

Like sulphur, phosphorus is also a component of sedimentary cycle. It is an essential

component as in the form of ATP it acts as an energy carrier. It is comparatively less
abundant in natural ecosystems, particularly in terrestrial ecosystems and occurs in meager
amounts in aquatic ecosystems too. The phosphorus is made available to the plants form the
phosphatic rocks by slow weathering process. The phosphatic (inorganic phosphates typically
orthophosphate ions) are metabolised in the plant body and pass through the food chain to
animals, and then to decomposers (as food as well as through death and decay) in the form of
organic phosphate, which is subsequently made available in the soil for reutilization through
mineralisation and decomposition. However, a major proportion of phosphorus becomes lost
to this central cycle through run off to the deep sediments of the oceans and in biological
processes, such as formation of teeth and bones. On the contrary some quantities of
phosphates are returned back to the earth in the form of bird guana (excreta) and fishes. In
recent years the excessive use of phosphate fertilizers and the detergents is a problem of
global concern as it has been considered responsible for accelerated eutrophication of water
bodies.
3.3.7 Calcium cycle

It is important element needed by plants for building their cell walls and by animals for bone
formation. It is being regularly added to the soil pool through the weathering of rocks and
through atmosphere. A large proportion of this is kept in a state of cycling by uptake from
soil into the biotic pool of plants and animals and their return through litter fall, death and
decay via detritus food chain. Only a small portion is lost out of the ecosystem through
stream flow and this is replenished by weathering and precipitation.

3.3.8 Cycle of toxic elements

Several non-essential elements like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic and fluorine, despite
their substantial toxicity are freely cycled through biological systems in well regulated and
balanced manner. Growing industrial use, mining operations and other man’s activities
tended to perturb this equilibrium and upset the balance towards greater accumulation and
lesser dispersion of toxic elements. A very significant role in the mobility and dispersion of
these elements in the biosphere is played by microorganisms.

3.3.8.1 Mercury

It is one of the most important toxic elements which is now increasingly (about four-fold)
discharged in soils and water as an unwanted by-product of certain industrial and agricultural
activities. Mercury cycle is better known and the potential rate determining the role of
biomethylation of mercury in an ecosystem involving lakes, rivers, coastal environment, soil,
etc., is now well established. The natural level of mercury in soils is as high as 0.04 ppm, and
in water 0.06 ppm. The amount of mercury found in the air depends on conditions of the
environment. The element is poisonous in the metallic state, as inorganic salts of mercury or
in the form of organic mercury compounds. It does not have to be ingested being poisonous.
Metallic mercury gives off vapours at room temperature; some of the metal even vaporizes at
the freezing point of water and this being highly volatile gets dispersed into biosphere.
Elemental mercury can exist in three alternative states, viz., Hg22+, Hg2+ and HgO and certain
microorganisms are capable of interconverting the three forms. Naturally occurring methyl-
vitamin B12 compounds can aid the synthesis of methyl mercury as well as dimethyl mercury
in natural habitats. The bioaccumulation of mercury is greatly facilitated by the natural
synthesis of stable alkylmercury compounds (Wood, 1974). About 25% of the world mercury
production form chlorine plant, where mercury is used as in electrolyte electrode, escapes in
fuel gases. Methyl mercury compounds formed probably in sulphide-rich sediments by the
activity of Methanobacterium amelankis are also highly toxic and move in the ecosystem
either in solution or as atmospheric volatiles. Methyl mercury chloride is particularly toxic to
animals as it is easily passed across cell membranes. Dimethyl mercury, which is highly
volatile, passes into the air and decomposes into CH4, C2H6 and Hg2O, thus causing air
pollution.

The mercury cycle shows that the mercury in ecosystem passes through food chain or by
inhalation of dust or ingestion of surface-contaminated food. Mercury pollution can be best
assessed by measuring the concentration of total mercury in sediments and also the rate of
uptake of methyl mercury by fish.
3.3.8.2 Arsenic

It also has a biological cycle in nature. It is an element that is intermediate between the metals
and non-metals. It is more abundant in nature as compared to mercury. In drinking water it
may occur at levels of upto 50 ppm, whereas mercury levels commonly do not exceed 1 ppm.
Arsenic compounds are known as to accumulate through food chains (Summers and Silver,
1978), with the result that even small doses can be lethal. Severe poisoning of human can be
caused by as little as 100 mg, and 130 mg found to be fatal. It occurs in rocks, soils and water
at much higher levels than does in mercury. It is found in many vegetables and fruits. Some
marine organisms, especially shellfish tend to concentrate arsenic within their bodies, which
may contain more than 100 ppm. For example, 174 ppm in prawn, 42 ppm in shrimp, and 40
ppm in bass. In moist soils, it is present upto 500 ppm. It has also been detected at
concentration of 10 to 70 ppm in several commonly marketed house hold detergents. It may
often stimulate plant growth in very low concentrations, but is injurious in excessive
quantities. Destruction of chlorophyll appears to be the main effect. As little as 1 ppm of
arsenic trioxides in the water has caused injury into plants. U.S. Public Health Service in
1942 set a safe limit of 0.05 ppm, and in 1962 it recommended a maximum of 0.01 ppm in
drinking water. There is also evidence that arsenic accumulates in the livers of mammals.
Skin cancer has been found to be associated in several regions with arsenic intake in drinking
water.

Arsenate is reduced to arsenite and then microbially methylated to form dimethylarsine and
trimethylarsine. The conversion of arsenate through arsenite and methylarsenic acid occurs in
lake sediments; di-and tri-methylarsines are released in water. These become oxidized in air
to less toxic dimethylarsenic acid. The dimethylarsenic acid is thus cycled between air and
sediment (Wood, 1974). Dimethylarsine is highly toxic to fish and other organisms.

3.3.8.3 Lead

The lead is prevalent in the natural environment. The earth’s crust contains an average of
about 10 to 15 ppm lead, though the content in rock, soil and water is extremely variable.
Lead enters the environment in enormous quantities and particularly efficiently dispersed to
the atmosphere by the use of tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead as antiknock additives to petrol
(gasoline), which may contain about 2 g Pb gal-1. About 2.5 X 108 kg y-1 Pb enters the oceans
from this source and the mean sea-water concentration has increased almost seven fold
during the past 50 years and is now about 0.07 µ g kg-1 (Goldberg, 1971).

Normally lead is not strongly absorbed from soil, by plants. The main toxicity hazard is
therefore, from inhalation of dust or ingestion of surface-contaminated food. However, plants
grown on heavily contaminated soil absorb several thousand µ g g-1 compared as the normal
plant content of between 1 and 15 µ g g-1 (Johnston and Proctor, 1977).

3.3.8.4 Cadmium

Cadmium belongs to same family of elements as zinc and mercury. A major source of
cadmium is zinc mining and smelting in addition to its release by other industries such as
metal plating, and in making pigments, ceramics, photographic equipments, and nuclear
reactors as well as those engaged in textile printing, lead mines and various chemical
industries.
There is no evidence that cadmium has any role in nutrition of plants and animals. It is toxic
in relatively small amounts. Being highly mobile in soil and water it is taken up freely by
plants and passed on to grazing food chain (Coughtrey and Martin, 1976). In animals and
humans, cadmium tends to accumulate in kidneys, pancreas and bones. In Japan the disease
itai itai was caused by people’s consumption of heavy metals, primarily cadmium either by
drinking water or by eating rice which had accumulated the metal from the irrigation water.
The affliction is characterized by kidney malfunction, a drop in phosphate level of blood
serum, loss of minerals from the bones, and a condition called osteomalacia, which is a
rickets-like condition characterized by pathogenic bone fracture and intense pains.

3.3.8.5 Fluorine

Fluorine makes up about 0.1 per cent of the earth’s crust. In its elemental state it is a gas.
However, in nature it is always found in various combinations. The greater proportion is in
the form of the mineral fluorspar (Calcium fluorate, CaF) and in large deposits of mineral
cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride, NaAIF). Sources of atmospheric fluorine are aluminium
smelting using cryolite as a flux, coal burning and the firing of clays in brick manufacture.

Fluorine is freely mobile in the atmosphere and ultimately appears in rainfall as fluoride.
Plants take it from soil and water. In gaseous form, it enters open stomata, causes collapse of
mesophyll cells, loss of photosynthetic activity and necrosis. Animals derive it from food,
water, and minerals. The effect on tooth decay from drinking the water deficient in fluorine
was noted. On the other hand, teeth impairment, called dentineri or black teeth, was observed
among people.

3.4 Food Chains

The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms with
repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as the food chain. The green plants, in the
food chain, occupy the first trophic (nutritional or energy) - the producer level, the herbivores
that eat the plants the second trophic - the primary consumer level, the carnivores that eat the
herbivores the third trophic - the secondary consumer level and perhaps even a fourth- the
tertiary consumer level. Some organisms are omnivores that eat the plant as well as animals
at their lower level in the food chain and they may occupy more than one trophic level in the
food chain. Thus, in any food chain, energy flows from producers -----> primary consumers
(herbivores) -----> secondary consumers (carnivores) A tertiary consumers (carnivores), and
so on. At each step of food transfer, a large proportion, 80 to 90% of the potential energy is
lost through dissipation of heat resulting in continuous diminution of available energy. This is
the reason that rarely more than five trophic levels occur in a food chain. The efficiency of
energy transfer also varies from one trophic level to another.

In nature, three types of food chains have been distinguished:

3.4.1 Grazing food chain

The consumers which utilise the living plant parts as their food or energy source constitute
the grazing food chain. The food chain, thus begins from a green plant base. It is common in
the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems where most of the primary production is edible by
herbivores. Some of the common examples of grazing food chain are given in Table 10.2
3.4.2 Parasitic food chain

It also begins from a green plant base and goes to herbivores, which may be the host of a
huge number of lice living as ectoparasites.

3.4.3 Detritus food chain

The food chain goes from dead organic matters of decaying animal and plant bodies to the
microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organisms (detrivores or saprovores) and their
predators is known as “detritus food chain”. Soil organisms are thus less dependent on direct
solar energy and depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another system.

A good example of detritus food chain based on mangrove leaves.

In the brackish zone of Southern Florida, leaves of the red mangrove (Rhizophore mangle)
fall into the warm, shallow waters. The fallen leaf fragments acted on by such saprotrophs as
fungi, bacteria, and protozoa, and colonised by phytoplanktonic and benthic algae are eaten
and reeaten by a group of small animals. These animals include crabs, copepods, insect
larvae, mysids, nematodes, grass shrimps, amphipods, etc. All these animals are called
detritus consumers. These animals, in turn, are eaten by some minnows, small game fish, etc.
The small carnivores, which in turn, serve as the food for large game fish, and so on.
Mangrove leaves, through detritus food chain make substantial contribution to the food chain
that is upto 90% of the stored energy in the dead organic material is consumed through
detritus food chain. This chain is further important from the view point of mineral cycles
within the ecosystem.

3.5 Food Web

Food chain, normally do not operate in isolated but are interlocked with each other forming
some sort of pattern known as food web. An organism in the ecosystem may operate at more
than one trophic level, i.e. it derives its food from more than one source and in turn, may
serve as a source of food for several organisms of higher trophic level. This results into
linking together, but intersecting each other, of several food chains. Another reason for the
formation of food web seems to be successive loss of energy at higher trophic levels till no
more energy is available to support yet another link in the food chain. A food web delineated
for small organisms of a stream community in South Wales. This illustrates: (i) the
interlinking of food chain, (ii) three trophic levels, (iii) intermediate position of the organisms
e.g. Hydropsyche, and (iv) an “open” system in which part of the basic food is “imported”
from outside the stream.

The food webs are very important in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem, in nature. For
example, in grazing food chain of a grassland, in the absence of rabbit, grass may be eaten by
mouse. The mouse in turn may be eaten directly, either by hawk or snake. The snake then
may be eaten by hawk.

Absence of rabbit thus would not disturb the ecosystem as the alternative (mouse) may serve
for the maintenance of its stability. Moreover, a balanced ecosystem is essential for the
survival of all the living organisms of the system. For example, if the primary consumers
(herbivores) are not in nature than the producers would perish due to overcrowding and
competition. In the same way, the survival of the primary consumers is linked with the
secondary consumers (carnivores) and so on. Thus each species of an ecosystem is indeed
kept under some sort of a natural check so that the system may remain stable.

A food web, unlike a food chain has therefore, several alternative pathways for flow of
energy. Sudden decrease in population of one category of consumers at any trophic level does
not affect much the functioning of an ecosystem, as at that trophic level, the second category
of consumers multiply and build up their numbers. An ecosystem is, therefore, more stable, if
it has a greater number of alternative pathways.

3.6 Ecological Pyramids

The concept of ecological pyramids was developed by Charles Elton (1927), the pioneer
British Ecologist. There is some sort of relationship between the number, biomass and energy
content of the primary producers, consumers of the first and second orders and so on to top
carnivores in the ecosystem. This relationship may be represented graphically by means of
pyramids which is referred to as ecological pyramids, where the first or producer level forms
the base of the pyramid and the successive levels (the tiers) making the apex. Ecological
pyramids are of three general types: (i) Pyramid of numbers, showing the number of
organisms at each trophic level (number m-2), (ii) Pyramid of biomass, showing the total dry
weight or any other suitable measure of the total amount of living matter (g m-2), and (iii)
Pyramid of energy, showing the amount of energy flow and/or productivity at successive
trophic levels (calories m-2 year-1).

3.6.1 Pyramid of numbers

The relationship between the number of producers, consumers of primary, secondary and
tertiary orders constitutes the pyramid of numbers. The form of the pyramid of numbers will
vary widely with different communities, depending on whether producers are small
(phytoplankton, grass) or large (oak trees). Sometimes, number of individuals varies so
widely that it is difficult to represent the entire ecosystem on the same numerical scale. Such
data could best be presented in a tabular form. .In a grassland, the producers which are
mainly grasses, are always maximum in number. This number then shows a successive
decrease towards apex, as the primary consumers (herbivores), which are rabbits, mice, etc.,
are lesser in number than the grasses; the secondary consumers, the snakes and lizards are
lesser in number than the rabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers, the hawks
and birds, are least in number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright. Similarly, in pond
ecosystem, the pyramid is upright. Here the producers, which are mainly phytoplanktons as
algae, bacteria, etc. are maximum in number; the herbivores which are very small fish,
rotifers, etc., are lesser in number than the producers; and the secondary consumers
(carnivores), such as water beetles and small fish, etc., are lesser in number than the
herbivores. Finally, the top (tertiary, consumers), the bigger fish and birds are least in
number.

In a forest ecosystem however, the pyramid of numbers is somewhat different in shape the
producers which are mainly large-sized trees are lesser in number, and form base of the
pyramid. The herbivores, which are the fruit eating birds, deers, etc., are more in number than
the producers. Then, there is a gradual decrease in the number of successive carnivores, thus
making the pyramid again upright one.
However, in a parasitic food chain the pyramids are always inverted. This is due to the fact
that a single plant may support the growth of many herbivore birds and each one of these, in
turn, may provide nutrition to several hyperparasites like bugs and lice. Thus from the
producers towards consumers, the number of organisms successively shows an increase,
making the pyramid inverted one. In crop ecosystem, the pyramid is upright one where
primary consumers, viz., grasshoppers are lesser in number than the crops; frogs, snakes, and
eagle- the primary, the secondary and the top consumers respectively are present in
decreasing number.

3.6.2 Pyramids of biomass

In this type of pyramid, the relationship between different trophic levels is presented in terms
of weight of organisms (biomass). In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual
decrease in mass of organisms at successive levels from the producers to the top consumers.
Thus, pyramids are upright. In an aquatic ecosystem (like pond), however, the biomass of
producers is least. This value gradually shows an increase towards the apex of the pyramid,
thus making the pyramid inverted one. In this case the biomass of diatoms and
phytoplanktons (primary consumers) that feed on them. The biomass of large carnivore fishes
(secondary consumers) which feed on smaller fishes is the highest of all the trophic levels. In
English Channel the biomass of primary producers is only 4 g m-2 whereas that of the
consumers is 21 g m-2. Infact, this is the case in most aquatic bodies . In lakes and sea, on the
other hand, the phytoplanktons usually outweigh their grazers (zooplanktons) during periods
of high primary productivity, as during the spring “bloom”, but at other times, as in winter
the reverse may be true. This difference in biomass trend can be explained if the time is also
taken into account.

3.6.3 Pyramid of energy

The pyramid of energy represents the total quantity of energy utilized by different trophic
level organisms of an ecosystem per unit area over a set period of time (usually, per square
metre per year). The primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant energy of the sun
and covert it into potential chemical energy. This trapped energy flows in the food chain from
the producers to the top carnivores, decreasing at successive trophic levels. If the relationship
of total quantity of energy utilized in unit area over a particular period of time by different
trophic levels is diagrammatically represented, an upright pyramid is invariably formed. As
against the pyramid of numbers and biomass, the shape of the pyramid of energy is always
upright because in this the time factor is taken into account. In a grassland the green plants
(primary producers) trap the maximum light energy in a particular area over a fixed period of
time. Similarly, in a pond ecosystem, the phytoplanktons, in a particular area, trap and
accumulate much more energy than the herbivore fishes in the course of year because of their
large numbers and quicker rate of multiplication. Comparatively, the amount of energy
utilized in a year by the top carnivores is much less than that of herbivore fishes.

Of the three types of pyramids as discussed above, the energy pyramid gives by far the best
overall picture of the functional role of communities in an ecosystem. This is because of the
fact that energy pyramid is a picture of rate of passage of food mass through the food chain,
whereas number and biomass pyramids are pictures of standing states, i.e. organisms present
at any moment. Its shape is invariably an upright one, and not affected by variation in the size
and metabolic state of individuals, if all the sources of energy in the ecosystem are
considered. The number and biomass pyramids on the other hand, may be upright or inverted
depending upon the size and biomass of the producer organisms as compared to consumers.

3.7 Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is the phenomenon or process by which an ecological community

undergoes more or less orderly and predictable changes following disturbance or initial
colonization of new habitat. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology and
the study of succession remains at the core of ecological science. Succession may be initiated
either by formation of new, unoccupied habitat (e.g., a lava flow or a severe landslide) or by
some form of disturbance (e.g. fire, severe wind throw, logging) of an existing community.

3.7.1 Primary succession

Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities is called

primary succession. In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungus as
well as other abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalize" the habitat. This creating
conditions nearer optimum for vascular plant growth; pedogenesis or the formation of soil is
the most important process.

These pioneer plants are then dominated and often replaced by plants better adapted to less
odd conditions, these plants include vascular plants like grasses and some shrubs that are able
to live in thin soils that are often mineral based.

For example, spores of lichen or fungus, being the pioneer species, are spread onto a land of
rocks. Then, the rocks are broken down into smaller pieces and organic matter gradually
accumulates, favouring the growth of larger plants like grasses, ferns and herbs. These plants
further improve the habitat and help the adaptation of larger vascular plants like shrubs, or
even medium- or large-sized trees. More animals are then attracted to the place and finally a
climax community is reached.

3.7.2 Secondary succession

Succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary

succession. (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane) that reduces an already established
ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species, and as such
secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in
a place lacking soil.

Simply put, secondary succession is the succession that occurs after the initial succession has
been disrupted and some plants and animals still exist. It is usually faster than primary
succession as:

1. Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer species;

2. Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in
the soil.
 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF VARIOUS ECOSYSTEMS

4.1 Homeostatis, Management and Optimization of Ecosystem

Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation as their component

population and organisms. However, they have a delicate balance of inputs and outputs, and
this balance is often insufficient to avoid instability. The term homeostatis (homeo = same;
statis = standing) is generally applied to the tendency for biological system to resist change
and to remain in a state of equilibrium. An essential feature of such regulatory mechanism is
the process of feedback operating both at the level of individual and the entire system.

Many of the large-scale human activities- industrial, agricultural or transport - tend to alter
the natural balance of biotic and abiotic components in a stable ecological system. These
activities frequently lead to acceleration of hydro geochemical cycles, disturbance of input-
output balances, accumulation of toxic substances such as hydrocarbons, metals and gases,
overproduction or depletion of certain essential substances, and eutrophication. All these
involve simplification of ecosystem resulting into shortening of food webs, decrease in
species diversity and counteraction of forces of natural selection and organic evolution has
developed a theory of ecosystem stability based on energy-matter constraints in living
systems. Some important features of the theory are:

1. Ecosystems have a zero state trending tendency, pertinent to stability. The

concept of stability incorporates two ideas, (a) resistance to change, and (b)
restoration to the near original state after the change has occurred;
2. Curtailment of energy and material inputs tends to lead decay or extinction of
ecosystems to zero state; such decay is guaranteed by the second law of
thermodynamics;
3. Ecosystems have only one free (unforced) equilibrium, the zero state;
4. Ecosystems tend to revert to nominal, no equilibrium dynamics when
perturbed by uniformly vanishing disturbances;
5. Ecosystems have only one forced steady state;
6. Ecosystems are structurally stable;
7. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in small degrees by parameter variation within
fixed structure, and
8. Ecosystems adapt and evolve in large degrees by structure variation.
Proper management is essential for maintaining the stability of the ecosystem. This will
require an adequate knowledge of the nature and kinds of system components, functional
relationship between them, and the degree of tolerance and resistance to the environmental
strain and stress has listed the following features contributing to stabilization of ecosystem:
(a) tolerance to extreme and harsh conditions, (b) ability for rapid recovery upon the
recurrence of favourable growth conditions, (c) flexible and opportunistic feeding habitat, (d)
nomadic migration of animals, etc. Similarly, some destabilizing features include: (i)
sensitivity to damage to reserves, (ii) sensitivity to lagging components, (iii) low density,
biomass and productivity, and (iv) sensitivity to soil erosion.

4.2 Evolution of Ecosystems

Life began on earth more than three billion years ago. The first ecosystems then were
populated by tiny anaerobic heterotrophs that lived on organic matter synthesized by abiotic
processes. Following the origin and population explosion of algal autotrophs, which
converted a reducing atmosphere into an oxygenic one, organisms have evolved through the
long geological ages into increasingly complex and diverse systems that (i) have achieved
control of the atmosphere and (ii) are populated by larger and more highly organized multi
cellular species. Within this community component, evolutionary change is believed to occur
principally through natural selection at below the species level, but natural selection above
this level may also be important, especially (i) co evolution, i.e., the reciprocal selection
between interdependent autotrophs and heterotrophs, and (ii) group or community selection,
which leads to the maintenance of traits favourable to the group. Similarities between major
biomass or ecosystems in respect to ecosystem structure and function can be attributed to
evolutionary convergence as a consequence of their evolution under similar environmental
conditions.

4.3 Major Ecosystems

4.3.1 Introduction

Various ecosystems like a pond, a lake, a river, a stream, a spring, an estuary, the sea, a
forest, grassland, a desert, a coral reef and a cropland are operating as self-sufficient
interacting systems in the biosphere. These ecosystems have a more or less similar
fundamental plan of their gross structure and function. However they differ in respect of their
species composition and productivity rates. In brief, organization pattern of some of the
major ecosystems is described here.

4.3.2 The forest ecosystem

Forests are natural plant communities with dominance of phanerophytes and occupy nearly
40% of the land. In India, the forests occupy roughly 10% of the total land area. According to
Champion and Seth (1968), Indian forests are of 11 types, which are classified on the basis of
physiography, physiognomy floristics, habitat etc. The different components of forest
ecosystems are as follows:

4.3.2.1 Abiotic components

These include inorganic and organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere. The
climate (temperature, light, rainfall, etc.) and soil (minerals) vary from forest to forest. In
addition to minerals the occurrence of litter is characteristic feature of majority of forests.

4.3.2.2 Biotic components

a) Producers

These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater degree of stratification
especially in tropical moist deciduous forests. Besides trees, there are also present shrubs and
ground vegetation. In these forests, the producers include the dominant tree species such as
Tectona grandis, Butea frondosa, Shorea robusta and Lagerstroemia parviflora. In temperate
coniferous forests, shrubs and ground flora are insignificant. In temperate deciduous forests
the dominant trees are species of Quercus, Acer, Betula, Thuja, Picea, etc., whereas in
temperate coniferous forests, the producer trees are species of Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus,
Juniperus, Rhododendron, etc.

b) Consumers

These are as follows:

i) Primary consumers

These are the herbivores that include smaller animals feeding on tree leaves as ants, flies,
bettles, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders, etc., and larger animals grazing on shoots and/ or fruits of
producers as elephant, neelgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, mongooses, etc.

ii) Secondary consumers

These are the carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox, etc. feeding on the herbivores.

iii) Tertiary consumers

These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat carnivores of secondary consumers
level.

c) Decomposers

These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi (species of Aspergillus, Polyporus,
Alternaria, Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Clostridium, etc.), and actinomycetes (species of Streptomyces). Rate of decomposition in
tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than in the temperate ones.

4.3.3 The grassland ecosystem

Grasslands occupy roughly 24% of the earth’s surface (Shantz, 1954). Whyte (1957) divided
grassland into 8 types based on the floral characteristics. The different components of a
grassland ecosystem are:

4.3.3.1 Abiotic components

These include nutrients present in soil and the atmosphere. Thus the elements like C, H, O, N,
P, S, etc. are supplied by carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates and sulphates present in
air and soil of the area.

4.3.3.2 Biotic components

These are as follows:

a) Producers

They are mainly grasses, as species of Dichanthium, Cynodon, Desmodium, Dactyloctenium,

Digitaria, Setaria, Sporobolus, etc. Besides them a few forbs and shrubs also contribute to
primary production.

b) Consumers

These are as follows:

i) Primary consumers

The herbivores feeding on grasses are mainly such grazing animals as cows, buffaloes, deers,
sheep, rabbit, mouse, etc. Besides them, there are also present some insects as Leptocorisa,
Dysdercus, Oxyrhachis, Cicindella, Coccinella, some termites and millipeds, etc. that feed on
the leaves of grasses.

ii) Secondary consumers

Snake, lizard, birds, jackals, fox, etc. are common secondary consumers which feed on
herbivores.

iii) Tertiary consumers

These include hawks which feed on secondary consumers.

c) Decomposers

Several fungi (Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium, etc.),

actinomycetes and bacteria decay the dead organic matter of different forms of higher life.
They bring about minerals back to the soil, thus making them available to the producers.

4.3.4 Cropland ecosystem

This is an artificial or man - engineered ecosystem aimed primarily to grow a single species
of one’s choice. To secure maximum production, man makes much planned manipulation in
the physico-chemical environment. These include addition of fertilizers to the soil, use of
chemicals for disease control, proper irrigation practices, etc. This may include the dominant
species like maize, sugar-cane, jowar, paddy, vegetables, etc. The following are the main
components of a maize cropland ecosystem:

4.3.4.1 Abiotic components

These include the climatic conditions of the region, where the crop may grow most
successfully, and the various minerals and gaseous elements such as C, H, O, N, P, K in soil
and atmosphere. Maize generally grows best in slightly alkaline soil with good aeration.

4.3.4.2 Biotic components

These occur in the following order:

a) Producers

In the field, in addition to dominant species of maize, a number of weeds like Cynodon
dactylon, Launaea nudicaulis, Euphorbia hirta, Cyperus rotundus, Digitaria species., and
Alysicarpus also contribute to primary production of the field.

b) Consumers

These are as follows:

i) Primary consumers

These are herbivores. The smaller animals include chiefly the insects as aphids, thrips,
beetles, etc., which feed and lay their eggs on maize leaves. The larger animals include birds,
rats, rabbits and man feeding on leaves, flowers and fruits on the crop.

ii) Secondary consumers

These are carnivores like frogs and some birds that eat insects.

iii) Tertiary consumers

Snakes and hawks belong to this category which can eat frogs and small birds, respectively.

c) Decomposers

Several microbes such as actionmycetes, fungi and bacteria found in soil and climate
decompose dead organic matter of plants as well as animals and help in circulation of
minerals making available them to producer again.

4.3.5 The desert ecosystem

The areas with an annual rainfall of less than 25 cm come in deserts. They occupy about 17%
of land. Due to extremes of both, water and temperature factors the biota is much more varied
and is poorly represented. The various components of the ecosystem are:

4.3.5.1 Abiotic components

In desert ecosystem temperature is found to be very high and rainfall is very low. A dry
atmosphere, high temperature and intense illumination favour the rate of transpiration.
4.3.5.2 Biotic components

These are as follows:

a) Producers

These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses, and a few trees. The shrubs have
widespread branched root system with their leaves, branches and stems variously modified.
Sometimes a few succulents like cacti are also present. Some lower plants like lichens and
xerophytic mosses may also be present.

b) Consumers

Insects, reptiles, nocturnal rodents, birds, camels, etc. are the main consumers.

c) Decomposes

These are very few, as due to poor vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is
correspondingly less. They are some fungi and bacteria, most of which are thermophilic.

4.3.6 The mountain ecosystem

The chief components of the ecosystem are:

4.3.6.1 Abiotic components

It is the altitude which provides different climates.

4.3.6.2 Biotic components

These are as follows:

a) Producers

They differ to difference in climatic conditions even on the same mountain e.g., in the forests,
trees are the main producers, while in desert the chief producers are shrubs, herbs and only a
few trees.

b) Consumers

They vary with the type of producers in the area.

4.3.7 Cave ecosystem

A cave is a natural hollow opening under the surface of the earth, or a mountain or a hill.
Many caves are found in North America and Europe, e.g., Mammoth cave in North America.
The main components of the cave ecosystem are as follows:

4.3.7.1 Abiotic components

Absence of light is the most striking feature since it has telling effect on the cave dwelling
organisms. Temperature is nearly uniform, except some fluctuations with the depth of the
cave. Several fluctuations in moisture level occur. Atmospheric pressure varies as that of the
terrestrial environment.

4.3.7.2 Biotic components

These are as follows:

a) Producers

They are almost absent.

b) Consumers

Both vertebrates and invertebrates of cave dwelling existence are found. They may be
temporary, such as bats, owls, etc., or permanent, such as turbellarians, Leeches, insects, etc.,
(invertebrates). Mammals are rare; birds are absent.

c) Decomposers

Fungi and bacteria are present

4.3.8 Tundra ecosystem

Tundra means a barren land or a hostile territory. Tundra biomes occur in the polar regions in
northern Canada, Greenland, other islands of Arctic oceans, and northern Europe (northern
hemisphere). Since, Antarctic Ocean has not been exploited much; this biome has been
designated as Arctic Tundra. Tundra biome also occurs on the peaks of High Mountain of
world and has been called as the Alpine Tundra. The chief components of the Tundra
ecosystem are as follows:

4.3.8.1 Abiotic components

These include temperature, light, moisture, pressure, soil, etc. Of these temperature exerts a
very powerful influence so that only a few organisms have successfully got adapted to the
Tundra conditions. In the Arctic Tundra, the winters are very long and cold, during which the
ground remains frozen. The summer is short and sharp during which snow melts to some
depth only, hence the deeper layer of soil remains permanently frozen and is known as
permafrost. Due to this Tundra soil is very shallow. In the Alpine Tundra, Alpine climate
prevails.
4.3.8.2 Biotic components

These are as follows:

a) Producers

Suitable conditions for plant growth exist only for about 60 days. The dominant producers are
the hardiest of plants like bushes, lichens, mosses, grasses and grass like herbs.

b) Consumers

These include mammals like carbou, hares, reindeers, foxes, and polar bears, amphibians and
reptiles are totally absent. However, some species of birds and insects are present. The insects
are represented by black flies, bumble bees, etc. The birds are migratory and are represented
by arctic loon, goose, hawks, gulls, larks, etc. The South Pole has only marine birds,
penguins. The fauna of Alpine Tundra varies with the type of vegetation.

4.3.9 The pond ecosystem

A pond is a good example of a small self-sufficient and self-regulating ecosystem. Location,

size, depth and substratum of a pond influence the biology of pond ecosystem. The
components of the systems are as follows:

4.3.9.1 Abiotic components

Temperature, light, water, and several inorganic and organic substances like CO2, O, N, PO,
Ca, S, and carbohydrates, proteins and lipids make abiotic components. Some proportions of
nutrients are in solution state but most of them are present stored in particulate matter as well
as in living organisms. The amount of minerals present at any time in the physical
environment of the pond is called standing state.

4.3.9.2 Biotic components

These include:

a) Producers

They are green plants and photosynthetic bacteria categorized into two types:

i) Macrophytes

Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, Utricularia, Vallisneria, Jussiaea, Nitella, Wolfia, Lemna,

Spirodella, Pistia, Eichhornia, Azolla, Salvinia, Trapa, Typha, Marsilea, etc. are included in
this category. This may be classified further into submerged, free floating and amphibious
plants.
ii) Phytoplanktons

These are minute floating or suspended lower plants belong to some algae and flagellates.
Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chlamydomonas, Zygnema, Volvox, Pandorina,
Cosmarium, Scendesmus, Closterium, Anabaena, Pediastrum, Microcystis, diatoms, etc. are
common algal phytoplanktons.

b) Consumers

These are as follows:

i) Primary consumers

(a) Zooplankton comprises ciliates, flagellates, other protozoans, small crustacean like
Copepods and Daphnia, etc. These animals drift with the water current and are found along
with phytoplankton upon which they feed. (b) Benthos or bottom forms comprise the bottom
dwelling animals, e.g., annelids and mollusks which feed on plants directly or on plant
remains at the bottom.

ii) Secondary consumers

These are the carnivores which feed on the herbivores, e.g. insects and fish.

iii) Tertiary consumers

These are some large fish as game fish that feed on the smaller fish.

c) Decomposers (or microconsumers)

Several bacteria, fungi (Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Pythium, etc.) and actinomycetes

represent the group.

4.3.10 The ocean (marine) ecosystem

The oceans of the world cover approximately 36,10,00,000 km2, i.e. about 71% of the earth’s
surface. Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic and Antarctic are the main oceans of the world. The
ocean represents a very large and stable ecosystem. The main components of the ocean
ecosystem are as follows:

4.3.10.1 Abiotic components

Marine environment, as compared with fresh water, appears to be more stable in chemical
composition due to being saline (35 parts of salts by weight per 1000 parts of water, while
salinity of fresh water is less than 0.5%), and moreover other physico-chemical factors such
as dissolved oxygen content, light and temperature are also different. About 27% is NaCl;
most of the rest consists of Ca, Mg, and K salts. Water is strongly buffered. The
concentration of dissolved nutrients is low and constitutes an important limiting factor to
determine the size of marine populations. Waves of various kinds and tides prevail there.
Like ponds and lakes, ocean show distinct zonation.

4.3.10.2 Biotic components

This category includes phytoplanktons and larger marine plants. The former group includes
diatoms and dinoflagillates. The latter group includes sea weeds (algae) belonging to
chlorophyceae, phaeophyceae and rhodophyceae; and angiosperms. Ruppia, Zostera,
Posidonia, Halophila, Enhalus, etc. are true marine angiosperms while various species of
Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Carapa, Aegiceros, etc., represent the mangrove
complex-tidal woodlands

a) Consumers

These are heterotrophic macroconsumers, being dependent for their nutrition on the primary
producers. These are:

i) Primary consumers

The herbivores that feed directly on producers are chiefly crustaceans, mollusks, fish, etc.

ii) Secondary consumers

Carnivorous fishes, such as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, etc. are included in this group.

iii) Tertiary consumers

Fishes like Cod, Haddock, etc. are the tertiary or top consumers.

b) Decomposers

They are chiefly bacteria and some fungi which participate actively in decomposition of dead
organic matter.

4.3.11 Estuarine ecosystem

An estuary is a semiclosed coastal body of water that has a free connection with sea. It is
strongly affected by tidal action, and within it sea water is mixed with fresh water from land
drainage. River mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and bodies of water behind barrier
beaches are some of the examples. Estuaries are generally productive because of water flow
subsidises an abundant of nutrients. The chief biotic components of estuarine ecosystem are
as follows:

a) Producers
Macrophytes- marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses, benthic algae and phytoplankton.

b) Consumers

Oysters, crabs, several kinds of shrimp and many commercial sport fish.

4.3.12 Coral reef ecosystem

A coral reef represents one of the most beautiful and well adapted ecosystems to be found in
the world. Coral reefs are made up of calcareous skeletal remains and secretion of corals and
certain algae. They are confined largely to the warm waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.
A few coral reefs also occur elsewhere. The reef-building corals grow best in waters having
an average annual temperature of about 24°C at a depth of about 40-50 metres. They can
survive neither sudden temperature changes nor prolonged exposure to temperature below
18°C. They also require for their growth rocky floor and sunlit water having normal salinity
of 35g I-1. They cannot grow in fresh or turbid waters or on highly saline lagoons.

Reef structures are built around islands and volcanic peaks by coral and other lime-secreting
minute animals. Corals build protective shells of calcium carbonate around their bodies,
which after their death, sink and accumulate on the sea bottom. Coral families usually
produce forms that resemble branching trees or shrubs. In due course, the inner-spaces
between the branching coralline structures are filled up by the deposition of calcium
carbonate either by lime-secreting organisms or by debris brought by sea waves. Apart from
polyps (corals), a number of organisms and plants such as calcareous algae, bryozoans,
molluscs and microscopic protozoans (foraminifera) take part in building coral reefs.

4.3.13 Microecosystem

These are little self-contained worlds, in bottles or other containers that simulate in miniature
the nature of ecosystems. Completely closed microecosystems (or microcosms) that require
only light energy are very difficult to have on a small scale. Experimental microcosms
usually vary from partially closed systems having outlets and inlets only for gaseous
exchange with the atmosphere to very open systems involving assemblages of organisms
maintained in various kinds of chemostates and turbidostates with regulated flux of both
nutrients and organisms. Well-designed microcosms may exhibit most of the basic functions
and trophic structures of an ecosystem, except the reduction in variety and size of constituent
components. Microcosms are suitable for the study of nature and functions of the ecosystems
in laboratory.

4.3.14 Spacecraft as an ecosystem

During space travel for a short journey, such as a few orbits around the earth, man does not
require to take along with him a self-sustaining ecosystem since sufficient oxygen and food
can be stored in the capsule to last for a short time. However, for a long journey involving a
number of astronauts, such as an expedition to one of the planets he must devise some self-
contained system so as to get at least minimum requirements, necessary for his smooth
working and survival, as in nature. Such a self-contained space-craft must include all four of
the basic components producers, consumers, decomposers, and abiotic components in such
proportion and diversity as to maintain a stable environment capable of adjusting to the
incoming solar radiation as do the earth’s ecosystems. A small capsule with a few
components might function outside the biosphere for a short time, but a larger, more diverse
system would be more stable and safer for a longer time. Engineers and environmentologists
associated with such a planning, however, could not able to decide as yet on the size and
composition of self-contained system that might function completely independent of other
ecosystems during a long space journey.
 INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY

5.1 The Concept of Biodiversity

The term biodiversity is a relatively new term. It is a contraction of ‘biological diversity’.

Simply stated, biodiversity is the variety of life on earth and its myriad of processes. It
includes all life forms – from the unicellular fungi, protozoa and bacteria to complex
multicellular organisms such as plants, birds, fishes and mammals. According to the World
Resources Institute – “Biodiversity is the variety of the world’s organisms, including their
genetic diversity and the assemblage they form. It is the blanket term for natural biological
wealth that under girds human life and well-being. The breadth of the concept reflects the
inter-relatedness of genes, species and ecosystems. Because genes are the components of
species, and species are the components of ecosystems. Therefore, altering the make-up of
any level of this hierarchy can change the others – species are central to the concept of
biodiversity’.

Since biodiversity covers a wide range of concepts and can be examined at different levels;
therefore, it has now become customary to study the concept of biodiversity at three
hierarchical levels.

5.1.1 Genetic diversity

Within any given species, there can be several varieties, strains or races which slightly differ
from each other in one or more characteristics such as size, shape, resistance against diseases,
pests, insects, etc., and resilience to survive under adverse environmental conditions. Such
diversity in the genetic make-up of a species is termed as the ‘genetic diversity’. In other
words ‘genetic diversity’, is the variety of building blocks found within individuals of a
species. The species having large number of varieties, strains or races are considered as rich
and more diverse in its genetic organization. The differences between individual organisms
arise from variation in the genetic material possessed by all organisms and passed on to
successive generations (heritable variation), and from environmental influence on the growth
and development of each individual organism. Heritable variation serves as the raw material
for both, evolution by natural selection and by artificial selection, and is ultimately the basis
for all biodiversity.

Opportunities for evolutionary change, the survival of species and the formation of new
species are in part a function of the amount of genetic diversity in populations. The various
applications of biotechnology, such as crop or animal breed improvement, depend on the
identification of genetic material that give rise to desirable traits and the incorporation of this
genetic material in appropriate organisms.

5.1.2 Species diversity

In practice, most attention is generally given to ‘species diversity’. It refers to the number of
different kinds of organisms found at a particular place, and how it varies from place to place
and even seasonally at the same place. In terms of species diversity, it must be noted that
merely counting the number of species is not enough to describe biological diversity.
Diversity has to do with the relative chance of seeing species as much as it has to do with the
actual number present. A community in which each species has the same number of
individuals as all others would be the most diverse; whereas, a community with one species
making up most of the individuals would be least diverse. Further, species that are very
different from each other contribute more to overall diversity than species which are similar
to each other.

5.1.3 Ecosystems diversity

Ecosystem diversity is generally assessed in terms of the global or continental distribution of

broadly-defined ecosystem types, or in terms of the species diversity within ecosystems. It is
the distinctive assemblage of species that live together in the same area and interact with their
physical environment in unique ways. A system having the component species present in
nearly equal abundance is considered as more diverse than one having extremes of high and
low abundance.

5.1.4 Landscape diversity

Sometimes, the phrase ‘landscape diversity’ is used on a broad regional scale. It refers to size
and distribution of several ecosystems and their interaction across a given land surface.

5.2 The Bio Geographic Zones of India

India is recognized to be uniquely rich in biodiversity. Here, almost all the bio geographic
zones of the world are represented. According to a recent classification done by the Wild-life
Institute of India, the country’s biological wealth can be seen as representing about ten broad
bio geographical zones (Fig. 12.2). Each of these ten bio geographic zones has characteristic
biota, and broadly represents similar climatic conditions and constitutes the habitat for
diverse species of fauna and flora.

5.2.1 Trans-Himalayan zone

The Trans-Himalayan zone, spreads over an area of about 1,86,000 sq.km. With its sparse
mountain vegetation type it has the richest wild sheep and goat community in the world. The
snow leopard is found here, as is the migratory black-necked crane.

5.2.2 Himalayan zone

The Himalayan zone extends from north-west region of Kashmir to the east upto NEFA
(North East Frontier Area). It encompasses an area of about 3,47,000 sq.km and comprises of
four biotic provinces--north-west, west, central and east Himalayas. Altitudinally there are
three zones of vegetation in the Himalayan zone corresponding to three climatic belts. First,
the sub-montane or lower region (tropical and subtropical), that extends from plain foot of the
hill upto 5,000 to 6,000 ft. altitude, has vegetation dominated by trees of Acacia catechu,
Cedrala toona, Eugenia jambolana, Albizzia procera, etc. Second, the temperate or montane
zone (ranges between 5,500 to 12,000 ft. altitude) has vegetation dominated by Pinus excelsa,
Cedrus deodara, Cedrela, Eugenia, etc. in the lower region, and confers such as Abies
pindrow, Picea morinda, Juniperus, Taxus baccata, etc. in the upper regions. Third, the alpine
zone (above 12,000 ft.) is the limit of tree growth (known as ‘timber or tree line’), where the
shrubby growth of Betula utilis, Juniperus and Rhododendron is found in grassy areas. At
about 15,000 ft. and above snow-line, plant growth is almost nil.

5.2.3 Desert zone

The desert zone comprises of three biotic provinces, viz. Kutch, Thar and Ladakh. The north-
west Desert region (Kutch and Thar) spreads over an area of about 2,25,000 sq.km. and
consists of parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. The climate of this region is
characterized by very hot and dry summer, and cold winter. Rainfall here is less than 700
mm. The north-west desert region has extensive grasslands. The plants are mostly
Xerophytic, such as Acacia nelotica, Prosopis spicifera, etc.; and the ground vegetation is
dominated by the species Calotropis, Eleusine, Panicum antidotale, etc. The Great Indian
Bustard, a highly endangered species, is found in this north-west desert region. The Ladakh
region, on the other hand, has sparse vegetation – it is a cold desert region.

5.2.4 Semi-Arid zone

Adjoining the north-west desert are the Semi-Arid areas comprising of Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, parts of Orissa and Gujarat. It spreads over an area of about 5 lac sq.km.
Depending upon the amount of rainfall, the forests in this region have developed into thorny,
mixed decidiuous and sat type. The forest vegetation is mostly constituted by Tectona
grandis, Diospyros melanoxylon and Butea monosperma. The thorny vegetation is dominated
by Acacia leucophloea, Accacia catechu, etc.

5.2.5 Western ghats zone

The Western Ghats zone comprises the Malabar coast and Western Ghat mountains of India
extending from Gujarat in the north to the Cape Camorin in the south. This zone encompasses
an area of about 1.6 lac sq.km. Rainfall in this region is heavy. The vegetation is of four types
– tropical moist evergreen forests, sub-tropical or temperate evergreen forests, mixed
deciduous forests and the mangrove forests.

5.2.6 Deccan peninsular zone

The Deccan Penninsula zone comprises of five biotic provinces, viz. Deccan Plateau (South),
Central Plateau, Eastern Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau and Central Highlands. The zone
spreads over an area of about 14 lac sq. km. It is a semi-arid region lying in the rain-shadow
of the Western Ghats. Rainfall is about 100 mm. The zone has a centrally hilly plateau with
forests of Boswellia serrata, Hardwickia Pinnata and Tectona grandis.

5.2.7 The gangetic plain

In the North, is the Gangetic Plain extending up to Himalayan foothills. This region
comprising of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal is the most fertile region and
encompasses an area of about 3.5 lac sq.km. The major climatic factors, the temperature and
rainfall together are responsible for the distinctive type of vegetation in this zone. The rainfall
varies from less than 700 mm in Western Uttar Pradesh to more than 1,500 mm in West
Bengal. Vegetation is chiefly of tropical moist and dry deciduous forest type.

5.2.8 The north-east India

The North-East India is one of the richest flora regions in the country covering an area of
about 1.6 lac sq.km. The region receives the heaviest rainfall, with Cherrapunji as much as
more than 10,000 mm. The temperature and wetness are also very high, resulting in dense
tropical evergreen forests. The important trees are Mesua ferrea, Michelia champaca,
Dipterocarpus macrocarpus etc., and many Bamboo species. Many grass species and
insectivorous plants like are also present. Beside this, the region has several wild relatives of
cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and pepper.

5.2.9 The Islands

The Islands of Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the
Bay of Bengal have a wide range of coastal vegetation like mangroves, beech forests and in
the interior some of the best preserved evergreen forests of tall trees. Rhizophora,
Calophyllum and Dipterocarpus are some of the important species of Islands’ vegetation.

5.2.10 Coast

India has a coastline of about 7,516.5 km. Mangroves vegetation is the characteristic of
estuarine tracks along the coast, for instance, at Pichavaram near Chennai and Ratna Giri in
Maharashtra.
 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

6.1 Values of Biodiversity

Environmental economics (or ecological economics) provides methods of assigning

economic values to species, communities and ecosystem. These values include the harvest (or
market place) value of resources, the value provided by un-harvested resources in their
natural habitat, and the future value of resources. For example, the Asian wild guar could be
valued for the meat could be harvested from its current populations, its value for eco-tourism,
or its future potential in cattle breeding.

The values can be divided as:

6.1.1 Direct values

Direct values, also known as use values and commodity values, are assigned to the products
harvested by people. Direct values can be readily estimated by observing the activities of
representative groups of people, by monitoring collection points for normal products and by
examining the export/ import statistics. These values can be further sub-divided as:

a) Consumptive use value

It can be assigned to goods such as fuel wood and goods that are consumed locally and do not
figure in national and international market

b) Productive use value

It is assigned to products that are derived from the wild and sold in commercial markets, both
national as well as international markets.

6.1.2 Indirect values

Indirect values are assigned to benefits provided by biodiversity that do not involve
harvesting or destroying the natural resource. Such benefits include ecological benefits such
as soil formation, nutrient cycling, waste disposal, air and water purification, education,
recreation, future options for human beings, etc. Indirect value can be further sub-divided as:

a) Non-consumptive use value

It is assigned to benefits such as soil formation/ protection, climate regulation, waste disposal,
water and air purification, eco-tourism, medical research, etc.

b) Aesthetic, social and cultural value

The diversity of life on Earth brings us many aesthetic and cultural benefits. It adds to the
quality of life, providing some of the most beautiful and appealing aspects of our existence.

Biodiversity is an important quality of landscape beauty. Many species of birds, large land
mammals, sea animals and flowering plants are appreciated for their beauty. Millions of
people enjoy hiking, camping, picnics, fishing, wildlife watching, and other recreational
activities based on nature. These activities provide invigorating physical exercise and allow
us to practice pioneer living skills. Contact with nature can also be psychologically and
emotionally restorative. In many cultures, nature carries spiritual connotations, and a
particular plant or animal species or landscape may be inextricably linked to a sense of
identity and meaning.

Today we continue to imbue certain animals and plants with cultural significance; for
instance, in India tiger and peacock, which are endangered, are especially valued because
they have been adopted as national animal and bird respectively.

c) Option value

The option value of a species is its potential to provide our economic benefit to human
society in the near future. For instance, there are several plant species which are edible and
superior than those which are currently in use; e.g. Katemfe, a plant found in W. Africa,
produces proteins that are 1,600 times sweeter than sucrose.

d) Existence value

It is assigned to protect wildlife. Since, for many people, the value of wildlife goes beyond
the opportunity to photograph or even see a particular species. They argue that ‘existence
value’, based on simply knowing that a species exist, is a sufficient reason to protect and
preserve it. This right to exists was also stated in the U.N. General Assembly World Charter
for Nature, 1982.

e) Ethical value

Moral justification for conservation of biodiversity is based on the belief that species have a
moral right to exist, independent of our need for them. Consequently, the argument follows
that in our role as the most intelligent species on Earth we have a responsibility to try as
much as possible for the continuance of all forms of life.

Ethical values are deep rooted within human culture, a religion and society, but, those who
look on cost benefit analysis, they overlook these ethical values. International boycotts of
furs, teak and ivory are the good examples of moral justification.

6.2 Significance/ Importance/ Uses of Biodiversity

Various uses of biodiversity regarding direct and indirect values are as follows:

6.2.1 Timber

Wood is one of few commodities used and traded worldwide that is mainly harvested from
wild sources. It is also one of the economically most important commodities in national and
international trade. Wood export constitutes a significant part of the export earnings of many
tropical developing countries. Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia are among the
major exporters of hardwoods, including prized timbers such as teak and mahogany,
produced mainly from natural forests.

6.2.2 Fishery
Fish and other fishery products make up another class of commodities of great economic
importance in international trade that are harvested mainly from wild sources. These
resources are also of crucial importance to global food security. Annual landings of aquatic
resources have increased nearly five-times in the past four decades; and more than 80% was
harvested from marine capture fisheries, the remainder was from inland fisheries and from
aquaculture, both inland and marine. Though there are over 22,000 species of fish, but just
ten individual marine fish species make up one-third of marine capture landings. The most
important are the herrings, sardines and anchovies group.

6.2.3 Food

Food plants exemplify the most fundamental values of biodiversity. Presently, around 200
species have been domesticated as food plants. Out of these about 15 to 20 are of major
international economic importance.

6.2.4 Medicinal value

Living organisms provide us with many useful drugs and medicines. Digitalis, an important
drug in the treatment of certain heart ailments, comes from a small flowering plant – purple
foxglove; Penicillin is a derivative of fungus; and so on. The UNDP estimates the value of
pharmaceutical products derived from Third World plants, animals and microbes to be more
than $30 billion per year.

There are numerous organisms that may produce useful medical compounds that are as yet
unknown and untested. For instance coral reefs offer a particularly promising use in
pharmaceutical drugs, because many coral reef species produce toxins to defend themselves.
Many plant species native to India such as Neem, Tulsi, etc. too have potential medicinal
applications.

6.2.5 Genetic value

Biological diversity is a valuable genetic resource. Most of the hybrid varieties of crops under
cultivation have been developed by incorporating useful genes from different species of
plants to produce better quality of the product with longer self-life or having better resistance
to pests. Though such breeding techniques are unlimited in scope; but, for getting better
strains in future, it is essential to build-up a gene-pool because the quality, yield, and
resistance to pests, disease and adverse climatic conditions mostly depend on genetic factors
and combination of genes which may be different in different strains/ varieties of species.
There are hundreds of examples which illustrate how genetic modification helped in
improved quality of the product. A few of them are mentioned as under:

• The genes from a wild variety of melon grown in U.P. helped in imparting
resistance to powdery mildew in musk-melons grown in California (USA).
• The genes from the Kans grass (Saccharum Spontaneium) grown in Indonesia
helped in imparting resistance to red rot disease of sugarcane.
• A wild variety of rice from U.P. saved millions of hectares of paddy crop from
Grossy-Stunt virus
6.2.6 Tourism

Tourism industry is mainly based on observation of wildlife within protected areas and is a
major source of income for many developing countries. Tourism is the major source of
foreign income for Kenya. Eco-tourism is now getting more attention and it includes interest
in the all species of plants and animals, and forests.

6.2.7 Poor and indigenous people

Poor and indigenous people of under-developed countries are dependent on diversity in

forests and wildlife for food, shelter, tools, and materials for clothing and medicines. Further
reduction in the biodiversity can further increase the poverty of these poor people.

6.2.8 Pollution control

Plants and certain micro-organisms in particular can remove toxic substances from the air,
water and soil. Since the different species have different characteristics and capabilities,
therefore, a diversity of species can provide wide range of pollution control. For example,
toxins like carbon-di-oxide and sulphur-di-oxide are removed by vegetation; carbon-
monoxide is controlled by soil fungi and bacteria.
 BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS: INIDA AS A
MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

7.1 The Global Patterns in Biodiversity

The present geological era is perhaps the richest in biological diversity. About 2.1 million
species have been identified till date, while many more species are believed to exist.
According to UNEP (1993-94) (UN convention on environment protection) estimate, the total
number of species that might exist on Earth range between 9.0 – 52 million (Table 14.1).

Invertebrate animals and plants make-up most of the species. About 70% of all known
species are invertebrates (animals without backbones such as insects, sponges, worms, etc.);
while, about 15% are plants. Mammals, the animal group to which man belong, comprise a
comparatively small number of species. Of all the world’s species, only 10 to 15% live in
North America and Europe. By contrast, the centers of greatest biodiversity tend to be in the
tropics.

7.2 Patterns in Biodiversity

Species are not uniformly distributed over the Earth; diversity varies greatly from place to
place. In terms of the number of basic kinds of organism and number of species of each kind,
biodiversity has varied markedly through geological time; and, in terms of present day
species richness, biodiversity varies greatly between one part of the earth and another. The
present global patterns in biodiversity indicate that the species richness tends to vary
geographically according to a series of fairly well defined rules. For example, in case of
terrestrial environments:

• Warmer areas hold more species than the colder areas;

• Wetter areas hold more species than the drier ones;
• Larger areas hold more species than the smaller areas;
• Areas of varied climate and topography hold more species than the areas of
uniform climate and topography;
• Areas at lower altitude (elevation) hold more species than the high altitude
areas; and
• Less seasonal areas hold more species than the highly seasonal areas.
Similarly, in case of pelagic marine species, there tends to be more species in warmer and
less seasonal waters, i.e. at lower latitudes.

In a much more simplified way, it can be said that there are much more species, both per unit
area and overall, in the tropics than in temperate regions and for more in the latter (temperate
regions) than in Polar Regions. The moist tropical forests, in general, are the most species
rich areas or environments on earth. Though they cover just about 7% of the world’s surface;
but it is estimated that they may hold more than 90% of the world’s species, if the yet
unknown tropical forest micro fauna (mainly insects) are accepted. If small tropical forest
insects are discounted, then the areas that may be similarly rich in species are:

• Coral reefs; and

• Areas of Mediterranean climate in South Africa and Western Australia. These
areas are rich in species, especially for flowering plants (angiosperms).
7.3 The Reasons for Greater Biodiversity in the Tropics

The centers of greatest biodiversity tend to be in the tropics. The reasons for greater
biodiversity in the tropics are as under:

1. Tropical areas receive more solar energy over the year. Therefore, tropical
communities are more productive resulting in a greater resource base that can
support a wider range of species.
2. Warm temperatures and high humidity of tropical areas provide favourable
environmental conditions for many species that are unable to survive in the
temperate areas.
3. Over geological times, the tropics have had a more stable climate than the
temperate areas. In tropics, therefore, local species continued to thrive and live
there itself; whereas, in temperate zones, they tend to disperse to other areas.
4. There has been more time for tropical communities to evolve as they are older
than temperate ones. This could have allowed tropical communities greater
degree of specialization and local adaptation to occur.
5. In tropics, the greater pressure from pests, parasites and diseases does not
allow any single species to dominate. Thus, there is opportunity for many
species to coexist. In temperate areas, on the other hand, there is reduced
pressure from pests, parasites and diseases due to cold, and there is one or a
few dominating species that exclude many other species.
6. In tropics, higher rates of out crossing among plants may lead to higher levels
of genetic variability.

7.4 India as Mega-Diverse Biodiversity

Biodiversity has three aspects, viz. genetics, species and ecosystem. India is recognized to be
uniquely rich in all these three aspects. The country has a rich heritage of biodiversity,
encompassing a wide spectrum of habitats from tropical rainforests to alpine vegetation, and
from temperate forests to coastal wetlands. Almost all the biogeographical regions of the
world are represented here in India. With a mere 2.4% of the total land area of the world, the
known biodiversity of India contributes 8.22% of the known global biodiversity. India is one
of the twelve mega-diversity nations of the world accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal
and 10.88% of the global floral total species. Currently available data place India in the tenth
position in the world and fourth in the Asia in plant diversity. In terms of number of
mammalian species, the country ranks tenth in the world; and in terms of endemic species of
higher vertebrates, it ranks eleventh. In terms of number of species contributed to agriculture
and animal husbandry, it ranks seventh in the world.
Some of the salient features of India’s biodiversity are as under:

• India has two major realms called the Palaearctic and the Indo Malayan; and
three biomes, namely the tropical humid forests, the tropical dry deciduous
forests and the warm desert/ semi-deserts.
• India has ten biogeographic regions, namely the Trans-Himalayan, the
Himalayan, the Indian desert, the semi-arid zone, the Western Ghats, the
Deccan Peninsula, the Genetic plain, North-East India, the Islands, and the
coasts.
• India is one of the 12 mega-diversity nations of the world.
• India is one of the 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants.
 • There are two hotspots that extend into India. There are the Western Ghats/ Sri
Lanka and the Indo-Burma region (covering the Eastern Himalayas). Further
these hotspots are included amongst the top eight most important or hottest
hotspots.
• India has 26 recognised endemic centres that are home to nearly a third of all
the flowering plants (angiosperms) identified and described to date.
• India has six Ramsar Wetlands. They are –
• Chilika Lake, Harike Lake, Loktak Lake, Keoladeo National Park, Wular Lake
and Sambhar Lake.
• India has 5 world heritage sites namely, Kaziranga National Park, Keolades
Ghana National Park, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Nanda Devi National Park
and Sundarban National Park.
• India has twelve biosphere reserves, namely Nilgiri, Nanda Devi, Nokrerk,
Manas, Sunderbans, Gulf or Mannar, Great Nicobar, Similpal, Dibru-
Saikhowa, Dehang Debang, Pachmarchi and Kanchanjanga.
• Further, amongst the protected areas, there are 88 national parks and 490
sanctuaries in India covering an area of 1.53 lakh sq.km.

Based on a survey of about two-third of the geographical area of the country, the Ministry of
Forests and Environment (MOEF) reports that India has at present 89,317 species of fauna
and 45,364 species of flora representing about 7.31% of the world fauna and 10.88% the
world flora described so far.

In plants, the species richness is high in angiosperms, bryophyta and petridophyta, and in the
family orchidaceae. In animals, arthropoda (insects) are predominant.

India is also rich in agro-biodiversity. There are 167 crop species and wild relatives. Further,
India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice, pigeon-pea,
mango, turmeric, ginger, sugarcane, gooseberries, etc. and ranks seventh in terms of
contribution to world agriculture.

India also boasts of rich marine biodiversity, along the coastline of 7516.5 km with exclusive
economic zone of 202 million sq.km, supporting the most productive ecosystems such as
mangrooves, estivaries, lagoons and coral reefs. The number of zooplankton recorded is
about 16,000 species. The benthic fauna largely consists of polychaeta (62%), crustacean
(20%) and molluscs (18%) with the biomass of about 12 gm per sq.metre. Over 30 species of
marine algae and 14 species of seagrass have been reported. There are over 45 species of
mangrove plants. Over 342 species of corals belonging to 76 genera have been reported and
about 50% of the world’s reef building corals are found in India.
 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

8.1 Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation is defined as ‘the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may
yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintaining its potential to
meet the needs and aspirations of future generations’. Conservation of our natural resources
has the following three specific objectives:

1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems;

2. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found in
the organisms on the planet; and
3. To ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems which support
millions of rural communities as well as the major industries all over the
world?
The wildlife conservation efforts are mostly centred on protecting plant and animal life in
protected habitats, such as – botanical gardens, zoos, sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere
reserves, etc. The two basic approaches to the wildlife conservation in protected habitats are:

8.1.1 In-situ conservation

In-situ or on-situ conservation means conservation of species in its natural ecosystem or even
in man-made ecosystems (i.e. artificial ecosystems). This type of conservation applies only to
wild fauna and flora, and not to the domesticated animals and plants because conservation is
possible by protection of population in nature. In-situ conservation is a comprehensive
system of “protected area”, which involves setting aside large portions of earth’s surface for
wildlife with emphasis either to save the entire area or an endangered species. According to
World Conservation Union, ‘protected area’ is defined as -” an area of land and/ or sea
specially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural
and associated cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means”. There
are different categories of protected areas which are managed with different objective. These
include – national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, etc.

The advantages of In-situ conservation are:

• In-situ conservation is the best strategy for the long term protection of
biodiversity.
• Large pockets/ areas of protected zones are essential for not only conserving
vast number of species of living organisms but also provide opportunities to
evolve. Otherwise, man-made habitats (e.g. zoo, aquarium, etc.) may end-up
with static gene-pool.
• Further in-situ conservation are always preferred because, in most cases, it is
cheaper to protect populations in their natural habitat than to reintroduce
captive-bred ones.
Some of the limitations or factors that reduce the laudable advantages of in-situ conservation
to some extent are:

• Many protected habitats are not large enough, not maintained properly, and
are not properly protected from environmental pollution; and
 • Many protected habitats are used for logging, tourism or other profitable
activities; thus, diluting the objective of conservation biodiversity.
8.1.2 Ex-situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation means conservation of species (sample of genetic diversity), particularly

of endangered species, away from their natural habitat under human supervision. Though in-
situ conservation is the best strategy for the long-term protection of biodiversity; however, for
many rare species or species having small remaining population, it is not a viable option in
the light of increasing human disturbances. Further, species may decline and go extinct in the
wild due to genetic drift and inbreeding, environmental and demographic variation,
deteriorating habitat quality, competition from exotic species, disease or over-exploitation.
Under such circumstances, the only possible way a species can be prevented from going
extinct is to maintain individuals in artificial conditions under human care. This strategy of
conservation of biodiversity is termed as ‘ex-situ or off-site preservation’. In ex-situ
conservation, the endangered species of animals are collected and bred under controlled
conditions in zoos, game farms, aquaria, etc., while plant species are maintained in botanical
gardens, arboreta and seed banks.

The advantages of ex-situ conservation are:

• The organism is assured of food, shelter and security, and hence can have
longer life-span and breeding activity. Thus, increasing the possibility of
having more number of off springs.
• Under human care and secure conditions, the chances of survival increase.
• Ex-situ conservation also provides the possibility of using genetic techniques
to improve the concerned species.
• Captive breeding can provide animals for possible reintroduction to the wild at
a later stage or for supplementing current populations with new stock.
• However, there are certain limitations and disadvantages of ex-situ
conservation:
• Ex-situ conservation can be adopted only for a few selected species because of
limitations of space, finances and facilities in the institutions that undertake
captive breeding. This limitation, however, can be solved to a certain extent by
having more mini zoos and deer parks which can act as a sink for the surplus,
hybrid, aged and infirm animals while the larger zoos can focus on serious
captive breeding of endangered species.
• Ex-situ conservation, under a set of favourable environmental conditions,
deprives the organism the opportunity to adopt to the ever changing natural
environment. As a result, new life-forms cannot evolve and the gene-pool gets
stagnant.

8.3 National Parks and Sanctuaries

A National Park (Table 16.2) is an area dedicated to conserve the scenery (or environment)
and natural objects and the wildlife therein. In national parks, all private rights are non-
existent and all forestry operations and other usages such as grazing of domestic animals are
prohibited. However, the general public may enter it for the purpose of observation and
study.
A national park is a relatively large area

1. where one or several ecosystems are not maternally altered by human

exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species,
geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educative and
recreative interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty and
2. where the highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to
prevent or eliminate as soon as possible exploitation or occupation in the
whole area and to enforce effectively the respect of ecological,
geomorphological or aesthetic features which have led to its establishment and
3. where visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational,
cultural and recreative purposes.

A Wildlife Sanctuary, similar to national park, is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but it
considers the conservations of species only and also the boundary of it is not limited by a
state legislation. Further, in the sanctuary, killing hunting or capturing of any species of birds
and mammals’ is prohibited except by or under the control of highest authority in the
department responsible for management of that sanctuary. Private ownership may be allowed
to continue in a sanctuary, and forestry and other usages permitted to the extent that they do
not adversely affect wildlife.

8.4 Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves (Table 16.3) have been described as undisturbed natural areas for
scientific study as well as areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control. They
have been set aside for ecological research and habitant preservation. These are used as the
means to protect ecosystems, whether natural or modified by human activity, in order to
preserve ecological ‘evidence’ for the purpose of scientific research