Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to soils. You will learn some
basic descriptions of soils and some fundamental physical soil properties that you
should retain for future use in this course and in geotechnical engineering practice.
Soils, derived from the weathering of rocks, are very complex materials and vary
widely. One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to collect, classify
and investigate the physical properties of soils. In this chapter we will deal with
descriptions of soils, tests to determine the physical properties of soils, and soil
classification systems.

1.1 Definition of Key Terms

Soils are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.
Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.
Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.
Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total volume of soil.
Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of water to the volume of void.
Bulk unit weight ( ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume (or weight density).
Saturated unit weight ( ) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume.
Dry unit weight ( ) is the weight of a dry soil per unit volume.
Effective unit weight ( ) is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil per unit

volume.
Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between
the loosest and densest state of coarse-grained soils.
Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle diameter of the soil at 10
percentile; that is, 10% of the particles are smaller than this size (diameter).
Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle diameter of the soil.
Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a plastic state
to a liquid state.
Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a semisolid to
a plastic state.
Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the soil changes from a solid
to a semisolid state without further change in volume.

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
1.2 Composition of soils

1.2.1 Soil Formation

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical
weathering involves reduction of size without any change in the original
composition of parent rock. The main agents responsible for this process are
exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing and thawing. Chemical weathering causes
both reduction in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock. The main
agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation and
oxidation. Often, physical and chemical weathering take place in concert.
Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils. These soils
retain many of the elements that comprise the parent rock. Alluvial soils, also
called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by rivers and streams. The
composition of these soils depends on the environment under which they were
transported and is often different from the parent rock. The profile of alluvial soils
usually consists of layers of different soils. Much of our construction activities has
been and is occurring on alluvial soils. Glacial soils are soils that were transported
by glaciers (large body of ice moving slowly down a slope). Marine soils are soils
deposited in a marine environment. Loess is a wind-blown, uniform, fine-grained
soil.

1.2.2 Soil Types

Figure 2.1: Soil types.

Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands, silts and clays are used to
identify specific textures in soils. We will refer to these soil textures as soil types;
that is, sand is one soil type and clay is another. Texture refers to the appearance
or feel of a soil. Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-grained soils.
Clay and silts are fine-grained soils. Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard. Fine-

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
grained soils feel smooth. The coarseness of soils is determined from knowing the
distribution of particle sizes, which is the primary means of classifying coarse-
grained soils. To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further information on the
types of minerals present and their contents. The response of fine-grained soils to
loads, known as the mechanical behavior, depends on the type of predominant
minerals present.

1.2.3 Clay Minerals

Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solid constituent of a soil.
The mineral particles of fine-grained soils are platy. Minerals are classified according
to chemical composition and structure. Most minerals of interest to geotechnical
engineering are composed of oxygen and silicon, two of the most abundant
elements on earth. Silicates are a group of minerals with a structural unit called the
silica tetrahedron. A central silica cation (positively charged ions) is surrounded
by four oxygen anion (negatively charged ions) one at each corner of the
tetrahedron (Fig. 2.2a). The charge on a single tetrahedron is -4 and to achieve a
neutral charge, cations must be added or single tetrahedrons must be linked to
each other sharing oxygen ions. Silicate minerals are formed by addition of cations
and interaction of tetrahedrons. Silica tetrahedrons combine to form sheets, called
silica sheets, which are thin layers of silica tetrahedrons in which three oxygen
ions are shared between adjacent tetrahedrons (Fig. 2.2 b). Silicate sheets may
contain other structural units such as alumina sheets.

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering

Figure 2.2: a) Silica tetrahedron b) Silica sheets c) Aluminum Octahedron d)

Alumina sheet

Alumina sheets are formed by combination of alumina minerals, which consists

of aluminum ion surrounded by six oxygen hydroxyl atoms in an octahedron (Fig.
2.2 c, d).

The main groups of crystalline minerals that make up clays are the minerals:
kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite.

Figure 2.3: Structure of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite.

Kaolinite has a structure that consists of one silica sheet and one alumina sheet
bonded together into a layer about 0.72 nm thick stacked repeatedly (Fig. 2.3a).
The layers are held together by hydrogen bonds. Kaolinite is common in clays in
humid tropical regions.

Illite consists of repeated layers of one alumina sheet sandwiched by two silicate
sheets. The layers, each of thickness 0.96 nm, are held together by potassium ions.

Montmorillonite has similar structure to illite, but the layers are held together by
weak van der Waals forces and exchangeable ions. Water can easily enter the bond

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
and separate the layers resulting in swelling. Montmorillonite is often called a
swelling or expansive clay.

1.2.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water

If we subdivide a body, the ratio of its surface area to its volume increases. For
example, a cube of sides 1 cm has a surface area of 6 cm 2. If we subdivide this
cube into smaller cubes of sides 1 mm, the original volume is unchanged but the
surface area increases to 60 cm2. The surface area per unit mass (specific
surface) of sands is typically 0.01 m2 per gram, while for clays it is as high as 1000
m2 per gram (montmorillonite). The specific surface of kaolinite ranges from 10 to
20 m2 per gram, while that of illite ranges from 65 to 100 m 2 per gram. The surface
area of 45 grams of illite is equivalent to the area of a football field. Because of
their large surfaces, surface forces significantly influence the behavior of fine-
grained soils compared to coarse-grained soils.
The surface charges on fine-grained soils are negative (anions). These
negative surface charges attract cations and the positively charged side of water
molecules from surrounding water. Consequently, a thin film or layer of water,
called adsorbed water, is bonded to the mineral surface. The thin film or layer of
water is known as the diffuse double layer (Fig. 2.4). The largest concentration of
cations occurs at the mineral surface and decreases exponentially with distance
away from the surface.

Figure 2.4: Diffuse double layer.

Drying of most soils (with the exception of gypsum type soils) using an oven for
which the standard temperature is 105 50C, can not remove the adsorbed water.

The adsorbed water influences the way a soil behaves. For example plasticity
(which we will deal with in section 2.5) in soils is attributed to the adsorbed water.
Toxic chemicals that seep into the ground contaminate soil and groundwater. The
surface chemistry of fine-grained soils is important in understanding the migration,
sequestration, re-release, and ultimate removal of toxic compounds from soils.
These processes are of importance to geotechnical and geoenvironmental

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
engineers.

1.2.5 Soil Fabric

Soil particles are assumed rigid. During deposition, the mineral particles are
arranged into structural frameworks that we call soil fabric (Fig. 2.5). Each particle
is in random contact with several particles. The environment under which deposition
occurs influences the structural framework that is formed. In particular the
electrochemical environment has the greatest influence on the kind of soil fabric
that is formed during deposition.

Two common types of soil fabric, flocculated and dispersed, are formed
during soil deposition as schematically shown in Fig. 2.5. A flocculated structure,

Figure 2.5: Soil Fabric.

formed under a saltwater environment, results when many particles tend to orient
parallel to each other. A flocculated structure, formed under a freshwater
environment, results when many particles tend to orient perpendicular to each
other. A dispersed structure is the result when a majority of the particles orient
parallel to each other.
Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition permanently
alters the soil fabric or structural arrangement in a way that is unique to that
particular loading condition. Consequently, the history of loading and changes in the
environment is imprinted in the soil fabric. The soil fabric is the brain; it retains the
memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent changes that occur.
The spaces between the mineral particles are called voids, which may be filled
with liquids (essentially water) and gases (essentially air). Voids occupy a large
proportion of the soil volume. Interconnected voids form the passageway through
which water flows in and out of soils. If we change the volume of voids, we will
cause the soil to either compress (settle) or expand (dilate). Loads applied by a
building, for example, will cause the mineral particles to be forced closer together,
reducing the volume of voids and changing the orientation of the structural

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
framework. Consequently, the building settles. The amount of settlement depends
on how much we compress the volume of voids. The rate at which the settlement
occurs depends on the interconnectivity of the voids. Free water, not the adsorbed
water, and/or air trapped in the voids must be forced out for settlement to occur.
The decrease in volume, which results in settlement of buildings and other
structures, is usually very slow in fine-grained soils and almost ceaseless because
of their (fine-grained soils) large surface area compared with coarse-grained soils.
The large surface area in fine-grained soils compared to coarse-grained soils
provides greater resistance to the flow of water through the voids.

1.2.6 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use

Coarse-grained soils have good load bearing capacities and good drainage
qualities, and their strength and volume change characteristics are not significantly
affected by change in moisture conditions. They are practically incompressible when
dense, but significant volume change can occur when they are loose.

Fine-grained soils have poor load bearing capacities compared with coarse-
grained soils. Fine grained soils are practically impermeable, and change strength
and volume with variations in moisture conditions. The engineering properties of
coarse-grained soils are controlled mainly by the grain size of the particles and their
structural arrangement. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils are
controlled by mineralogical factors rather than grain size. Thin layers of fine-grained
soils, even within thick deposits of coarse-grained soils, have been responsible for
many geotechnical failures and therefore you need to pay special attention to fine-
grained soils.

2 Introduction

Soil is the oldest and most complex engineering material. Our ancestors
used soils as a construction material to build burial sites, flood protection and
shelters. Western civilization credits the Romans for recognizing the importance of
soils in the stability of structures. As early as the 1 st century BC Roman engineers
paid great attention to the soil types (sand, gravel, etc.) and to the design and
construction of solid foundations. However, there were no theoretical bases for
design; therefore, experience from trial and error was relied upon.

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
2.1 Coulomb’s Contribution

Coulomb (1773) is credited as the first person to use mechanics to solve

soil problems. He was a member of the French Royal engineers, who were
interested in protecting old fortresses that fell easily from cannon fire. To protect
the fortresses from artillery attack, sloping masses of soil were placed in front of
them (Fig. 1.1). The enemy had to tunnel below the soil mass and the fortress to
attack. Of course, the enemy then became an easy target.

Figure 1.1: Unprotected and protected fortress.

The soil mass applies a lateral force to the fortress that could cause it to topple
over or slide away from the soil mass. Coulomb attempted to determine the lateral
force so that he could evaluate the stability of the fortress. He postulated that a
wedge of soil ABC (Fig. 1.1) would fail along a slip plane BC and this wedge would
push the wall out or over topple it as it moves down the slip plane. Movement of
the wedge along the slip plane would occur only if the soil resistance along the
wedge were overcome. Coulomb assumed that the soil resistance is provided by
friction between the soil particles and the problem now becomes one of a wedge
sliding on a rough (frictional) plane, which you may have analyzed in your Physics
or Mechanics course. Coulomb has tacitly defined a failure criterion for soils. Today,
Coulomb's failure criterion and method of analysis still prevail.

2.2 Birth of Soil Mechanics

From the early 20th century, the rapid growth of cities, industry and commerce
required numerous building systems. For example, skyscrapers, large public
buildings, dams for electric power generation and reservoirs for water supply and
irrigation, tunnels, roads and railroads, port and harbor facilities, bridges, airports
and runways, mining activities, hospitals, sanitation systems, drainage systems,
towers for communication systems, etc. These building systems require stable and
economic foundations and new questions about soils were asked. For example,
what is the state of stress in a soil mass, how to design safe and economic
foundations, how much would a building settle and what is the stability of
structures founded on or within soil? We continue to ask these questions and to try

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
to find answers as new issues has confronted us. Some of these new issues include
removing toxic compounds from soil and water, designing foundations and earth
structures to mitigate damage from earthquakes and other natural hazards, and
designing systems to protect the environment.
To answer these questions, we need the help of some rational method and,
consequently, soil mechanics was born. Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) is the
undisputed father of soil mechanics. The publication of his book "Erdbaumechanik"
in 1925 laid the foundation for soil mechanics and brought recognition to the
importance of soils in engineering activities.

2.3 Soil Mechanics and its application to foundations

Soil mechanics also called geotechnique or geotechnics or geomechanics, is the

application of engineering mechanics to the solution of problems dealing with soils
as a foundation and a construction material. Engineering mechanics is used to
understand and interpret the properties, behavior, and performance of soils. Soil
mechanics is a subset of geotechnical engineering, which involves the application of
soil mechanics, geology and hydraulics to the analysis and design of geotechnical
systems such as dams, embankments, tunnels, canals and waterways, foundations
for bridges, roads, buildings, etc. Every application of soil mechanics involves
uncertainty because of the variability of soils and their compositions. Thus,
engineering mechanics can provide only partial solutions to soil problems.
Experience and approximate calculations are essential for the successful application
of soil mechanics to practical problems. Many of the calculations that you will learn
in this course are approximations.

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
2.4 Marvels of Civil Engineering: - the hidden truth

Figure 1.2: A) Sears tower B) Empire state building C) Taj Mahal D) Hoover dam

The work that geotechnical engineers do is often invisible once construction is

completed. For example, four structures (Figs. 1.2 A – D) demonstrate marvelous
engineering and architectural beauty. However, if the foundations, which are
invisible, on which these structures stand were not satisfactorily designed then
these structures would not exist. A satisfactory foundation design requires the
proper application of soil mechanics principles, accumulated experience and good
judgment. The stability and life of any structure, e.g., buildings, roads, airports,
dams, natural slopes, power plants, etc., depend on the stability, strength and
deformation of soils. If the soil fails, structures founded on or within it will fail or be
impaired regardless of how well the structures are designed.

2.5 Geotechnical lessons from past failures

All structures that are founded on earth rely on our ability to design safe and
economic foundations. Structural failures do occur due to different reasons. Some
failures have been catastrophic and caused severe damage to lives and properties.
Failures occur because of inadequate site and soil investigations; unforeseen soil
and water conditions; natural hazards; poor engineering analysis, design,
construction, and quality control; post-construction activities; and usage outside
the design conditions. When failures are investigated thoroughly, we obtain lessons

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Haramaya University, Haramaya Institute of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering
and information that will guide us to prevent similar types of failures in the future.

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