Chapter-5

Synthesis, Fabrication and

Processing of Materials
Assistant Prof. Purnima Mulmi
Pulchowk Campus, IOE
Chapter Outline
• Fabrication of metals
• Forming, Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Drawing, Casting, Powder Metallurgy
• Thermal processing of metals
• Annealing, full-annealing, normalizing, spheroidizing
• Synthesis and fabrication of polymers
• Addition and condensation polymerization
• Various techniques of polymer processing (casting, extrusion, thermoforming, injection,
compression and transfer molding.
• Processing of polymer at nanoscale (nano particles and nano-fibers), degradation
of polymer
• Fabrication of ceramic materials
• Glass forming, particulate forming, cementation
• Criteria for selection of materials in chemical process industry.
Background
• Fabrication and processing procedures adversely affect some of the
properties of materials.
• Why study?- become familiar with possible consequences to
processing and fabricating procedures in order to prevent
unanticipated material failures.
Fabrication of Metals
Metals
Forming
• Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is
changed by plastic deformation.
• The deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the
magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material.
• Metals are moderately ductile and capable of some permanent
deformation without cracking or fracturing, which makes forming easier.
• Forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are common forming techniques.
• When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which
recrystallization occurs, the process is termed hot working(causes increase
in strength, decrease in ductility), otherwise cold working (higher-quality
surface finish).
 Forging
• Forging is mechanically working or deforming a
single piece of a usually hot metal by the application
of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.
• Forgings are classified as either closed or open die.
• For closed die, a force is brought to bear on two or
more die halves having the finished shape such that
the metal is deformed in the cavity between them.
• For open die, two dies having simple geometric
shapes (e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are employed,
normally on large work-pieces.
• Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and
the best combination of mechanical properties.
• Wrenches, automotive crankshafts, and piston
connecting rods are typical articles formed using this
technique.
Rolling

• Rolling, the most widely used deformation process, consists of passing a

piece of metal between two rolls; a reduction in thickness results from
compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
• Cold rolling may be used in the production of sheet, strip, and foil with a
high-quality surface finish.
• Circular shapes, as well as I-beams and railroad rails, are fabricated using
grooved rolls.
Terminologies used in rolling process

Steel Ingot

Gold Ingot

Titanium Billet
Steel Billet
Terminologies used in rolling process
• Ingot:
• It is casted structure with porosity and blowholes. This ingot is rolled out at
hot temperature of about 1200 degree centigrade into blooms. This ingot may
have any size according to the rolling requirement.
• Blooms:
• It is first rolled product making by rolling ingot at high temperature. It has
cross section area more than or equal to 230 square centimeters. This bloom
is further rolled to make I section, billet, channel, railroad etc.
• Slab:
• Slab is made by hot rolling of ingot. It has cross section area greater than or
equal to 100 centimeters square and its width is greater than or equal to
three times of its thickness. Slabs are used to form plates, sheets, strips etc.
Terminologies used in rolling process
• Billets:
• Billets are product of hot rolling of blooms. It has greater than or equal to 40
square centimeters cross section area. Billets are used to roll into pipes, bars,
wire etc.
• Plate:
• Plate is product of further rolling of slab. It has greater than 6 mm thickness.
• Sheet:
• Sheet has less than 6 mm thickness and width greater than 60 cm.
• Strip:
• Strip is same as sheet but have width less than 60 cm.
Rolling

Rolling for mild steel

Working principle
• Rolling works on same as any other metal forming process.
• When a compressive force applied by a set of rolls on ingot or any
other product like blooms or billets, plastic deformation takes place
which decrease its cross section area and convert it into required
shape.
• These rolls are designed according to the final product requirement.
• They are cylindrical in shape and fitted with the die of the required
shape which to be rolled on blooms or billets.
• Rolling can be done in both hot and cold way.
Application
• Rolling is used for making hollow seamless tubes, rods etc.
• Large length cross sections are produced by rolling process.
• It is use for mass production of threaded parts like screw, bolts etc.
• Gears can be cut on gear blank by rolling process.
• Construction material, roofing panels, partition beams, railroads, etc.
are rolling product.
• It is used in automotive industries for manufacture various parts.
• Rings of turbines, bearing and other machines are rolling product.
• Steel sheets, plates are made by rolling process.
Extrusion
• Extrusion is a metal forming process in which metal or work piece is forced
to flow through a die to reduce its cross section or convert it into desire
shape.
• This process is extensively used in pipes and steel rods manufacturing.
• The force used to extrude the work piece is compressive in nature.
• This process is similar to drawing process except drawing process uses
tensile stress to extend the metal work piece.
• The compressive force allows large deformation compare to drawing in
single pass.
• The most common material extruded are plastic and aluminum.
In this type of extrusion process, metal is forced to
flow in the direction of feed of punch/ram. The
punch moves toward die during extrusion. This
process required higher force due to higher friction
between billet and container.
In this process, metal flows toward opposite
direction of ram(punch) movement. The die is fitted
at opposite side of punch movement. In this
process, the metal is allowed to flow through
annular space between punch and container.
Extrusion Working Principle
• Extrusion is a simple compressive metal forming process. In this process, piston or
plunger is used to apply compressive force at work piece. These process can be
summarized as follow.
• First billet or ingot (metal work piece of standard size) is produced.
• This billet is heated in hot extrusion or remains at room temperature and placed
into a extrusion press (Extrusion press is like a piston cylinder device in which metal
is placed in cylinder and pushed by a piston. The upper portion of cylinder is fitted
with die).
• Now a compressive force is applied to this part by a plunger fitted into the press
which pushes the billet towards die.
• The die is small opening of required cross section. This high compressive force
allow the work metal to flow through die and convert into desire shape.
• Now the extruded part remove from press and is heat treated for better
mechanical properties.
 Advantages:
Advantages:
•• High
High extrusion
extrusion ratio
ratio (It
(It is
is the
the ratio
ratio of
of
billet
billet cross
cross section
section area
area to
to extruded
extruded
Application part
part cross
cross section
section area).
area).
• Extrusion is widely used in •• ItIt can
can easily
easily create
create complex
complex cross
cross
production of tubes and hollow section.
pipes. section.
• Aluminum extrusion is used in •• This
This working
working cancan be
be done
done with
with both
both
structure work in many industries. brittle
brittle and
and ductile
ductile materials.
materials.
• This process is used to produce •• High
High mechanical
mechanical properties
properties cancan
frames, doors, window etc. in achieved
achieved byby cold
cold extrusion.
extrusion.
automotive industries.
• Extrusion is widely used to
produce plastic objects.
Disadvantages:
High initial or setup cost.
High compressive force required.
Drawing

• First a hot rolled rod is created by other metal forming processes like
forging, extruding, centrifugal casting etc.
• Now the rod is made pointed to facilitate the entry into the die.
• The dust or other scale particle should be cleaned from the rod.
Drawing

• Now the prepared surface is coated with lubricant. This process uses either sulling,
coppering, phosphating or liming process.
• Sulling is a process of coating with ferrous hydroxide. In phosphating magnesium
or iron phosphate is coated. Cu and Sn are used for lubricating high strength
material. Oil and grease use for wire drawing and soap is used for dry drawing.
• Now the rod is pulled through various dies to convert it into desire shape. The die
is affected by several stresses so it is made by high strength alloy steel like
tungsten carbide etc.
• Rod, wire, and tubing products are commonly fabricated in this way .
Application
• This process is used for making wire of copper, aluminum etc. which
are used in electrical industries.
• Paper clip, helical spring etc. are wire drawing product.
• Small diameter rods and tubes are drawing product.
• It is used to produce large length of small cross section.
 Casting
• Casting is a fabrication process in which a
completely molten metal is poured into a mold
cavity having the desired shape; upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the
mold but experiences some shrinkage.
• Casting techniques are employed when
• the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other method would be
impractical;
• a particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold
working would be difficult;
• In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical.
 Casting
• Sand Casting
• With sand casting, probably the most
common method, ordinary sand is
used as the mold material.
• A two-piece mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern that has the
shape of the intended casting.
• A gating system is usually incorporated
into the mold to expedite the flow of
molten metal into the cavity and to
minimize internal casting defects.
• Sand-cast parts include automotive Sand is mixed with a bonding agent and water. This
cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large combination helps the sand withstand the pressure from
pipe fittings. pouring the molten metal. The sand won’t loosen when
the molten metal hits it.
 Casting
• Die Casting
• In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into
a mold under pressure and at a relatively
high velocity and allowed to solidify with
the pressure maintained.
• A two-piece permanent steel mold or die is employed; when clamped
together, the two pieces form the desired shape.
• When the metal has solidified completely, the die pieces are opened and
the cast piece is ejected.
• Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive method;
furthermore, a single set of dies may be used for thousands of castings.
• However, this technique lends itself only to relatively small pieces and to
alloys of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, which have low melting
temperatures.
 Casting
Investment
Casting
Casting
• Investment Casting
• For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is made
from a wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature.
• Around the pattern a fluid slurry is poured, that sets up to form a solid
mold or investment; plaster of Paris is usually used.
• The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned out,
leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
• This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy, reproduction
of fine detail, and an excellent finish are required—for example, in jewelry
and dental crowns and inlays.
• Also, blades for gas turbines and jet engine impellers are investment cast.
Casting
• Lost-Foam Casting
• A variation of investment casting is lost-foam (or expendable pattern) casting.
• Here the expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed by compressing
polystyrene beads into the desired shape and then bonding them together by
heating.
• Alternatively, pattern shapes can be cut from sheets and assembled with glue.
• Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the mold.
• As the molten metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which
vaporizes. The compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the
metal assumes the shape of the mold.
• Metal alloys that most commonly use this technique are cast irons and
aluminum alloys; furthermore, applications include automobile engine blocks,
cylinder heads, crankshafts, marine engine blocks, and electric motor frames.
 Casting
• Continuous Casting
• The casting and rolling steps may be combined by a
continuous casting (sometimes termed strand casting)
process.
• Using this technique, the refined and molten metal is cast
directly into a continuous strand that may have either a
rectangular or circular cross section; solidification occurs in a
water-cooled die having the desired cross-sectional geometry.
• The chemical composition and mechanical properties are
more uniform throughout the cross sections for continuous
castings than for ingot-cast products.
• Furthermore, continuous casting is highly automated and 1. Molten steel in ladle
more efficient. 2. Intermediate buffer
3. Mold
4. Cutting station
Casting Application
Powder metallurgy
• This technique involves the compaction of powdered metal followed by a
heat treatment to produce a denser piece.
• Makes it possible to produce a virtually nonporous piece having properties
almost equivalent to those of the fully dense parent material.
• This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductility because
only small plastic deformation of the powder particles need occur.
• Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and
fabrication is expedited using P/M.
• Furthermore, parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g.,
bushings and gears) may be economically produced using this technique.
Powder metallurgy
• It mainly involves four basic steps.
• Powder Preparation:
• This is first and basic step for producing any object by powder metallurgy
process. Any material can convert into powder.
• There are various processes of producing powder such as atomization,
grinding, chemical reaction, electrolysis process etc.
• Mixing and Blending:
• This step involves mixing of two or more material powder to produce a high
strength alloy material according to the product requirement.
• This process ensure even distribution of powder with additives, binders
etc. Sometime lubricants also added in the blending process to improve flow
characteristic of powder.
Powder metallurgy
• Compacting
• Compacting means compressing the prepared powder mixture into pre-
defined dies. This step ensures to reduce voids and increase density of the
product.
• The powder is compacted into mold by the application of pressure to form a
product which is called green compact.
• It involves pressure range from 80 to 1600 MPa. This pressure depends on
the properties of metal powder and binders.
Powder metallurgy
• Sintering:
• The process of forming a solid mass of material through heat and
pressure without melting to the point of liquefaction.
• The green compact, produced by compressing, is not very strong and
can’t be used as final product.
• This step involves heating of green compact at an elevated temperature
which ensure permanent strong bond between adjacent particles.
• This process provides strength to green compact and converts it into
final product. The sintering temperature is generally about 70 to 90
percent of melting temperature of metal powder.
Powder metallurgy
Advantages Disadvantages
• P/M is Cost effective for mass production due • High equipment cost.
to absence of labour cost, further machining • It is economical only for mass production.
cost etc.
• This process does not require high skilled • Intricate designs is difficult to produce due to
operator. less flow ability of metal powder.
• Some alloys can only produce by P/M • It cannot produce a complete uniform dense
technology. product.
• High production rate. It can produced 500 to • Size of the product is restricted due to
1000 pieces in one hour. capacity of press.
• Complex Shape can produce. • Some metals powder, which can produce
explosion in powder form, cannot be used.
• Bimetallic and laminated product can be • Low impact and fatigue property of final
easily produced by P/M method. product.
• It is difficult to cast low melting point metals
by P/M technology.
Thermal processing of metals
Heat treatment process
• A combined process of heating and cooling of metal to change the
physical and mechanical properties of a material.
• used to homogenize the cast metal alloy to enhance their work-ability
in the very high temperature, to change the micro-structure in such a
way as to achieve the desired mechanical properties.
• performed in the furnace and ovens where the temperature is
changing as per the requirement.
• Heat treatment is associated with increasing the strength of the
material. It changes the manufacturing aspects also such as improve
machining, formability, and when the operation gets over material
restore it ductility on cooling.
Objective of heat treatment process
• Refine size of the grain.
• Increases machinability of the material
• Eliminate internal residual stress.
• Eliminate gases which embrittle the material.
• Change the composition of the surface by diffusion.
• To achieve the desired mechanical, physical or chemical properties of
the material.
• Re softening the hardened materials.
Terminologies
• Critical Temperature -the
temperature at which the
material goes into solid
solution.
• Lower critical temperature -
the heat at which this process
begins(In fig: line A1).
• Upper critical temperature -
the heat at which the process
has been completed(A3 and
Acm).
 Types of Annealing (for steel)

• Full annealing
• Process annealing
• Stress Relief annealing
• Spheroidise annealing
• Isothermal annealing
42
 Full Annealing
Process:
Material heated to a temperature above the critical temp
and after being held for a sufficient time at this
temperature and then cooled slowly at room temperature.
The cooling – done slowly in furnace or may be removed
and cooled in some medium such as mica, lime or ashes
that insures a slow rate of cooing.
Purpose : For softening
Done for Hot worked material, forging and castings made
from higher carbon and medium carbon steels

43
 Process Annealing
Process: Steel – heated to a temperature just below the
lower critical temperature of steel and hold there a long to
reduce increased hardness
Purpose: Cold worked normally tends to posses
increased hardness and decrease ductility making
difficult to work. This process tend to improve
these characteristics.
Done for cold rolled steel like wire drawn steel.

44
 Stress Relief Annealing
Process: Involves heating casting or structure to about
650°C and maintained constantly for a few hours and
allowed to cool down slowly

Purpose: To relieve internal stresses

Large castings or welded structures tend to possess
internal stresses caused mainly during their manufacture
and even cooling.
The internal stresses cause brittleness at isolated
locations or structures -lead to sudden breakage or failure
of the material 45
 Spherodise Annealing
Process: Heated just below critical temperature about 700°C
The temperature – maintained for about 8 hrs. and allow to cool
down slowly.

Purpose :To improve machinability and internal structure

of the steel. The product formed has improved ductility and
toughness with reduced strength and hardness

For high carbon and alloy steel

46
 Isothermal annealing
Process: Steel heated above the upper critical
temperature and then cooled to a temperature below
lower critical temperature
The temperature maintained constant for a specified
amount of time in order to produce a homogenous
structure in the material.
Purpose: Mainly applicable for low carbon and alloy steels
to improve their machinability.

47
 Normalizing

• Heating above the critical temperature

• Holding at the state for a period of time long
enough for transformation to occur
• Cooling in air
For hypoeutectoid steel –heating 30 oC – 50 oC
above its critical temperature.
Temperature Range for Heat Treatment

49
 Advantages of Normalizing
• Refine the grain structure and improve machinability ,
tensile strength and structure of weld.
• Remove strains caused by cold working processes like
hammering, rolling , bending etc. which make steel
brittle and unreliable.
• Remove the dislocations caused in the internal structure
of the steel due to hot working
• Improve certain mechanical and electrical properties.
• Produce harder and stronger steel
50
 Distinction between Annealing and Normalizing
Annealing Normalizing
To relieve internal stresses To improve mechanical properties

Less hardness, More T.S. &Toughness More hardness ,Less T.S. & Toughness

Grain size distribution -Less Grain size distribution- More

Internal stresses- Least Internal stresses- Slightly more

Furnace cooling Air cooling

Cooling rate -Slow Cooling rate - High

Costly and inconvenient Economical and more convenient 51

 Hardening
• Heating up to temperature of 30° C to 50° C above the upper
critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and by the same
temperature above the lower critical temperature for
hypereutectoid steels
• Hold the steel at this temperature for a considerable time
depending upon its thickness and quenched ( cooled suddenly)
in a suitable cooling media water, brine solution ( 5- 10 % NaCl
solution) ,mineral oil . 52
 Hardening
• Hardening depends upon the rate of cooling and the
carbon content .
• A very rapid cooling to harden low and medium carbon
steel ( quenching in water or brine solution)
• Quenching in mineral oil for high carbon and alloy steels
because the cooling not so severe as that of water.
• For ordinary steel cooling rate – too slow to give an
appreciable results 53
 Quenching Media
Four commonly used quenching media
• Brine- the fastest cooling rate
• Water-moderate cooling rate
• Oil - slowest cooling rate
• Gas-used in automatic furnaces, usually liquid nitrogen
can be used for very fast cooling
Too rapid cooling can cause cracking
The quicker cooled , the harder it would be
54
 Surface hardening or Case hardening
• Heat treatment process of producing a hard ,wear
resistance carbon rich case (surface layer ) on a tough
core of steel part of low carbon steel.
• In Engineering applications a steel to be used should
have a hardened surface to resist wear and tear and at
the same time it should have soft and tough core so that
able to absorb any shock.
• This type of treatment –applied to gears, ball bearing,
railways wheels
55
 Surface Hardening
• Carburizing- A low carbon steel (carbon content up
to 0.25%) not hardened by any hardening process.
Such steels is enriched in carbon on their surface
before hardening.
• The process of introducing carbon to low carbon
steels in order to give hard surface – Carburizing.

56
Synthesis and fabrication of
polymers
What is a polymer?

• A long molecule made up

from lots of small
molecules called monomer
• Monomer

Oligomer

Polymer
Polymers
Very Large molecules structures chain-like in nature.
Poly mer
many repeat unit

repeat repeat repeat

unit unit unit
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister 7e.
Ancient Polymer History

• Originally natural polymers were used

• Wood – Rubber
• Cotton – Wool
• Leather – Silk
 Synthetic and Biological Polymers

Polymers are classified as:

(1) Man-made or synthetic polymers that are
synthesized in the laboratory;
(2) Biological polymer that are found in nature.

Synthetic polymers: nylon, poly-ethylene, poly-styrene

Biological polymers: DNA, proteins, carbohydrates

62
Chemistry of Polymer
Most polymers are hydrocarbons
– i.e. made up of H and C
• Saturated hydrocarbons
• Each carbon bonded to four other atoms

H H
H
C C

H H
H
CnH2n+2
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• Double & triple bonds relatively reactive – can form new bonds
• Double bond – ethylene or ethene - CnH2n
H H
C C
H H

– Triple bond – acetylene or ethyne - CnH2n-2

H C C H
• An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene is a
hydrocarbon, of which the molecular structure
incorporates one or more planar sets of six
carbon atoms that are connected by
delocalised electrons numbering the same as
if they consisted of alternating single and
double covalent bonds
• Benzene, C6H6, is the simplest and first
recognized aromatic hydrocarbon
Some Synthetic Polymers
 Epoxies,
High density polyethylene
phenol-formaldehyde
PVC, Nylon Vulcanized rubber
Range of Polymers
• Traditionally, the industry has produced two main types of synthetic
polymer – plastics and rubbers.
• Plastics are (generally) rigid materials at service temperatures
• Rubbers are flexible, low modulus materials which exhibit long-range
elasticity.
Plastics are
Thermoplastics (80%)

• No cross links between chains.

• Can change shape.
• Can be remoulded.
Thermosets

• Cross-linking formed by covalent bonds.

• Bonds prevent chains moving relative to
each other.
Range of Polymers
 Methods for making polymers

Addition polymerization (chain rxn polymerization) and

condensation (step reaction) polymerization
Addition polymerization: monomers react to form a
polymer without net loss of atoms.

Most common form: free radical chain reaction of

chloroethene

n monomers one polymer molecule

76
Example of addition polymers

77
 Condensation polymerization

Condensation polymerization: the polymer grows from

monomers by splitting off a small molecule such as
water or carbon dioxide.

Example: formation of amide links and loss of water

Monomers

First unit of polymer + H2O

78
Rembember from GChem?
Condensation polymerization
Nylon is a condensation polymer
made of the monomers adipic acid
and hexamethylene diamine.

O OH
O

OH
Qui ck Time™ and a
Pho to - J PEG dec ompressor
are need ed to se e thi s pi ctu re .

They're nylons,
adipic acid
+
NH2
H2N

hexamethylene diamine

nylon
79
 Biopolymers

Nucleic acid polymers (DNA, RNA)

Amino acids polymers (Proteins)

Sugar polymers (Carbohydrates)

Genetic information for the cell: DNA

Structural strength and catalysis: Proteins

Energy source: Carbohydrates

80
Forming of polymeric materials
• Polymeric materials are normally fabricated at elevated
temperatures and often by application of high pressures.
• The technique used to form a particular polymer depends on :
1. thermoplastic or thermosetting?
2. The geometry and size of the final product?
3. Quantity and production rate?
4. Surface finish?
Two steps in fabrication of thermosetting polymers

First comes the preparation of a linear polymer (pre-polymer) as a

liquid or resin, having a low molecular weight. This material is
converted into the final hard and stiff product during the second
stage, which is normally carried out in a mold having the desired
shape. This second stage, termed “curing”.

During curing, chemical and structural changes occur on a

molecular level: a crosslinked or a network structure forms. After
curing, thermoset polymers may be removed from a mold while
still hot, since they are now dimensionally stable. Thermosets are
difficult to recycle, do not melt, are usable at higher temperatures
than thermoplastics, and are often more chemically inert.
Forming of polymeric materials
Casting
• Like metals, polymeric materials may be cast,
as when a molten plastic material is poured
into a mold and allowed to solidify.
• For thermoplastics, solidification occurs upon
cooling from the molten state.
• For thermosets, hardening is a consequence of
the actual polymerization or curing process,
which is usually carried out at an elevated
temperature.
• Casting can be done using polymer solution in
volatile solvent.
Casting
• In contrast to molding and extrusion, casting relies on atmospheric
pressure to fill the mold rather than using significant force to push the
plastic into the mold cavity.
• POM, PC, PP
• Transition from liquid to solid by either evaporation, chemical action,
cooling or external heat.
Thermoforming
• Thermoforming is a process of shaping flat thermoplastic sheet which
includes two stages: softening the sheet by heating, followed by
forming it in the mold cavity.
• Elastomers and Thermosets can not be formed by the Thermoforming
methods because of their cross-linked structure – they do not soften
when heated.
Thermoforming
• Thermoplastics which may be processed by the thermoforming
method are Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS),Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC), Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene
(HDPE), Cellulose Acetate, Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), etc.
• It is widely used in the food packaging industry for manufacturing ice
cream and margarine tubs, meat trays microwave containers, snack
tubs sandwich packs etc.
• Thermoforming is also used for manufacturing some pharmaceutical
and electronic articles, small tools, fasteners, toys, boat hulls, blister
and skin packs.
Thermoforming
Molding is the most common method for
forming plastic polymers.

Molding techniques used include compression,

injection, blow, transfer and extrusion molding.

For each, a finely pelletized or granulized

plastic is forced, at an elevated temperature
and by pressure, to flow into, fill, and assume
the shape of a mold cavity.
Extrusion process (molding)
Extrusion is a process of
manufacturing long products of
constant cross-section (rods,
sheets, pipes, films, wire
insulation coating) forcing soften
polymer through a die with an
opening.
Thermoplastic extrusion
 Injection molding
• Injection Molding is a process in which
molten polymer is forced under high
pressure into a mold cavity through an
opening (sprue).
• Polymer material in form of pellets is
fed into an Injection Molding machine
through a hopper. The material is then
conveyed forward by a feeding screw
and forced into a split mold, filling its
cavity through a feeding system with
sprue gate and runners.
 Injection molding
• The screw acts as a ram in the filling step when the molten polymer is
injected into the mold and then it retracts backward in the molding step.
• Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.
• The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling
and solidification of the material.
• The polymer is held in the mold until
solidification and then the mold
opens and the part is removed from
the mold by ejector pins.
 Injection molding
• Injection Molding is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but Elastomers and
Thermosets are also may be extruded. In this case cross-linking occurs
during heating and melting of the material in the heated barrel.
• commonly used materials are
Polypropylene (PP), Polycarbonate
(PC), Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
(ABS), Nylon 6 (N6)
• used for manufacturing DVDs, pipe
fittings, battery casings, toothbrush
bases, disposable razors, automobile
bumpers and dash boards, power-
tool housing, television etc.
 Compression moldings
• Both thermoplastic and thermosets can be formed by
compressing molding. Squeeze molten polymer between
hydraulic press.
Materials commonly processed by
Compression Molding are:
Epoxies (EP)
Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
Phenolics (PF)
Compression Molding is used for
manufacturing electrical wall receptacles,
brush and mirror handles, meter cases, trays,
circuit breakers, cookware knobs,
Compression molding is accomplished by placing the
plastic material (can be a granular or pelletized form) in
a mold cavity to be formed by heat and pressure.
 Transfer molding
• Transfer Molding (Resin Transfer
Molding) is a process in which a pre-
weighed amount of a polymer is
preheated in a separate chamber
(transfer pot) and then forced into a
preheated mold through a sprue,
taking a shape of the mold cavity and
performing curing due to heat and
pressure applied to the material.
• The method is used primarily for
molding thermosetting resins
(thermosets), but some
thermoplastic parts may also be
produced by Transfer Molding.
Transfer molding working
• A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers
(charge) is placed into the transfer pot.
• The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-
formed blanks.
• The charge is heated in the pot where the polymer softens.
• The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves downwards, pressing on the
polymer charge and forcing it to fill the mold cavity through the sprue.
• The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking)
of the polymer (if thermoset is processed).
• The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the
ejector pin.
Transfer molding working
• If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be open in hot state – cured thermosets
maintain their shape and dimensions even in hot state. If thermoplastic is molded, the
mold and the molded part are cooled down before opening.
• The scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue and in the channels is removed.
Scrap of thermosetting polymers is not recyclable.
• The method is capable to produce more complicated shapes than Compression Molding
but not as complicated as Injection Molding.
• Transfer molding of thermosets is used for molding parts encapsulating metal inserts,
wear plates, pins, studs, electronic components with molded terminals. Transfer molding
is also used for manufacturing radio and television cabinets and car body shells.
• Materials commonly processed by Compression Molding are: Epoxies (EP),Unsaturated
Polyesters (UP), Phenolics (PF), Vinylester
Blow moldings
Blow-molding process for the
fabrication of plastic containers is
similar to that used for blowing glass
bottles.
First, the preform is placed in a two-
piece mold having the desired
container configuration.
The hollow piece is formed by
blowing air or steam under pressure
into the preform, forcing the tube
walls to conform to the contours of
the mold.
Processing of polymer in
nanoscale
FABRICATION OF Nano-FIBERS
• The process by which fibers are formed from bulk polymer material is
termed spinning.
• Most often, fibers are spun from the molten state in a process called
melt spinning.
• Two other techniques that involve producing fibers from solutions of
dissolved polymers are dry spinning and wet spinning.
Melt Spinning Polymer
Chips/Beads

Melting
Zone Heating Grid
The fiber-forming Pool

substance is melted Metered

Extrusion
Pump

for extrusion through (controlled

flow)
Filter and
Spinneret
the spinneret and then Air Diffuser

directly solidified by Extruded Fiber Cools

cooling. and Solidifies Here

Melt spun fibers can Moisture

Conditioning
be extruded from the Steam
Chamber
spinneret in different
Lubrication
cross-sectional by oil disk Feed
rolls
and trough
shapes.
Packaging

Yarn Bobbin
driver

Bobbin drive
 Dry Spinning

Dry Spinning of Filtered

polymer
Feed solution

Fibers Metered
extrusion Pump

from a Solution Filter and

spinneret

Solidification
Heated
Dry spinning is also used for fiber- by solv ent
evaporation chamber

forming substances in solution.

Instead of precipitating the polymer by
dilution or chemical reaction,
solidification is achieved by Feed roll
and guide
evaporating the solvent in a stream of
air or inert gas. Air
inlet
Lubric ation
The filaments do not come in contact
with a precipitating liquid, eliminating Yarn driv ing
the need for drying and easing solvent
Balloon guide
recovery. Packaging

Ring and traveler

Bobbin transverse

Spindle
Wet Spinning

Wet spinning is the oldest

process.
It is used for fiber-forming
substances that have been
dissolved in a solvent.
The spinnerets are
submerged in a chemical
bath and as the filaments
emerge they precipitate
from solution and solidify.
Electrospinning
Electrospinning
• Electrospinning is a fiber production method which uses electric force to draw
charged threads of polymer solutions or polymer melts up to fiber diameters in
the order of some ten nanometers.
• Electrospinning shares characteristics of both electro-spraying and conventional
solution dry spinning of fibers.
• When a sufficiently high voltage is applied to a liquid droplet, the body of the
liquid becomes charged, and electrostatic repulsion counteracts the surface
tension and the droplet is stretched; at a critical point a stream of liquid erupts
from the surface. This point of eruption is known as the Taylor cone.
• If the molecular cohesion of the liquid is sufficiently high, stream breakup does
not occur (if it does, droplets are electro-sprayed) and a charged liquid jet is
formed. Once the intensity of the electric field attains a certain critical value, the
electrostatic forces overcome the surface tension of the polymer solution and
force the ejection of the liquid jet from the tip of the Taylor cone.
Electrospinning
Electrospinning
• The liquid jet continues to be ejected in a steady manner and the surface
tension causes the droplet shape to relax again.
• Before reaching the collector screen, the liquid jet elongates and the
solvent evaporates, leading to the formation of a randomly oriented,
nonwoven mat of thin polymeric fibers on the collector.
• As the jet dries in flight, the mode of current flow changes from ohmic to
convective as the charge migrates to the surface of the fiber.
• The jet is then elongated by a whipping process caused by electrostatic
repulsion initiated at small bends in the fiber, until it is finally deposited on
the grounded collector. The elongation and thinning of the fiber resulting
from this bending instability leads to the formation of uniform fibers with
nanometer-scale diameters.
Electrospinning
• The standard laboratory setup for electrospinning consists of a spinneret
(typically a hypodermic syringe needle) connected to a high-voltage (5 to
50 kV) direct current power supply, a syringe pump, and a grounded
collector. With the use of a syringe pump, the solution can be fed at a
constant and controllable rate.
• A polymer solution, sol-gel, particulate suspension or melt is loaded
into the syringe and this liquid is extruded from the needle tip at a constant
rate by a syringe pump.
• Alternatively, the droplet at the tip of the spinneret can be replenished by
feeding from a header tank providing a constant feed pressure. This
constant pressure type feed works better for lower viscosity feedstock.
• Example of fibers: Nylon, PCL, PAN, etc.
Fabrication of nano particles
• Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted considerable interest
over recent years due to their properties resulting from their small
size.
• Advantages of polymeric NPs as drug carriers include their potential
use for controlled release, the ability to protect drug and other
molecules with biological activity against the environment, improve
their bioavailability and therapeutic index.
• The term “nanoparticle” comprises both nanocapsules and
nanospheres, which differ with respect to their morphology.
Fabrication of nano particles
• Nanocapsules are composed of
an oily core in which the drug is
usually dissolved, surrounded by
a polymeric shell which controls
the release profile of the drug
from the core.
• Nanospheres are based on a
continuous polymeric network in
which the drug can be retained
inside or adsorbed onto their
surface.
Fabrication of nano particles
• Solvent evaporation method
• Emulsification/Solvent Diffusion
• Emulsification/Reverse Salting-Out
• Nano-precipitation
Solvent evaporation method
Emulsification/Solvent Diffusion
Emulsification/Reverse Salting-Out
Nanoprecipitation
Fabrication of ceramic materials
Ceramics
• Ceramics (ceramic materials) are non-metallic inorganic compounds
formed from metallic (Al, Mg, Na, Ti, W) or semi-metallic (Si, B) and
non-metallic (O, N, C) elements.
• Atoms of the elements are held together in a ceramic structure by
one of the following bonding mechanism: Ionic Bonding, Covalent
Bonding, Mixed Bonding (Ionic-Covalent).
• Examples: earthenware, porcelain, and brick.
Characterization of ceramics properties
• In contrast to metallic bonding neither ionic nor covalent bonding form
free electrons, therefore ceramic materials have very low electric
conductivity and thermal conductivity.
• Since both ionic and covalent bonds are stronger than metallic bond,
ceramic materials are stronger and harder than metals.
• Strength of ionic and covalent bonds also determines high melting point,
modulus of elasticity (rigidity), temperature and chemical stability of
ceramic materials.
• Motion of dislocations through a ceramic structure is impeded therefore
ceramics are generally brittle that limits their use as structural materials.
• Ceramics may have either crystalline or amorphous structure. There are
also ceramic materials, consisting of two constituents: crystalline and
amorphous.
Fabrication methods
• The fabrication methods of ceramics are classified in three categories:
1. glass-forming
2. particulate forming
3. cementation
Glass Forming
• Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which
melting occurs.
• Most commercial glasses are of the silica–soda–lime variety; the silica is usually supplied
as common quartz sand, whereas Na2O (melts silica evenly, 15%)and CaO(makes glass
durable, 10%) are added as soda ash (Na2CO3) and limestone (CaCO3).
• For most applications, especially when optical transparency is important, it is essential
that the glass product be homogeneous and pore free. Homogeneity is achieved by
complete melting and mixing of the raw ingredients.
• Porosity results from small gas bubbles that are produced; these must be absorbed into
the melt or otherwise eliminated, which requires proper adjustment of the viscosity of
the molten material.
• Five different forming methods are used to fabricate glass products: pressing, blowing,
drawing, and sheet and fiber forming. Pressing is used in the fabrication of relatively
thick-walled pieces such as plates and dishes.
Glass Forming
• The glass piece is formed by pressure application in a graphite-coated cast
iron mold having the desired shape; the mold is typically heated to ensure
an even surface.
• Although some glass blowing is done by hand, especially for art objects,
the process has been completely automated for the production of glass
jars, bottles, and light bulbs.
• From a raw gob of glass, a parison, or temporary shape, is formed by
mechanical pressing in a mold. This piece is inserted into a finishing or
blow mold and forced to conform to the mold contours by the pressure
created from a blast of air.
• Drawing is used to form long glass pieces that have a constant cross section
such as sheet, rod, tubing, and fibers.
Glass Forming

For more details:https://youtu.be/NVKcISj2LfA

Particulate forming
 For more:
Particulate forming https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7WuTdJC2Sw
Particulate forming
Cementation 2CaO-SiO2 + xH2O → 2CaO-SiO2-xH2O (13.2)
where x is a variable that depends on how much water is available

• Hardening of a paste – paste formed by mixing cement material with

water
• Formation of rigid structures having varied and complex shapes
• Hardening process – hydration (complex chemical reactions involving
water and cement particles)
Cementation 2CaO-SiO2 + xH2O → 2CaO-SiO2-xH2O (13.2)
where x is a variable that depends on how much water is available

• It is produced by grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing

minerals in the proper proportions and then heating the mixture to
about 1400°C (2550°F) in a rotary kiln.
• This process, sometimes called calcination, produces physical and
chemical changes in the raw materials.
• The resulting “clinker” product is then ground into a very fine powder,
to which is added a small amount of gypsum (CaSO4–2H2O) to retard
the setting process. This product is Portland cement.
• The properties of Portland cement, including setting time and final
strength, to a large degree depend on its composition.
Criteria for selection of materials in chemical
process industry
• Study:
• https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb005253/full/html
• https://www.processengineer.com/material-selection-for-chemical-process-
equipment-selection-evaluation/