5.

ADAVANCED INTELLIGENT SYSTEM CONCEPTS

1.What is GA and Darwin’s principle?
Ans: Genetic Algorithms are search and optimization techniques based on
Darwin’s Principle of Natural Selection

“Select The Best, Discard The Rest

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 Genetic Algorithm

Reproduction Competition

Survive Selection

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2.Give a note on application of ant colony intelligence?
Ans: Definition:
In computer science and operations research, the ant colony optimization
algorithm (ACO) is a probabilistic technique for solving computational problems
which can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. ... Real ants lay down
pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment.

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3.Discuss the application of GA in travelling sales problem? (Explain Your own)
Ans: Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a search-based optimization technique based on
the principles of Genetics and Natural Selection. It is frequently used to find
optimal or near-optimal solutions to difficult problems which otherwise would
take a lifetime to solve. It is frequently used to solve optimization problems, in
research, and in machine learning.

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4.What is the role of fitness function in in genetic algorithms?
Ans:
Fitness Function (also known as the Evaluation Function) evaluates how close a
given solution is to the optimum solution of the desired problem. It determines
how fit a solution is.

Why we use Fitness Functions?

In genetic algorithms, each solution is generally represented as a string of binary
numbers, known as a chromosome. We have to test these solutions and come up
with the best set of solutions to solve a given problem. Each solution, therefore,
needs to be awarded a score, to indicate how close it came to meeting the overall
specification of the desired solution. This score is generated by applying
the fitness function to the test, or results obtained from the tested solution

Generic Requirements of a Fitness Function

The following requirements should be satisfied by any fitness function.

1. The fitness function should be clearly defined. The reader should be able to
clearly understand how the fitness score is calculated.
2. The fitness function should be implemented efficiently. If the fitness function
becomes the bottleneck of the algorithm, then the overall efficiency of the
genetic algorithm will be reduced.
3. The fitness function should quantitatively measure how fit a given solution is
in solving the problem.
4. The fitness function should generate intuitive results. The best/worst
candidates should have best/worst score values.

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5.Explain how genetic algorithm can be used in travelling sales problem.? And
Basic structure of GA
Ans: Basic structure

This week we were challenged to solve The Travelling Salesman Problem using a
genetic algorithm. The exact application involved finding the shortest distance to
fly between eight cities without visiting a city more than once. The table below
shows the distances between each city in kilometers.

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The search space for this problem involves every possible permutation of routes
that visit each city once. As there are eight cities to be visited, and because once a
city has been visited that city is not eligible to be travelled to again, the size of the
search space stands as 8! (40320) possible permutations.

Initialization
Upon initialization, each individual creates a permutation featuring an integer
representation of a route between the eight cities with no repetition featured. A
corresponding array with the string equivalent of these indexes is created to
output when a solution is found.

[0, 4, 1, 2, 6, 5, 7, 3] = ["Brighton", "Liverpool", "Bristol", "Cambridge",

"Manchester", "London", "Oxford", "Glasgow"]

A fitness function calculates the total distance between each city in the
chromosome’s permutation. For example, in the ordering above, the distance
between the cities represented by ‘0’ and ‘4’ is added to an overall sum, then the
distance between the cities represented by ‘4’ and ‘1’ is added, and so on. The
chromosome’s fitness is set to the overall sum of all distances within the

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permutation. The smaller the overall distance, the higher the fitness of the
individual.

Selection
There are two popular methods to apply when performing selection in genetic
algorithms, roulette wheel selection and tournament selection. Both use
probability to create bias in choosing fitter chromosomes to serve as the parents.

In my first implementation, I used the roulette wheel method to select two

parents to produce two offspring within each generation. Each chromosome
calculates a selection probability with a higher fitness correlating to a higher
probability. An overall sum is created of the finesses of each chromosome within
the population. Each chromosome’s probability is then calculated by dividing it’s
individual fitness by the total probability sum which results in a float value in the
range of 0 to 1. An array is created to store the individual probabilities and act as
the roulette wheel in which to determine the parents.

To select the parents, a random number is generated between 0 and 1. The

number is then tested against the array values to test which two indexes it lies
between and therefore which chromosome to select as a parent. This process is
iterated twice to select two parents and a check is in place to guarantee that the
two parents are different. Below is a representation of the probabilities generated
by 5 different chromosomes based upon their individual fitness. On the right is the
representation of the array in which to test the randomly generated number
against. The first value always serves as 0, the next as 0+chromosome1.probability,
the next as chromosome1.probability+chromosome2.probability, and so on for all
entries.

[0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.15, 0.1] --> [0, 0.3, 0.55, 0.75, 0.9, 1]

Tournament selection also involves this process of calculating probability bias

however features a stronger stochastic element in choosing parents. The
tournament consists of considering only a select few chromosomes as parents

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rather than the whole population. The size of the tournament is assigned at the
beginning of the program, and the chromosomes are chosen from a random
starting point to create a tournament of the set size. The same process as the
roulette wheel is used to determine the two parents for the crossover phase.

Crossover
As the solution requires that no city to be visited more than once, using a classical
crossover operator may often lead to generating weaker offspring. A conventional
crossover operator may select one half to copy from the first section and the
remaining half to copy from the second. This does not prevent copying duplicate
cities into the offspring chromosome and will result in a penalty for visiting the
same city more than once. However, using the order 1 approach helps to preserve
the non-repeating feature of the parent chromosomes. To create the first child,
copy part of the first parent’s chromosome to the child’s chromosome. Then
choose valid non-repeating numbers from the second parent in the order that
they appear to the empty values in the child’s chromosome. To create the
chromosome for the second child, repeat this process inversely by copying part of
the second parent’s chromosome and using valid values from the first parent for
the remaining values.

//Classical Crossover Operator

[0, 6, 2, 7, | 1, 4, 3, 5] //Parent 1
[2, 1, 7, 0, | 6, 5, 4, 3] //Parent 2
[0, 6, 2, 7, | 6, 5, 4, 3] //Offspring 1
[2, 1, 7, 0, | 1, 4, 3, 5] //Offspring 2
//Order 1 Crossover Operator
[0, 6, 2, 7, 1, 4, 3, 5] //Parent 1
[2, 1, 7, 0, 6, 5, 4, 3] //Parent 2
[0, 6, 2, 7, 1, 4, 3, 5] //Offspring 1
[2, 4, 7, 0, 6, 5, 1, 3] //Offspring 2

Mutation

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For this specific problem, the standard mutation action is modified to avoid
creating repetition of cities visited. A conventional mutation method of replacing a
value with a random city would duplicate cities and not fulfil the problem’s
criteria. Instead, two random indexes are selected in the array holding the city
indexes and these two values are swapped to maintain.

[0, 6, 2, 7, 1, 4, 3, 5] --> [0, 4, 2, 7, 1, 6, 3, 5]

Modalities
Genetic algorithms have two modalities, steady-state and generational. Steady-
state utilizes an elitist selection process in which the best n chromosomes are of
the population are carried over to the next generation. By keeping the best-ranked
chromosome, this implementation does not risk losing it’s best solution so
far .Generational does not utilize this approach and instead only carries over any
offspring produced in the crossover phase.

Comparison
The four variations are noted in the results as:

 Steady-State Approach with Roulette Wheel Selection (SS-RW)

 Steady-State Approach with Tournament Selection (SS-T)
 Generational Approach with Roulette Wheel Selection (G-RW)
 Generational Approach with Tournament Selection (G-T)

Each variation was tested 50 times and the minimum, maximum, and average
number of generations needed to reach the solution was recorded. The same
mutation rate of 0.15 and population size of 25 was used for each implementation.

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As shown, there is a notably wide variation in results between the tournament and
roulette wheel selection in the steady-state modality. By using tournament
selection, there is a chance that the fittest chromosome will not be considered for
crossover and so will not pass it’s candidate solution on to successive offspring.
This same logic applies to the difference between the roulette wheel and
tournament selection in the generational modality although the difference in
average is not as significant.

It is surprising that the steady-state tournament selection was outperformed by

both generational variations. The steady-state holds onto the best chromosome
found, and so there is no danger of losing the best solution of the population. If
this best chromosome is in fact a local solution, any chromosome of the new

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generation that surpass its fitness will replace it as the new best and so avoids
pitfalls of local optima. Using the generational approach implies that finding the
global solution relies entirely upon the selection, crossover, and mutation process
of the chromosomes in order to converge to the target solution vector. This
suggests a much slower convergence, as to find the global solution requires a
steady and gradual progression from initialization candidate solutions to the global
optima.

However, the stochastic aspect of the mutation threshold and selection process
removes consistency from the performance of GA. Another fifty tests may yield
entirely different results for each variation that may be more expected or entirely
contradict what would be logically assumed. However, if these results do
accurately describe the behavior of the variations, the steady-state approach and
tournament selection method may benefit in more creative applications, where
exploration and a slow convergence may demonstrate an auditory or artistic
process. Overall, considering the total size of the search space mentioned in the
introduction, the genetic algorithm serves well in finding a solution in a relatively
small number of generations.

………………………….100% Efforts 0% Expectation……………………………

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